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Theological   Semi 


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PRINCETON.    N.J. 


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A  SYSTEM 


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CHRISTIAF  RHETORIC, 


FOR  THE  USE  OP 


PREACHERS  AND  OTHER  SPEAKERS. 


BY 


tnTFRVl 


GEORGE  WmFRED^HERVEY,  M.A., 

AUTUOK  OF  "eIIETOKIO  OF  00NVEK8ATI0N,"  ETC. 


"The  light  of  nature,  which  is  a  sparke  of  the  will  of  God,  hath  taught  many  usefull  rules 
even  to  the  Pagans,  anent  the  right  way  of  makeing  solemne  speeches  before  others.  *  *  *  But 
the  best  rules  are  taken  from  the  preachings  of  Christ,  of  the  Apostles,  and  Prophets." 

John  Livingstone  {b.  1603;  d.  1672). 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN      SQUARE. 

1873. 


I 


\ 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1873,  by 

George  Wisfred  Hervet,  M.A., 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  "Washington. 


TO 


m)t  iici).  BusscU  SxnninsSj 


or  DEEP  EITEB,   CONN.,   U.    S., 


THIS  WORK 


|s  ^£buat^!tj 


TESTIMONY 


THE    HEART-FELT    OBLIGATION 


HIGH    REGARD 


THE  AUTHOR. 


¥ 


PREFACE. 


This  work  may  be  distinguished  from  others  of  its  class  by  a 
number  of  noticeable  jDoints.  It  is  not  an  essay  or  collection  of 
lectures  on  selected  parts  of  the  subject,  nor  is  it  a  record  of  indi- 
vidual experience  and  advice ;  neither  is  it  a  special  treatise  com- 
posed in  the  interest  of  a  church,  or  sect,  or  seminary,  although  as 
the  foot-notes  bear  witness,  it  is  largely  indebted  to  sterling  works 
of  all  these  kinds.  It  is  rather  a  system,  treating  of  all  the 
prominent  branches  of  Christian  Rhetoric  and  of  their  relations  no 
less  to  one  another  than  to  things  that  are  radical  and  even  founda- 
tional. Yet  this  system  is  not  theoretical  only,  but  practical  as 
well. 

Of  the  service  it  can  render  to  the  secular  speaker,  a  few  words 
ought,  jDerHaps,  to  be  premised.  In  reconstructing  general  rhetoric, 
a  task  the  writer  judged  unavoidable,  he  has  corrected  some  eiTors 
that  have  been  misleading  authors  and  readers  ever  since  the  days 
of  Cicero,  while  he  has  placed  in  new  lights  and  aspects  many  a 
precept  and  maxim  of  the  old  classical  rhetors.  Here,  also,  rhetori- 
cal Method,  Arguments  and  Figures  of  every  descpiption,  and  the 
qualities  of  the  Oratorical  style  are,  he  fancies,  set  forth  in  forms 
not  much  less  condensated,  practical,  and  working  than  in  any  other 
existing  book.  Even  his  analysis  of  the  eloquence  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets,  the  results  of  which  are  traceable  throughout  these  pages, 


PREFACE. 

•\voiiltl,  likely  enough,  prove  of  considerable  utility  to  secular  ora- 
tors in  addressing  Christian  men  and  in  handling  ethical  and  ecclesi- 
astical subjects. 

The  question  whether  the  writer's  innovations  are  really  errors 
is  discussed  in  the  Introduction.  The  work  has,  indeed,  been 
composed  according  to  a  new  method  and  on  a  new  basis :  albeit 
the  writer  does  not  jirofess  himself  a  new  oracle;  so  far  from  it,  he 
may  be  more  properly  regarded  as  a  consulter  and  reporter  of 
ancient  oracles,  attempting  to  teach  himself  and  others  by  rhetori- 
cally testing  and  formulating  things  that  are  generic  in  the  individ- 
ual, things  that  are  world-wide  m  the  local,  and  things  that  are  of 
the  future  in  tlic  past.  From  the  Christendom  of  to-day  he  has 
purposely  brought  fewer  authorities  and  examples  than  he  could 
have  done  justifiably  ;  because,  the  frank  truth  to  tell,  he  deems  it 
a  disputed  border-land  where  it  is  dangerous  for  him  to  pilgrimize. 

Some  of  the  other  characteristics  of  this  volume  the  hasty  in- 
fjuirer  will  find  prenoted  in  the  table  of  contents. 


PREFACE,       . 
INTRODUCTION,    . 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
CHAPTER  II 
CHAPTER  III 
CHAPTER  IV 
CHAPTER  V. 
Section 

Section 

Section 
Section 


BOOK   I. 
INSPIKATION   m   PREACHmG. 

Partial  Inspiration  :  Its  Effects  on  tlie  Will,        .            .  31 

Sub-Inspiration  in  its  Action  on  the  Intellect,     .            .  62 

.  Inspiration  as  Affecting  Invention,  Style,  and  Delivery,  70 

,  Cautions  as  to  the  Help  of  the  Spirit  in  Preaching,         .  86 

The  Means  and  Conditions  of  Inspiration,           .             .  101 

I.  Trial,  Humility,  and   Self-Denial   as  Prejiaring  for 
Spiritual  Aid,        .....  102 

II.  The  Study  of  Scripture  and  Meditation  as  Fitting  us 
for  this  Gift,          .....  108 

III.  Prayer  as  Asking  the  Help  of  the  Spirit,       .            .  Ill 

IV.  Praise  as  waiting  for  Inspiration,        .            .            .  119 


BOOK    II. 

OF  INVENTION. 

GENERAL  VIEWS. 

Section  I.  The  Necessity  of  Invention, 

Section  II.  The  Scripture  Element  in  Sermons, 

Section  III.  The  Matter  of  Sermons  as  Found  in  Scripture, 

Section  IV.  Of  Polit  cal  Subjects, 

Section  V.  Of  Demmostrative  Subjects, 

Section  VI.  Rules  for  the  Choice  of  Texts, 

Section  VII.  Topics,  or  Loci  Communes, 

Section  VIII.  Adaptation,  .... 


129 
137 
142 
1.54 

182 
185 
188 
191 


CONTENTS. 


PART    I. 
The  Matter  of  Sermons  as  Determined  by  their  Objects, 


CHAI'TEU  I.    PLxplication, 
CllAl'TEll  II.  Coiifirniation, 

Section  I.     The  Prophetic  Logic, 

Section  II.    The  DifTereiit  Kinds  of  Arguments, 
CHAPTER  III.  Of  Application,     . 

Section  I.        Use  of  Instruction,    . 

Section  II.       Use  of  Confutation,  . 

Section  III.     Use  of  Excitation,     . 
Subsection  I.    Of  the  Imagination, 
Subsection  II.  Of  the  Feelings, 

Section  IV.     Use  of  Reproof, 

Section  V.       Use  of  Exhortation, 

Section  VI.     Use  of  Consolation,    . 

Section  VII.  Hints  on  Continual  Application, 

Section  VIII.  General  Rejnarks  on  Uses, 


PART  II. 

TiiE  Forms  of  Sermons  as  Determined  by  Method, 

CHAPTER  I.  The  Members  of  Sermons, 
Section  I.      Of  the  Introduction, 

Subsection  I.      The  Introitus, 

Subsection  II.    The  Nexus, 

Subsection  III.  The  Transitus, 
Section  II.     The  Proposition, 
Section  III.  The  Partition, 
Section  IV.   The  Invocation, 
Section  V.     The  Development, 
Section  VI.   The  Conclusion, 
CHAPTER  II.  Of  Arrangement,     . 

Section  I.        The  Princii)les  of  Rlictorical  McHiod 
Section  II.      Of  Digressions, 
Section  III.    Of  Regressions, 
Section  IV.     Disposition  in  Expository  Sermons 
Section  V.       Method  in  Historical  Discourses, 
Section  VI.     Order  in  Demonstrative  Addresses, 
Section  VII.    Arraii^ement  of  Arguments, 
Section  VIII.  The  Framework  of  Sermons, 


CONTENTS 


BOOK    III. 


STYLE. 

CHAPTER  I.  Of  Figures  in  General, 

Section  I.      The  Utility  of  Figures, 

Section  II.    Of  the  Simile, 

Section  III.  The  Parable,    . 

Section  IV.  The  Fable, 

Section  V.     The  Metaphor, 
CHAPTER  II.    The  High,  the  Low,  and  the  Middle  Styles, 
CHAPTER  III.  The  Three  Requisites  of  the  Oratorical  Style, 

Section  I.      Perspicuity,     .... 

Section  II.     Energj',  .... 

Section  III.  Gracefulness, 
•  Subsection  I.         Movement, 

Subsection  II.       Transitions, 
Subsection  III.     Beauty, 
Subsection  IV.      Gentleness, 
Subsection  V.       Arithmus  in  Hebrew  Eloquence, 
Subsection  VI.      Arithmus  in  Hellenistic  Oratory, 
Subsection  VII.    Number  as  Applied  to  English  Sentences, 
Subsection  VIII.  Cadence  as  Affected  by  Verbal  Forms, 
Subsection  IX.      Euphony,      .... 
Subsection  X.        Onomatopoeia, 
Subsection  XI.      Dignity  of  Style, 
Subsection  XII.    The  Natural  and  the  Individual  in  Style, 


381 

383 

388 

391 

409 

417 

425 

430 

430 

438 

446 

447 

45-5 

459 

465 

470 

483 

489 

498 

501 

507 

509 

511 


BOOK  IV. 

ELOCUTION. 


CHAPTER  I.  The  Relative  Importance  of  a  good  Delivery, 

CHAPTER  II.  Elocution  in  its  Subjective  Relations,     . 

CHAPTER  III.  Prophetic  Expression  as  Modified  by  Feeling, 

CHAPTER  IV.  The  Various  Modern  Kinds  of  Deliver}-, 

CHAPTER  V.  Extemporising  Historically  Considered, 

CHAPTER  VI.  Of  Symbolical  Actions,   . 

CHAPTER  VII.  Attitude  and  Gesture,       . 

I.  Index  of  Figures,  with  Definitions  and  Examples, 

II.  Index  of  Some  of  the  Principal  Things, 


524 

528 
533 
538 
543 
560 
571 

577 
629 


INTEODUCTION. 


The  present  work  is  a  well-meant  attempt  to  build  a  system  of 
Sacred  Rhetoric  on  what  the  writer  has  been  led  to  regard  its  only 
proper  foundation.     From  the  time  of  the  Christian  fathers,  until  a 
very  recent  day,  the  best  precepts  on  preaching  were  based  j^artly 
on  the  classic  rhetorics  and  partly  on  the  experience  and  observa- 
tion of  preachers.     Some,  indeed,  as  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen, 
and   Cyril,  believed  that    Christian   eloquence   does   not  need  to 
borrow  the  false  ornaments  of  the  old  pagan  rhetoricians ;  while 
Chi-ysostom   and  Augustine   held  these  ethnic   rhetoricians  to  be 
ultimate  authorities  on  pulpit  oratory,  but  not  to  the  entire  exclusion 
of  the  inspired  preachers,  and  especially  the  Apostle  Paul,  whose 
epistles  the  former  recommends  for  their  dialectics,  and  the  latter 
for  their  union  of  wisdom  and  eloquence.     Of  late,  two  or  three 
writers  have  endeavored  to  construct  a  more  Scriptural  theory  of 
the  art  of  preaching.     Among 4hese,  the  foremost  is  Rudolf  Stier, 
who  in  his  KeryJxW:,  maintains  that  the  preacher  is  a  herald  sent  of 
God  to  proclaim  his  word  to  men.     He  insists  much  on  the  necessity 
of  Christian  piety  in  the  j^reacher,  and  on  the  importance  of  a  large 
amount  of  Biblical  matter  in  the  sermon.     He  attejiipts  to  pull 
down  the  classical  rhetoric,  but  he   does  not  undertake  to  build  a 
sacred  rhetoric  in  its  stead.     He  is  satisfied  with  general  views  of 
preaching  and  an  earnest  defence  of  them.     His  theory,  as  reduced 
to  practice   and  exemplified  by  himself,  teaches  that  the   sermon 
should  be  chiefly  composed  of  parallel  passages  of  Scripture  dove- 
tailed by  means  of  practical  thoughts  expressed  in  plain  and  popular 
language.     Stier  does  not,  however,  as  many  have  supposed,  limit 
his  notion  of  the  duty  of  the  preacher  to  that  of  the  mere  herald — 
a  notion  which  one  of  his  disciples  illustrates  from  Homer's  descrip- 
tion of  the  ceryx — a  notion  which,  as  has  been  justly  observed,  if 
logically  carried  out,  would  make  preaching  consist  in  the  simple 
repetition   of  Scripture.     He   admits   that   pastoral   ministrations 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

should,  in  large  measure,  be  clidactic.^  His  little  book  made  a  deep 
impression  on  the  minds  of  a  Ljreat  number  of  Lutheran  ministers ; 
even  Xitzsch-  is  so  liir  his  disciple  as  to  define  tlie  sermon  a  mes- 
sage and  an  annunciation.  Sikel,  again,  in  his  Jlalleutik,  is  less  the- 
oretical and  takes  broader  ground  by  considering  the  preacher  in 
the  use  of  his  various  means  of  persuasion  as  ajisher  of  men.^  These 
are  the  princii»nl  (Tornian  autliors  wlio  have  sought  their  respective 
theories  of  llomiletics  in  the  oracles  of  God. 

Others,  as  Claus  Harms,  discuss  the  subject  from  its  human  side, 
maintaining  the  necessity  of  guarding  Christian  freedom  and  the 
riglits  of  a  living  personality;  Schleiermacher,  on  the  other  hand, 
finds  the  origin  and  end  of  the  sermon  in  church  life  and  the  rites 
of  Christian  worship,  demanding  that  it  shall  be  the  expression  of 
the  spiritual  consciousness  of  the  Christian  audience.  But  of  all 
the  (icrman  -writers  on  Homiletics,  Christian  Palmer  is  one  of  the 
ablest.  Adopting  some  of  the  best  ideas  of  Stier,  and  originating 
many  others  equally  excellent,  he  has,  it  is  generally  conceded,  pro- 
duced a  very  readable  and  practical  essay — we  say  essay,  because 
his  Avork,  like  almost  all  of  its  class,  is  too  immethodical,  too  incom- 
plete in  such  matter  as  belongs  to  its  proper  field,  while  it  contains 
many  things  that  are  irrelevant  and  of  too  general  a  drift.  Like 
Stier,  he  finds  but  little  to  admire  outside  of  Lutheranism,  and 
Avritcs  under  the  manacles  of  ecclesiastical  usage.  The  fifth  edition 
(ISGT)  e.vhibits  many  additions  and  improvements;  but  it  does  not, 
as  we  expected  it  would,  teach  its  readers  more  clearly  and  more 
correctly  the  relations  of  the  jn-eacher  to  the  Holy  Ghost.-*  This 
edition  is  em'iched  Avith  many  illustrations  from  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  German  clergymen.  Some  of  the  more  recent  Ger- 
man writers,  as  Nitzsch  and  Otto,  have  belittled  and  degraded 
Homiletics  by  giving  it  scanty  space  in  large  treatises  on  Practical 
Theology.  The  Italian  and  Spanish  writers  on  the  subject,  have 
iollowed  too  closely  and  too  far  the  footprints  of  Cicero,  Quintilian, 
the  Christian  Fathers,  and  the  Schoolmen.  The  same  must  be  said 
respecting  French  Avriters  ;  making  exceptions,  however,  in  tavour 
of  Gaussen  (De  Arte  Concionandi)  and  the  more  recent,  familiar, 
and  excellent  Vinet.  Of  the  early  English  Writers  the  best  are  Per 
kins,  Wilkins,  Edwards  and  Blackmore ;  these  and  the  rest  are  in- 

1  Gruiidriss  cincr  BiMischcn  Keryktik.     Hallo,  1844,  p.  248. 

2  Prac.  Thcol.  II.,  ^101  and  ^123. 

3  Tho.s.  Boston  composed  a  shf>rt  treaties  on  llio  same  subject. 

4  Evansclisclie  Iloniilotik  (pp.  fiTS,  8vo.)     Stuttgart,  1867  ;  see  also  his  article 
on  llie  same  subject  in  Hcrzog's  Ileal  Encyclop. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

tensely  practical,  but  too  superficial,  and  of  very  limited  range. 
Two  or  tiiree  recent  authors,  actuated  by  a  sacerdotal  spirit,  appear 
to  concur  with  Ostervald  irj  regarding  the  sermon  as  a  kind  of  im- 
poi'tant,  if  not  necessary,  "  interruption  "  of  divine  worship.  Some 
of  the  Oxford  Tractarians  and  Ritualists  complain  that  too  many 
churchmen  set  so  high  a  value  on  preaching  as  to  break  the  spirit 
of  reserve,  and  to  disparage  prayer  and  the  sacraments.  These  too 
often  wrap  the  sword  of  the  Spirit  in  a  cloth  and  hang  it  up  behind 
the  ephod.  The  homiletical  literature  of  America  is  rich  in 
courses  of  lectures  and  in  admirable  essays  on  preaching  and  the 
Gospel  ministry.  Our  admiration  of  these  writers  is  heightened 
when  we  consider  that  many  of  them  were  required  to  lecture  in 
one  or  more  of  the  other  dej^artments  of  theological  instruction,  to 
preach  two  or  three  times  every  Sunday,  and  in  some  cases  to  serve 
as  financial  agents  of  their  seminaries.  To  praise  some  of  these 
productions  would  be  presumptuous,  to  blame  others,  invidious : 
the  j^resent  writer  is  beholden  to  almost  all. of  them,  but  will  be 
thankful  to  any  one  who  will  have  the  goodness  to  call  his  attention 
to  an  American  author  who  has  taken  any  broad  fundamental  site 
and  built  upon  it  methodically. 

The  writer  has  endeavored  to  find  the  true  ground-works  of 
Homiletics  and  to  reduce  the  science  to  something  like  a  clear  and 
sufficient  system.  Some  of  the  principles  upon  Vhich,  in  his  judg- 
ment, the  science  is  properly  founded,  may  here  be  mentioned.  One 
of  these  is  that  all  true  preachers  of  the  Gosj)el  are  successors  of 
the  prophets,  including  the  "  Light  of  the  World  "  in  his  prophet- 
ical character ;  accepting  the  term  prophet,  however,  not  in  the 
sense  of  mere  predictor,^  but  of  one  who  speaks  in  behalf  of  God 
and  with  his  commission  and  assistance,  whether  the  commission 
be  special,  and  the  mspiration  plenary,  or  otherwise.  Be  it  also 
obseiwed  that  we  say  propliet  and  speaks  ;  for  we  do  not  think  that 
all  parts  of  the  sacred  writings  furnish  models  for  the  preacher. 

The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  as  a  Priest,  had  no  literal  successor  ;  and 
the  apostles  as  to  rank  and  mode,  were  the  last  of  their  line,  while  as 
prophets  they  were  of  their  Divine  Master  the  last  successors  that 
were  fully,  but  not  the  last  that  were  partially,  inspired. 

Another  of  these  principles  is,  that  it  must  be  the  duty  and  priv- 
ilege of  all  preachers,  to  heed  the  precepts  and  to  follow  the  exam- 
ple of  the  best  of  their  predecessors ;  that  the  holy  prophets  are  best, 
in  this  sense ;  that  they  spoke  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy 

1  Rev.  John  Davison  held  that  prophets  were  not  only  foretellers  but  pastors. 
Discourses  on  Prophecy,  p.  49. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

Ghost,  and,  therefore,  neither  sinned  nor  erred  either  as  to  the  mat- 
ter or  to  the  manner  of  their  utterances;  and  best  in  this  other 
sense,  that  they  sjjoke  and  were  predestined  to  speak  not  only  to 
their  o^vn  respective  generations,  but  to  all  generations,  and  were 
therefore  moved  to  adapt  their  communications  to  man,  as  a 
creature  endowed  with  certain  natural  powers  of  mind,  and  to  man- 
kind as  a  race  betraying  a  common  origin  and  possessing  a  common 
fund  and  average  amount  of  knowledge. 

One  other  principle  is  tliat,  while  the  true  preacher  .is,  in  the 
main,  identical  Avith  the  Scripture  prophet,  he  is  in  some  important 
])()ints,  and  yet  not  cssenfial/i/,  ditterent  from  him ;  for  in  order  to 
supl>ly  in  the  post-apostolic  preachers  the  lack  of  the  peculiar  and 
incommunicable  gifts  of  their  predecessors,  they  are  mdued  with 
other  similar  and  correspondent  gifts,  while  they  also  enjoy  all  the 
benefits  that  flowed  from  the  exertion  of  the  intransmissible  gifts 
of  their  great  prototypes.^ 

On  such  a  foundation  as  this,  congruity  teaches  us  what  materials 
we  should  build.  The  public  addresses  of  Moses  and  the  other  Hebrew 
prophets,  the  sermons  of  our  Divine  Master,  the  sacred  speeches  of 
Peter,  Stephen,  and  Paul,  and  the  inspired  biographies  of  these, 
together  with  the  Scripture  precepts  on  preaching,  are  the  quarries 
to  which  we  are  beholden  for  the  most  solid,  as  well  as  the  most 
polished,  parts  of  our  work.  Here  we  have  found  materials  of  a 
quality  exceedingly  rich,  and  at  the  same  tune  diversified  with  a  va- 
riety so  moderate  as  to  preserve  their  unity  and  homogeneousness. 
They  embrace  the  peculiar  excellences  of  the  Hebrew  eloquence, 
its  simi)licity  and  imagery,  its  sanctitude  and  sjiontaneity,  its  energy 
and  keenness,  modified  and  supplemented  by  the  coj^iousness,  the 
didactic  ])recision  and  the  logical  pliancy  of  the  Hellenistic  oratory. 
And  tliese  liave  naturally  attracted  to  themselves  whatever  in  j)ost- 
apostolic  sermons  possesses  kindred  and  congenial  qualities.  Chrys- 
ostom,  Augustine,  Luther,  Vicyra,  Banyan,  BrydajTie,  Wesley, 
"NVhitefield,  and  otlier  such  men  have  aftbrded  us  valuable  materials 
wherewith  to  buttress  and  1o  window  this  liojniletical  structure.- 

AVe  have  all  along  considered  it  of  no  small  imjjortance  to  find 
out  also  what  the  Scriptures  do  not  teach  and  maintain,  concerning 
the  work  of  preaching.     We  have  not,  therefore,  thought  ourselves 


1  IIpfo  we  do  not,  1)p  it  observed,  discuss  questions  of  cluirch  polity  ;  nnd  yet 
we  tliink  that  our  homiletical  theory  is  not  adverse  to  any  Protestant  views  of 
the  iniiiisteral  ollice  and  work. 

2Bv  glancin?  at  onr  illustrations  of  flsuros  in  tho  Glossary,  the  reader  will 
get  a  clue  to  our  method  of  investigation  in  all  parts  of  the  work. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

authorized  to  make  much  use  of  the  apostolical  epistles.  As  they 
Avere  written  in  the  epistolary  style,  it  is,  we  think,  an  error  to  hold 
them  up  as  models  of  pulpit  eloquence — an  error  that  is  found  in 
writers  on  preaching  as  eminent  as  Chrysostom  and  Augustine 
Vinet  and  Stier.  As  models  for  ecclesiastical  letters,  they  deserve 
the  foremost  place ;  but  to  regard  them  as  examples  of  sacred  ora- 
tory is  to  confound  plain  and  important  distinctions.  We  have 
however,  ventured  to  admit  among  our  materials  what  is  commonly 
entitled  "  The  Epistle  of  Paul,  the  Apostle,  to  the  Hebrews,"  be- 
cause, with  the  exception  of  the  short  letter  appended,  viz.,  xiii.  22- 
25,  the  style  is  oratorical  and  not  epistolary.  For  the  same  reason 
we  have  likewise  admitted  the  "  General  Epistle  of  James."  "Whether 
they  were  first  delivered  orally  to  primitive  churches,  or  not,  in  the 
form  of  "  the  word  of  exhorfation,"i  we  cannot  now  determine.  And 
could  we  decide  the  question  in  the  affirmative,  we  would  not,  after 
all,  be  able  by  such  decision  to  disturb  in  anywise  the  common  and 
well  grounded  conviction  that,  in  their  ultimate  form  and  destination, 
they  are  apostolical  epistles.  And  it  is  but  fair  to  add,  that  almost 
all  of  these  letters  were  intended  by  the  Divine  Spirit  to  be  read 
aloud  to  the  primitive  churches ;  and  accordingly  their  style  bears  a 
closer  resemblance  to  that  of  oratory,  than  would  that  of  any  strictly 
private  correspondence. 

To  the  Greek  and  Roman  orators  and  rhetoricians  we  are  all 
largely  indebted  for  not  a  few  instructive  examples,  terms,  and  pre- 
cepts. But  we  ought  not  to  forget  that  these  classic  authorities  are 
pervaded  with  a  thoroughly  ethnic  spirit.  Against.their  acrimony, 
contentiousness,  insincerity,  ambition,  flattery  and  general  selfish- 
ness, the  habitual  study  of  the  holy  prophets,  is  the  best  safeguard. 
"  I  have  raised  up  thy  sons,  O,  Zion,  against  thy  sons,  O,  Greece." 
"  My  former  disciple !  do  you  then  attempt  to  dissuade  ingenuous 
young  men  from  studying  the  masterpieces  of  classical  eloquence  ?  " 
Pardon  us,  dearly  beloved  professor,  Ave  are  so  much  indebted  to 
you  that  we  would  fain  say  to  your  young  friends  and  mine.  Know 
assuredly  that  the  prophets  ware  the  earliest  of  public  speakers. 
Do  not  therefore  study  the  orations  of  the  ethnic  Greeks  and 
Romans  less,  but  study  the  sermons  of  the  old  Hebrew  and  Hel- 
lenistic prophets  more  ;  otherwise  you  will  find  the  classic  elo- 
quence to  be  what  Father  Augustine  found  it,  a  stream  of  Babylon- 
Such  are  our  materials ;  and  if  they  have  been  wisely  chosen,  they 
are  of  the  nature  of  authorities  upon  which  we  may  base  principles 
precepts  and  apologies — principles  which  will  legitimate  our  theory 

1  Cf.  Acts  xiii.  15,  and  Ileb.  xiii.  22. 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

— precepts  which  may  be  enforced  l)y  a  recurrence  to  those  princi- 
ples— apologies  by  the  aid  of  wliich  tlie  young  preacher  who  keeps 
these  precepts  may  defend  himself  against  all  imfricndly  criticism. 
The  homiletical  rules  we  already  possess  are  numerous,  and  many 
of  them  are  excellent,  but  they  are,  if  we  mistake  not,  wanting  in 
that  unity  and  weight,  which  they  would  possess,  did  they  rest  on 
authorities  that  are  imiversal  and  final.  Almost  every  professor  of 
sacred  rhetoric  has  inculcated  principles  of  his  own,  Avhich  his  more 
learned  successor  has  either  ignored  or  exploded.  Not  a  few  pas- 
tors have  peculiar  views  upon  the  subject — views,  which  however 
discordant  among  themselves,  are  somewhat  harmonious  in  their 
mireasonable  opposition  to  those  of  the  learned  professors.  As  for 
the  good  Christian  people,  the  diversity  of  their  creeds  respecting 
this  matter  is  almost  endless  :  while  here  and  there  we  find  a  cau- 
tious student  who,  the  more  deeply  he  reads  on  this  subject,  the 
more  is  he  entangled  in  doubt  and  confusion  as  to  the  best  way  of 
preaching  in  general,  or  as  to  the  best  way  that  is  within  reach  of 
his  individuality,  or  the  way  that  would  be  the  most  useful  in  his 
peculiar  field  of  labour.  Or  he  has,  it  may  be,  read  some  essay  Avhich 
professes  to  set  forth  the  scriptural  manner  of  preaching,  and  has 
thus  found  a  little  temporary  repose  in  a  narrow  onesidedness.  One 
author  would  fain  demonstrate  that  a  sermon  is  nothing  but  a  procla- 
mation ;  another  has  made  it  appear  very  probable  that  the  true  ser- 
mon is  a  solemn  talk,  while  a  third  has  shown  with  equal  probability 
that  the  primitive  sermon  was  very  much  of  a  didactic  lecture. 
Each  of  these  can  quote  a  Greek  verb  in  support  of  his  theory,  but 
has  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  three  original  words  in  question, 
together  with  others,  contribute  to  clear,  varied,  harmonious,  and 
comprehensive  views  of  the  art  of  preaching.  Other  writers,  not 
less  earnest,  turning  away  from  these  philological  aspects  of  the 
subject,  fix  their  attention  on  some  biographical  example,  or  histori- 
cal event,  and  consequently  find  in  the  apostle  Paul  the  most  admir- 
able exemplar  for  all  preachers,  or  else  discover  in  the  tongue  of 
fire,  and  the  Pentecost  sermon  of  l^eter,  the  origin  and  the  model  of 
all  true  pulpit  power.  Now,  if  we  are  not  much  mistaken,  such 
authors  are  right  in  believing  that  the  Bible  contains  su])reme  and 
ultimate  authorities  on  this  subject ;  but  they  are  wrong  in  trusting 
that  it  has  yielded  them  to  those  who  have  read  it  thus  narrowly 
and  superficially.  A  little  more  depth  and  breadth  of  inquiry  would 
have  brought  them  and  their  readers  a  richer  reward.  And  yet  we 
may  well  believe  that  they  have  done  much  good. 

A  justification  will  perhaps  be  demanded  of  us  for  adding  to  the 
number  of  j)arts  into  which  the  science  has  always  been  divided,  by 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

Introducing  the  subject  of  inspiration,  and  by  giving  it  the  place 
Avhich  has  hitherto  been  thought  to  belong  to  invention.  We  must, 
however,  leave  this  part  of  our  work  to  make  its  own  apology :  a 
few  words  of  explanation  will  here  suffice.  We  employ  the  term  to 
denote  the  co-oj^eration  of  the  Divine  Spirit  in  preaching,  or  his 
effects  on  the  will  and  intellect  of  the  man  of  God.  This  lower 
insj^iration  is  the  same  in  its  origin  as,  but  in  its  effects  different 
from  that  which  moved  the  sacred  speakers  and  writers,  and  which, 
so  far  as  their  divine  communications  were  concerned,  secured  them 
against  sin  and  error.  Then  as  to  invention,  by  removing  it  to  the 
second  place,  we  do  not  disparage  it ;  on  the  contrary,  w^e  exalt  it, 
for  if  we  have  disturbed  its  ancient  order,  it  was  because  we  re- 
spected the  conditions  on  which  the  Creator  Spirit  can  breathe  into 
it  the  breath  of  his  own  life.  And  ^practically  it  will  ever  be  found 
that  the  mind  demands  the  right  mood  and  impulse  before  it  can 
exercise  itself  profitably  in  finding  and  arranging  matter  for  dis- 
course. Our  method  is  psychological — the  only  method  that  can 
promise  to  restore  to  sacred  rhetoric  its  failing  vitality  and  strength. 

The  present  treatise,  so  different  in  groundwork  and  superstruc- 
ture from  any  that  has  hitherto  appeared,  will  naturally  provoke 
some  very  plausible  objections. 

It  may  be  said  that  as  the  mind  refuses  to  class  the  utterances  of 
the  holy  prophets  among  mere  human  communications,  it  can  never 
regard  them  as  proper  examples  for  our  imitation.  Any  attempt 
to  copy  them  w'ould  be  little  short  of  an  irreverent  travesty  of 
things  the  most  sacred,  or  else  lead  to  a  depreciation  of  the  copy- 
ist who  would  provoke  his  hearers  to  contrast  his  work  with  his 
models.  Besides,  such  copying  would  be  unfriendly  to  the  forma- 
tion of  habits  of  original  and  independent  thinking,  composing,  and 
speaking. 

We  answer  that  it  is  one  thing  to  copy  servilely  and  superficially, 
but  quite  another  to  imitate  freely  and  profoundly.  The  copyist 
mistakes  defects  for  excellences,  allows  little  or  nothing  for  differ- 
ences of  time  and  place,  follows  one  admired  examjjle  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  all  others,  and  assumes  the  form  without  being  animated 
by  the  soul  of  his  master.  The  imitator,  on  the  other  hand,  fol- 
lows not  so  much  the  production  of  his  favorite  master  as  his  method 
of  composition,  or  the  principles  on  which  he  works.  He  does  not 
imitate  in  all  respects  those  whom  he  thinks  the  most  worthy  of 
following  in  many  respects.^  Agreeble  to  this  sound  rhetorical 
maxim  is  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds'  advice  to  students  of  art.     "If,"  says 

1  Cicero,  Da  0  atore,  B.  ii.   cli.  xxii.;  Quint.,  B.  x.,  ch.  ii. 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

he,  ''your  ambition  be  to  equal  RafFaelle,  you  must  do  as  RafFaelle 
did,  take  many  models,  and  not  even  liiia  for  your  guide  alone,  to 
the  exclusion  of  others."  .  .  .  ''  He  that  imitates  the  Iliad,"  says  Dr. 
Young,  "is  not  imitating  Homer."  It  is  not  by  laying  up  in  the 
memory  the  particular  details  of  any  of  the  great  works  of  art  that 
any  man  becomes  a  great  artist,  if  he  stops  Avithout  making  himself 
master  of  the  general  principles  on  which  these  works  are  con- 
ducted. If  he  ever  hopes  to  rival  those  whom  he  admires,  he  must 
consider  their  Avorks  as  the  means  of  teacliing  him  the  true  art  of 
seeing  nature.  When  this  is  acquired,  he  may  be  said  to  have  ap- 
propriated their  powers,  or  at  least  the  foundation  of  their  powers 
to  himself"^  In  respect  of  dramatic  writing,  the  same  rule  holds 
good :  for,  as  Guizot  has  observed,  modem  tragedy  has  a  ground 
of  its  o\\m  and  peculiar  to  itself:  and  yet  he  thinks  that  Shakespeare's 
system  of  composition  should  furnish  the  plan  according  to 
which  genius  ought  still  to  work.^  It  is  in  such  manner  and 
measure  that  we  recommend  the  student  of  sacred  rhetoric  to  imi- 
tate the  inspired  sj^eakers  of  the  old  dispensation  and  the  new. 

As  to  treating  these  sacred  oracles  with  irreverence,  a  man  may 
to  some  appear  to  travesty  or  burlesque  them  without  a  disposition 
or  intention  to  do  so.  But  no  preacher  is  in  duty  bound  to  accommo- 
date himself  to  every  hearer  s  notions  of  what  is  solemn,  or  to  take 
the  least  notice  of  bilious  critics,  and  the  haunting  "  ghosts  of  a  linen 
decency."  And  so  far  as  our  fear  of  sufiering  in  reputation  by  con- 
trast is  concerned,  if  we  took  counsel  of  that  we  would  never  preach 
at  all ;  for  who  ever  thought  he  could  equal  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  ?  It  may,  indeed,  be  said,  that  when  any  one  manifestly  at- 
tempts to  imitate  another,  he  provokes  damaging  comparisons,  and 
that  this  is  the  principal  danger  in  question.  To  this  we  reply,  that 
as  the  models  Ave  here  recommend  are  perfect,  it  is  but  small  dis- 
grace to  come  short  of  their  matchless  excellences.  "Were  they 
very  imperfect,  then  avc  Avould  run  the  hazard  of  l)eing  despised 
both  for  attempting  to  imitate  them  and  for  tailing  in  the  en- 
deavour. 

Besides,  it  is  a  matter  of  fact  that  these  inspired  preachers  have 
some  of  them,  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  had  a  very  marked 
rhetorical  influence  on  post-apostolic  speakers.  Thus  Origen  found 
that  the  reading  of  them  communicated  to  his  enthusiasm  a  spark 
of  their  oAvn  inspiration ;  and  Avhencver  Bossuet  wished  to  compose 
a  sermon  ho  Avas  in  the  habit  of  reading  a  chapter  in  Isaiah  for  the 
purpose  of  attuning  his  powers;  and  Avhen  Lord  Chatham  Avas  going 

1  Sixth  and  Eleventh  Discourses.    2  Cf.  Christian  Palmer's  Homiletik,  p.  715. 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

to  speak  on  any  very  important  subject,  and  wished  to  make  a  deep 
impression,  he  would,  we  are  told,  read  some  of  the  boldest  flights 
of  the  same  prophet.     Instances  of  a  similar  kind  are  numerous. 
Now  the  omniscient  God  must  have  foreknown  that  not  only  his 
ministers  but  his  people  in  many  ages  and  nations  would  gradually 
and  unwittingly,  if  not  purposely,  learn  to  conceive  and  express  re- 
ligious ideas  according  to  the  example  of  the  holy  prophets,  with 
whose  writings  they  would  be  familiar.     And  he  alone  could  com- 
prehend the  vast  importance  of  making  his  communications  to  man- 
kind in  such  a  style  as  would  assist  them  to  form  right  habits  of 
conception  and  expression.     But  who  can  for  a  moment  entertain 
the  idea  that  the  only  wise  God  and  perfect  committed  a  blimder 
in  makuig  this  style  the  vehicle  of  his  revelations,  or  that  he  intend- 
ed this  style  as  a  judgment,  but  the  revelations  it  conveys '  as  an 
imspeakable  mercy  to  us  ?     Yet,  if  the  above  objection  holds  good, 
one  or  the  other  of  these  ideas  must  be  entertained.     If,  again,  we 
maintain  that  an  exposure  to  the  influence  of  this  style  be  unfriendly 
to  a  just  mdependence   of  mind  and  a  beneficial   originality  of 
thought,  how  can  we   escape  from  the  same  dilemma  ?     The  old 
classical  writers  on  rhetoric  teach  that  an  intelligent  imitation  gives 
a  right  direction  to  our  natural  faculties  and  improves  even  genius 
itself     Did  the  late  James  Hamilton,  by  yielding  himself  so  heartily 
to  the  attractions  of  this  sacred  style,  impair  his  own  style  or  en- 
slave and  impoverish  his  mind?     "We  think  not.     But  be  this  as  it 
may,  certain  it  is  that  he  who  labours  to  be  "  mighty  in  the  Scrip- 
tures "  must,  wittingly  or  unwittingly,  receive   some  tincture  from 
their  style.^     And  if  there  are  any  qualities  of  this  style  wliich  it  is 
enfeebling  or  otherwise  injurious  to  imbibe,  then  the  most  devoted 
admirers  and  profoundest  students  of  those  qualities  are  the  most 
exposed  to  tliis  harm,  while  the  despisers   and  neglecters   of  the 
Scriptures  are  the  only  persons  that  may  hope  to  escaj^e  such  cor- 
,  ruption  of  their  style  and  such  debility  of  their  minds. 

It  is  sometimes  averred  that  the  Bible  was  not  designed  to  teach 
us  rhetoric  any  more  than  it  was  designed  to  teach  us  metaphysics 
or  astronomy.  But  this  is  a  backstroke  of  our  enemy's  sword  which 
threatens  to  behead  his  royal  friend  :  in  assei'ting  this  of  rhetoric  as  a 
science,  does  he  not  unawares  assert  as  much  of  theology  as  a 
science?  Undoubtedly;  and  the  same  may  be  asserted  of  the 
orations  of  Domesthenes  and  Cicero  ;  yet  the  classical  rhetoricians 


1  Thus  Dr.  Pusey  Las,  from  long  communion  with  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
formed  a  style  which  for  the  public  speaker  is  preferable  to  that  of  Dr.  Newman, 
which,  however  classically  correct,  is  lacking  in  the  Hebrew  enthusiasm. 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

have  Bought  and  found  in  them  many  of  the  materials  wherewith 
they  have  constructed  their  imperishable  works.  Who,  then,  can 
forbid  us  to  resort  to  the  utterances  of  the  Scripture  prophets  for 
analogous  but  higher  objects  ?  It  would  be  singular  enough  if  He, 
who  has  made  it  the  duty  of  thousands  of  young  dnd  unpractised 
men  to  serve  as  stewards  of  His  mysteries,  had  not  given  them  any 
precepts  or  examples  as  to  the  manner  of  preparing,  distributing, 
and  presenting  His  truth,  and  so  left  them  in  this  extraordinary 
work  without  that  guidance  which  He  has  denied  neither  to  them, 
nor  to  their  brethren  in  the  discharge  of  their  ordinary  religious 
duties.  Ambrose  of  Milan,  writing  on  another  subject,  has  disposed 
of  this  question  sententiously :  "  Scriptoreg  Divinorum  Librorum 
quamvis  non  secundum  artem  scripserunt,  sed  secundum  gratiam, 
qua!  supra  artem  est ;  ii  tamen  qui  de  arte  scrijiserunt,  in  eorum 
scriptis  artem  iuvenerunt." 

Another  objector  may  say,  "  Rhetoric  should  be  based  upon  ma- 
terials which  are  generally  acknowledged  to  be  eloquent ;  but  the 
inspired  oratory,  though  it  may  really  be  eloquent,  has  never  been 
acknowledged  by  men  of  taste  in  general,  to  be  any.  standard  by 
which  to  test  the  qualities  of  sacred  eloquence.  To  make  it  there- 
fore the  standard  of  taste  and  the  foundation  of  rhetorical  rules, 
wpre  as  absurd  as  the  pretension  of  the  Mahometans  who  maintain 
that  the  great  miracle  wrought  in  the  composition  of  the  Koran, 
consisted  in  the  inimitable  style  and  acme  of  elegance  to  which 
]\Iahomet  attained — a  miracle  sufficient  to  establish  his  claim  to  the 
inspirati()n  of  God."  The  error  of  the  Mahometans,  we  reply,  con- 
sists inmamtaining  that  an  incomparable  elegance  of  style  is  a  mark 
of  divine  inspiration.  We  may,  indeed,  reasonably  expect  to  find  a 
revelation  from  heaven  conveyed  with  perspicuity,  or  energy,  or 
such  other  property  as  is  the  most  serviceable  to  the  divine  ideas 
and  their  recipients.  But  elegance,  so  far  from  being  a  peculiar 
quality  of  the  sacred  style,  is  conspicuous  in  some  very  abject  and, 
atheistical  productions.  Nor  is  elegance  or  beauty  indispensable  to 
that  style  which  now  exclusively  concerns  us.  In  oratory,  it  may 
be  on  the  contrary,  and  frecjuently  is,  a  positive  blemish  and  injury, 
because  it  detracts  from  simplicity  and  force.  The  divine  Inspirer 
chose,  in  general,  not  that  style  which  is  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
esteem  of  the  few,  but  that  wliich  is  the  most  useful  to  the  greatest 
number  of  souls. 

There  is  a  dialogue  in  riutarch's  ^Morals  on  the  question,  '"  Why 
has  the  l*ythian  priestess  ceased  to  deliver  her  oracles  in  verse?" 
Diogenianus  wonders  at  the  meanness  and  lameness  of  the  verses 
which  conveyed  the  ancient  oracles  mto  the  Morld.     And,  indeed, 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

he  had  a  right  to  expect  good  poetry  from  Apollo,  who  was, 
as  he  says,  called  the  president  of  the  Muses.  So  might  we 
demand  elegance  of  style  from  the  Holy  Spirit,  were  he  professedly 
the  author  and  patron  of  such  elegance.  Diogenianus  and  Bcethus 
go  on  to  disparage  the  oracles  by  contrasting  them  with  the  poems 
of  Homer  and  Hesiod  until  they  encounter  the  better  mind  of  the 
poet  Serapio,  who  tells  them  that  they  ought  to  correct  their  judg- 
ment which  is  forestalled  by  bad  taste.  Their  sight  and  hearing  are 
diseased.  They  ought  not  to  find  fault  with  the  Pythia  because 
she  does  not  warble  as  charmingly  as  the  fair  songstress  Glauca, 
nor  tickle  the  ears  and  fancy  with  the  graceful  measures  of  Sappho. 
"  The  priestess,"  says  he,  "  utters  sentences  altogether  thoughtful 
and  serious  .  .  .  Cadmus  heard  from  heaven  a  sort  of  music  that 
Avas  neither  lofty  nor  soft,  nor  shattered  into  trills  and  divisions ; 
for  severe  holmess  will  not  admit  the  allurements  of  pleasure." 
Far  as  Plutarch  is  from  the  true  notion  of  the  sacred  style,  he  is 
nearer  correctness  than  the  Mahometans  are;  and  let  his  Serapio  be 
the  judge  of  all  those  who  still  deny  that  the  inspired  oratory  de- 
serves to  be  generally  recognised  as  the  standard  of  sacred  elo- 
quence. But  still  the  objector  is  imdoubtedly  right  in  asserting 
that  the  inspired  sermons  have  never  been  generally  adopted  as  the 
standard  of  pulpit  style.  The  fact  remains,  we  grieve  to  thmk,  but 
whether  to  the  disparagement  of  the  eloquence  of  the  ancient  pro- 
phets, or  of  that  of  their  modern  successors,  no  competent  judge 
will  be  slow  to  decide. 

It  may,  moreover,  be  objected  that  to  compose  a  work  of  sacred 
rhetoric  for  preachers  of  this  century  upon  the  foundation  of  the 
Hebrew  and  Hellenistic  eloquence  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  is  to  be 
guilty  of  a  stupendous  anachronism.  Every  age,  it  is  said,  demands 
and  obtains  that  kind  of  preaching  which  is  best  for  it.  The  preach- 
ers of  the  fourth  century  could  not  have  met  the  exigencies  of  the 
sixteenth,  nor  w^ould  the  preachers  that  were  so  acceptable  in  the 
sixteenth  be  tolerated  in  the  nineteenth.  How  preposterous, 
therefore,  to  recommend  Isaiah  and  Paul  as  proper  models  for  the 
preacher  of  to-day  !  This  objection,  we  may  reply,  takes  for  granted 
that  the  preaching  of  every  age  and  comitry  has  a  type  or  charac- 
ter which  is  essentially  peculiar.  Some  ages  have  undoubtedly  had 
their  homiletical  fashions,  exhibiting  certain  novelties  respecting 
the  division  of  sermons,  their  length,  or  other  such  minor  matters, 
but  aside  from  these  and  similar  things  (differences  of  doctrine 
beino-  out  of  the  question),  the  history  of  preaching  shows  that  the 
sermons  of  almost  every  Christian  age  have  differed  as  widely 
among  themselves  as  any  one  of  them  differs  from  any  sermon  that 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

was  preached  last  Sunday.  Besides,  who  can  study  the  standard 
pul])it  literature  of  a  given  age  or  land,  and  after  ascertainuig  its 
rhetorical  peculiarities  (as  for  exanii)le,  those  of  the  time  of  James 
I.,  wlien  it  was  fasliionable  to  quote  Greek  and  Latin),  can  affirm 
that  it  was,  in  general,  the  best  for  that  land  or  that  age  ?  i  "What 
minister  of  the  gosi)el  would  have  the  hardihood  to  say  as  much  of 
his  own  sermons  'i  But  if  any  preacher  does  hazard  this  assertion, 
we  would  respectfully  ask  him  to  inform  us  what  he  means  by  the 
word  best.  The  best  as  to  aim  or  spirit,  or  subject  matter,  or  form, 
or  style  ?  By  what  standard  found  to  be  best  in  any  or  some  or 
all  of  these  respects  ?  The  best  because  the  most  useful  ?  Or  best 
because  the  most  popular? 

Now  we  do  not  wish  to  provoke  contradiction,  but  we  are  con- 
strained to  hold  that  m  as  far  as  any  imperfect  age  demands  and 
obftvins  tlie  i)reachers  it  likes  best,  in  so  far  is  that  age  growing 
degenerate.-     Yes,  we  must  advance  a  step  further,  and  maintain 
that  the  age  or  nation  or  church  that  determines  the  chief  rhetorical 
qualities  of  its  preaching  is  (miwittingly,  of  course)  corrupting  the 
men  that  ought  to  be  its  spiritual  guides  ;3  for  the  right  rhetorical 
qualities  of  the  pulpit  are  determined  by  the  oracles  and  grace  of 
God,  while,  on   the  contrary,  Avrong  ones  are   determined  by  the 
more  or  less  debased  and  debasing  taste  of  the  peoi:)le  who  perhaps 
"  after  their  own  lusts  have  heaped  to  themselves  teachers  having 
itching  ears."    All  true  preachers  are  called  of  God  to  do  his  work, 
receive  their  commission  and  their  message  from  him,  and  have  the 
guidance  of  the  Holy  S]>irit  in  their  studies  and  mhiistrations.     They 
consider  themselves  sent  as  Jeremiah  was  to  pull  down  and  to  root 
out  and  to  build  and  to  plant.     They  do  not  think  it  strange  that 
the  modern  rake,  Rochester,  Avas  converted  by  hearing  a  chapter 
of  the  ancient  Isaiah.     AVere  the  elements  and  the  ends  of  tlieir 
oratory  essentially  the  same  as  tliose  of  the  secular,  then  would  they 
be  manipulated   and   moulded  by  the  formative  age,  which  they 
aimed  to  manipulate  and  mould.     True  men  of  God  aim  not,  by 
appealing  to  selfish  motives,  to  rouse  dormant  passions,  but  aim  by 
the  help  of  holy  teachings,  arguments,  and  persuasions,  co-operating 
with  the  Divme  Spirit  and  word,  to  transform  men  into  new  crea- 
tures, or  to  assist  new  creatures  to  walk  in  righteousness  of  life.    To 
persuaile  men  to  evil,  it  is  enough  that  you  be  on  a  level  with  them, 

1  See  Arclib.  Abbot's  Letter  in  Documentary  Annals,  II.,  204. 

2  The  drama's  laws,  the  drama's  patrons  give, 

For  we  tliat  live  to  please,  must  please  to  live. — Samuel  Johnson. 

3  Hosea  iv,  4-9. 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

although  eventually  you  will  be  in  subjection  to  them ; — but  to  per- 
suade them  to  good,  you  must  be  morally  above  them,  and  prove 
that  in  your  character  and  thoughts,  you  are  more  in  harmony  with 
the  will  of  God  than  with  the  will  of  man.  As  are  your  thoughts, 
so  will  be  your  language ;  as  is  your  spiritual  character,  so  will  be 
the  spiritual  properties  of  your  sermons.  But  if,  O,  pastor,  you  dis- 
charo-e  your  duty  to  your  Hock  as  under  the  eye  of  the  Chief  Shep- 
herd, be  not  alarmed  if  some  of  your  flock  either  forsake  you  or 
request  you  to  forsake  them.  A  permanent  pastor  of  a  permanent 
flock,  and  faithful  both— how  seldom  do  these  heavenly  conditions 
meet;  and  yet  we  rejoice  to  beUeve  that  they  do  sometimes  meet, 
and  that  hereafter  they  will  go  on  meeting  more  frequently  as  the 
divine  Son  of  Mary,  still  stamping  on  the  head  of  the  old  serpent, 
shall  announce  each  brightenmg  hour  that  is  to  herald  the  millen- 
nial day.  But  our  postulate  is  that  the  present  age  is  imperfect — I 
beg  your  pardon,  says  the  objector ;  let  me  state  my  difficulty  in 
another  form :  Must  you  not  admit,  after  all,  that  -a  living  and 
efficient  ministry  will,  in  many  respects,  adapt  itself  to  its  age  and 
the  sphere  of  its  activity.  Had  Paul,  or  Isaiah,  or  our  Lord  him- 
self, preached  to  a  congregation  in  this  age  and  land,  would  he  not 
often  have  expressed  himself  very  differently  from  what  he  did ;  m 
brief,  would  not  the  peculiarities  of  his  style  have  been  very  differ- 
ent from  what  they  were,  and  as  wisely  adjusted  to  us  as  they  were 
to  his  contemporaries  ?  This  we  concede,  but  we  must,  at  the  same 
tune,  deny  that  this  adaptation  to  their  respective  times  and  places 
is  any  evidence  that  they  were  as  preachers  created  by  their  age,  or 
that  in  any  of  the  higher  qualities  of  their  style,  they  were  con- 
formed thereto.  We  are  also  compelled  to  deny  that  the  adapta- 
tion in  question  makes  them  unfit  to  be  examples  for  all  modern 
preachers.  Ezekiel  is,  in  the  opmion  of  Hengstenberg,  exactly  the 
prophet  for  our  times.  Cicero  did,  indeed,  find  the  style  of  Demos- 
thenes, m  some  respects,  ill  adapted  to  a  Roman,  as  Lord  Brough- 
am also  found  it  ill  adapted  to  an  English  audience,  and  yet  both 
of  these  orators  thought  it  practicable  and  very  advantageous  to 
follow  him  as  an  example,  and  warmly  recommended  his  orations 
to  the  study  and  admiration  of  all  who  would  excel  in  eloquence. 
Demosthenes  and  Cicero  would,  in  other  ages  and  countries,  have 
delivered  speeches  very  diff'erent  from  those  which  they  have  be- 
queathed to  us ;  but  shall  we  therefore  forbid  preachers  to  do  what 
they  have  done  from  the  days  of  Father  Basil  until  now,  namely, 
to  study  and  imitate  their  respective  styles,  or  to  teach  homiletics, 
by  deducing  principles  and  precepts,  and  quoting  illustrations  from 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

these  ethnic  orations  ?^  This  objection  is  then  levelled  against  all 
the  best  standard  works  on  general  rhetoric.  Are  ^ve  to  fall  before 
it  ?     Then  so  must  they. 

Against  all  rlietorical  instruction,  both  secular  and  sacred,  another 
and  similar  difficulty  has  been  raised.  It  may  be  stated  as  follows : 
Of  the  twenty  or  more  inspii"ed  speakers  whom  you  commend  to 
our  imitation,  each  is  characterized  by  a  bold  individuality.  To  the 
student  who  exammes  them  critically  they  reveal  Avide  diversities 
of  capacity,  temperament  and  culture.  Elijah  was  constitutionally 
different  from  Elisha ;  Ezekiel  could  not  have  proi)hesied  like  Isaiah  ; 
nor  could  Peter  have  preached  like  Paul.  A  Luther  is  not  a  Wes- 
ley ;  a  Count  Zinzendorf  is  not  a  Jonathan  Edwards.  These  ex- 
amples, and  others  such  as  these,  one  and  all,  concur  in  giving  this 
counsel :  Be  yourself  and  not  another.  You  are  in  some  respects 
siii  (jeneris.  Respect  your  peculiarities  and  maintain  your  independ- 
ence ;  then  M'ill  invention  and  style  and  delivery  take  care  of  them- 
selves. 

In  answering  this  objection  we  must  premise  that  the  majority  of 
those  who  have  attempted  to  characterise  the  resjicctive  styles  of 
the  prophets  and  apostles,  have  sometimes  been  compelled  to  infer 
the  distinctive  qualities  of  an  inspired  man's  style  from  the  study  of 
only  one  or  tAvo  of  his  addresses.  Here  some  German  authors 
evince  a  self-destructive  dogmatism  that  is  only  equalled  by  their 
immense  erudition.  We  can,  indeed,  jw'onounce  with  some  con- 
fidence as  to  certain  peculiarities  of  the  style  of  Isaiah,  or  Jeremiah, 
or  of  Ezekiel ;  for  we  possess  a  considerable  number  and  variety  of 
their  sermons,  but  to  attempt  to  characterise  the  general  style  of  a 
minor  prophet  after  an  examination  of  a  single  surviving  sermon  of 
his,  would  be  uncritical  and  illogical.  The  Scripture  sermons,  be  it 
remembered,  touch  upon  a  great  variety  of  subjects  and  Avere  de- 
livered on  very  different  occasions,  and  for  quite  dissimilar  objects. 
They  are  therefore  not  to  be  studied  with  the  view  of  ascertammg 
the  peculiar  qualities  of  each  sacred  orator's  style,  but  for  the  pur- 
pose of  leaiTiing  from  the  example  of  eacli,  how  to  adjust  our  style 
to  our  subject,  and  aim,  and  occasion,  and  audience. 

This  difficulty  is  raised  by  those  Avho  think  that  a  rhetorical 
training  is  destructive  of  individuality ;  whereas  a  right  rhetorical 


ICf.  chapter  on  Adapt atiox.  The  gioat  orators  of  Greece,  were  tliemselves 
the  .stniidards  of  taste  for  the  people,  and  not  the  reverse  (Diodorus  Siculus, 
Lib.  xii.),  and  Antonio  Vieyra,  the  most  eloquent  of  the  Portufruese  preachers, 
had  the  courago,  both  by  word  and  example,  to  ojiposo  the  affected  elegance  of 
style  which  the  fashionable  i)reachors  of  his  day  cultivated. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

training  forms  a  desirable  individuality.  Any  student  may,  after 
short  practice,  learn  whether  reason  or  imagination,  or  feeling  or 
memory  or  voice,  or  what  combination  of  these  (as  yet,  perhaps, 
existing  only  in  their  germ  and  potentiality)  distinguishes  him  from 
others,  but  it  is  only  by  a  methodical  and  thorough  training  that  he 
can  demonstrate  to  himself  what  are  the  highest  actualities  of  his 
gifts.  Besides,  if  a  man  have  a  just  individuality  he  will  desire  and 
choose  to  develop  it;  for  every  real  natural  talent  he  possesses 
holds  within  itself  a  principle  of  life  and  growth.  True  genius 
works  much  because  it  works  easily;  it  works  Avell  because  it  works 
wisely.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  man  have  an  individuahty  wholly 
or  partly  wrong,  either  in  itself  or  in  its  tendencies,  or  in  its  rela- 
tions, the  study  of  Christian  rhetoric  will  teach  him  where  and  how 
far  he  ought  to  amend.  Jeremy  Taylor  sometimes  reminds  you  of 
Isaiah,  but  you  never  forget  that  it  is  Jeremy  Taylor  still. 

But  let  us  not  be  understood  as  wishing  to  polish  away  whatever 
is  peculiar  to  an  individual  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  it  almost 
invisible  and  imperceptible.  We  protest  beforehand  against  such  a 
misconstruction  of  our  design.  We  wish  not  to  destroy  individu- 
ality, but  to  develop  it  where  it  is  right,  and  to  correct  it  where  it 
is  wrong.  Natural  peculiarities  are  oftenest  crippled  by  narrowly 
copying  those  of  some  one  fallible  preacher,  and  not  by  an  mtel- 
ligent  imitation  of  twenty  infallible  ones,  as  we  herein  recommend. 
A  servile  imitativeness  hampers  that  freedom  which  a  just  individ- 
uality demands,  while  a  strict  conformity  to  God's  revealed  will 
tends  to  secure  that  plenitude  of  the  Spirit's  gracious  presence 
whence  the  best  liberty  proceeds.i  The  holy  prophet  said,  I  will 
walk  at  liberty,  for  I  seek  thy  precepts.2  Every  man's  individuality, 
Uke  its  mainspring,  the  will,  is  in  bondage,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  alone 
can  release  it  from  thraldom ;  but  when  once  free  it  regards  divine 
revelation  as  the  perfect  law  by  which  to  regulate  its  liberty. 3  Free 
is  that  preacher  who  has  not  merely  power  to  speak  as  he  chooses, 
but  power  at  one  and  the  same  time  to  speak  as  he  chooses,  and  to 
speak  as  he  ought. 4 

Another  objector  may  say :  For  my  part,  I  ought  to  avoid  all 
artificiality  of  style  and  delivery,  and  to  cultivate  an  easy  and  natural 
manner.     The  prophets  spoke   under  great  bodily  and  mental  ex- 

1  2  Cor.  iii.  17.  2  Psa.  cxix.  45.  3  James  i.  25. 

4  Robert  Hall  in  after  life  mentioned  Gibbon's  Rhetoric,  which  he  had  eagerly 
read  in  youth,  as  increasing  his  sense  of  the  utility  as  well  as  the  beauty  of  flne 
wnting,  and  creating  an  intense  desire  to  acquire  a  style  at  once  elegant  and  per- 
spicuous. 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

citement.  Their  inspiration  was  an  extraordinary  gift,  which  ex- 
pressed itself  in  highly  impassioned  language  and  wild  gestures. 
Now  it  seems  to  me  that  the  imitation  of  these  ecstatic  and  enthu- 
siastic s})eakers  would  be  very  unfriendly  to  the  practice  of  a 
natural  way  of  speaking. 

This  objection  owes  much  of  its  apparent  force,  to  the  current 
but  erroneous  notion  that  ecstacy  was  the  invariable  effect  of  inspi- 
ration ;  whereas  this  was  its  effect  only  on  rare  occasions,  as  when 
the  prophet  had  a  vision  of  Jehovah  or  of  an  angel,i  or  a  divine  dis- 
closure of  great  sins  and  their  i^enalties,^  or  when  perpleiced  as  to 
the  sense  of  a  divine  communication.^  None  but  the  false  projihets 
habitually  worked  themselves  up  to  seeming  ecstacies  and  parox- 
ysms. The  true  prophets,  like  Jesus,  the  great  Alpha  and  Omega 
of  their  line,  commonly  spoke  with  a  composure  that  is  natural  to 
minds  obedient  to  God's  will,  at  peace  with  him.  and  filled  with  the 
all-subduing  Spirit.  As  their  words  spoke  their  hearts,  so  they 
were  calm  or  animated  accordmg  to  the  occasion.  To  the  sensibil- 
ities, feelings  and  emotions  they,  of  all  men,  have  given  the  most 
natural  utterance. 

It  has  not,  perhaps,  occurred  to  this  objector  that  the  habit  of 
composing  sermons  is  one  of  the  sources  of  the  unnatural  in  preach- 
ing. During  the  interval  that  usually  takes  place  between  the  con- 
ception of  the  thoughts  and  their  delivery,  the  preacher's  mind  has, 
perhaps,  lost  its  first  enthusiasm;  and  possibly  events  have  brought 
about  some  change  in  the  moral  or  intellectual  mood  of  his  ex- 
pected hearers,  if  not  a  revolution  in  his  own  views  of  the  text,  or 
of  the  relative  importance  of  the  discussion,  or  the  lawful  and  ex- 
pedient a])j)Hcation  of  his  subject.  But  even  in  cases  where  inven- 
tion has  been  fiiithful  to  truth,  the  pen  faithful  to  the  thoughts,  and 
the  elocution  faithful  to  the  thoughts,  to  the  words,  and  to  a  heart 
deej)ly  affected  by  the  theme,  yet  it  must  be  admitted  that,  at  the 
l)cst,  such  a  sermon  is  more  or  less  formal  and  artificial. 

How  then  shall  we  effectually  counteract  this  tendency  to  artifi- 
ciality and  all  manner  of  formality  and  affectation  ?  Not  by  ceas- 
ing to  ponder  or  write  our  preparations  for  the  ])ulpit,  nor  yet  by 
confining  ourselves  to  the  practice  of  preaching  extemporaneously, 
but  Ijy  studying  and  imitating  those  who  write  and  speak  m  the 
most  ndtio-fil  manner,  that  is  to  say,  the  most  natural  for  the  jtreacli- 
er.  ]5ut  what,  it  will  be  demanded,  is  the  most  natural  manner  ? 
We  could  answer  this  question  if  we  knew  a  preacher  that  spoke 

1  Isn.  vi.  ;  Jer.  i. ;  Ezek.  i.  and  xxiii.  ;  Dan.  viii.  17.  2  Jer.  xxiii.  9;  Ilab. 

iii.  8,  16.        8  Dan.  vii.  15,  28 ;  x.,  8. 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

spontaneously  without  any  culpable  fear,  and  only  from  good  mo- 
tives, who  had  a  perfect  confidence  in  his  own  wisdom  as  to  the 
choice  of  all  his  words  and,  what  is  far  better,  in  the  truth,  impor- 
tance and  timeliness  of  his  declarations,  who  had  none  of  the  faults 
of  those  who  speak  either  from  memory  or  from  extemporaneous 
suggestion,  who,  in  short,  had  no  error  of  the  understanding,  and  no 
sin  of  the  heart  to  prevent  him  from  speaking  in  a  holy,  sincere, 
characteristic,  warm,  easy,  vigorous,  and  lifesome  manner ;  him  could 
we  confidently  pronounce  master  of  a  natural  rhetoric  and  a  com- 
mendable example  of  natural  preaching.  But  where  can  Ave  find  any 
written  specimens  of  such  a  natural  eloquence  ?  The  anticipated 
reply  is  the  true  one  :  in  the  sermons  of  our  divine  Master  and  his  fel- 
low proj^hets.  Here  the  divine,  speaking  through  the  human,  and  for 
the  time  setting  aside  premeditation  and  all  formal  art,  realized  the 
perfection  of  the  natural  manner.  Here  inspiration,  by  moving 
erring  and  sinful  men  to  speak  infallibly  and  impeccably,  like  the 
second  Adam  himself,  caused  them  to  speak  accordmg  to  nature  in 
the  best  sense  of  the  word.  It  is  by  studying  these,  therefore,  that 
the  preacher  is  to  form  that  ideal  of  eloquence  Avhich  Cicero,  in  his 
de  Onitore,  has,  for  the  benefit  of  other  speakers,  attempted  to 
describe — an  ideal,  which,  if  kept  clearly  and  steadily  in  view,  will 
perfect  and  transfigure  nature. 

"And  so  then,"  continues  the  same  objector,  "you  would  advise 
the  preacher  who  must  speak  Ln  prose  to  acquire  or  preserve  a  natu- 
ral manner  by  imitating  poerty !  Were  not  the  prophets  poets,  and 
is  not  the  principal  share  of  their  declarations  poetry  of  the  most 
elevated  and  excellent  kind  ?  " 

We  hope  the  objector  will  not  accuse  us  of  evasion,  if  we  respect- 
fully ask  him  what  is  his  idea  or  definition  of  poerty.  He  is  j^roba- 
bly  aware  that  there  is  a  variety  of  opinions  as  to  the  nature  of 
poetry  in  general.  "  Poetry,"  says  James  Montgomery,^  "  is  verse 
in  contradistinction  to  prose.  .  .  .  Poetiy,  to  be  complete,  must  be 
verse ;  and  all  the  wit  of  man  cannot  supply  a  more  convenient 
definition.  Every  thing  else  which  may  be  insisted  on  as  essential 
to  good  poetry,  is  not  'peculiar  to  it,  but  may  with  due  discretion 
and  happy  effect,  be  incorporated  in  prose."  This  is  the  best  defi- 
nition of  poetry  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  Most  scholars  have 
concluded  that  parallelism  distinguishes  Hebrew  poetry  from  He- 
brew i^rose.  This  being  a  kind  of  distich,  is  entitled  to  the  appella- 
tion of  verse.     But  authorities  differ  as  to  the  proper  definition  of 

1  Lectures  on  General  Literature  and  Poetry.  Cf.  Wbately's  Rhetoric,  Pt.  ii., 
cliap.  iii.,  ^3. 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

parallelism.  Lowth  and  Gesenius  make  it  consist  in  the  correspon- 
dence of  one  line  with  another.  Ewald,  however,  prefers  to  make 
what  he  terms  '*  thouglit-rhythm  "  its  chief  peculiarity,  "  because," 
he  says,  "  the  rhythm  consists  in  such  a  division  of  the  sentiments 
as  cannot  be  fully  expressed  in  less  than  a  distich."'  Dr.  David- 
son defines  it  a  symmetrical  proportion  between  the  larger  sec- 
tions, or  members  of  a  period,  the  smaller  being  neglected. ^ 
But  it  has  seemingly  escaped  these  writers  that  parallelism  is 
not  peculiar  to  Hebrew  poetry,  since  it  is  found  in  parts  of  the 
New  Testament  that  are  confessedly  prosaic,  and  in  many  secular 
orations,  ancient  and  modern,2  and  especially  in  the  prose  of  some 
modern  Oriental  writers.  The  parallelisms  of  Arabic  prose  are 
even  terminated  by  rhymes. 

Now  admitting  the  above  definitions  to  be  tolerably  correct,  we 
are  not  to  take  it  as  an  established  fact  that  the  style  of  the  proph- 
ets is  poetic.  Lowth^  was  of  opinion  that  parts  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  Zechariah  are  prose,  that  Jonah  and  Daniel  are  "  plain 
prose,"  that  Ilaggai  is  '•  altogether  prosaic,"  while  "  Malachi  is  writ- 
ten in  a  kind  of  middle  style  which  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
Hebrew  poetry,  from  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivit}',  was  in  a 
declinmg  state,  and  being  past  its  prime  and  vigour,  was  then  fast 
verging  towards  the  debility  of  age  !"  He  also  confesses  that  some- 
times the  nature  of  the  parallelism  is  very  subtle  and  obscure. 
Havernick^  thought  that  the  Hebrew  knew  only  a  rhythmical  prose, 
and  that  the  poetical  form  is  more  carefully  preserved  in  the 
Psalms  than  in  the  Prophets,  which  as  to  rhythmus  stand  in  some 
sort  l)ctwcen  poetry  and  prose.  Bleeck^  pronounces  Joel,  Amos, 
Hosea,  ]Micah,  Isaiah,  and  Xahum  poetic,  but  the  language  of  the 
later  prof)hets  entirely  prosaic,  as  partly  in  Jeremiah  and  still  more 
in  Ezekiel,  Zechariah,  Ilaggai,  and  Malachi.  The  attempt  to  prove 
from  such  authorities  that  the  prevailing  style  of  the  projihets  is 
l)oetic,  would  be  as  futile  as  was  that  of  Thcopomitus  Avho  though 
he  sharply  reprehends  those  who  believed  that  the  Pythian  oracles 
were  not  delivered  altogether  in  verse,  yet  when  he  labours  to 
make  good  his  assertion,  is  able  to  produce  but  very  few  instances 

1  Home's  Introduction,  10th  ed.,  vol.  ii. 

2  R-v.  .Tolin  Jobb's  Sacred  Literature  ;    Boys'  Tactica  Sacra;  Dr.  Forbi's'  Sym- 
metrical Structure  of  Scripture. 

3  Lect.  xix.  and  xxi. 

4  Introduction  to  0.   T.,  ^.29,  33.    Keil  (Elnl.  \.  B.)  excludes   the   prophets 
from  liis  list  of  the  poetical  books. 

5  Introduction  to  0.  T.,  vol.  ii. 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

in  comparison  of  those  that  were  uttered  in  prose.i     Let  us,  more- 
over, mark  the  following  particulars  : 

1.  The  words  and  phrases  which  are  thought  to  be  peculiar  to 
the  poetic  diction  are  less  numerous  in  the  Proi^hets  than  in  the 
Psalms.2  This  is  admitted  even  by  those  who  decide  what  words 
and  phrases  are  f)oetic  with  an  uncritical  degree  of  positiveness.  In 
our  own  language  there  are  some  words  that  have  been  too  dog- 
matically claimed  as  sacred  to  poetry,  e.  g.,  the  adverb  ere.  The 
remains  of  the  Hebrew  literature  are  so  scanty,  and  the  nature  of  He- 
brew poetry  is  so  vaguely  defined,  that  the  critic  who  declares  that 
the  prophets  habitually  employed  poetic  words  and  phrases  ad- 
vances, as  it  would  seem,  an  unscholarly  assumption. 

1.  The  strophes,  so  called,  which  are  foimd  in  the  prophets,  are 
very  uncritically  so  denominated.  Except  in  original  or  borrowed 
poetry  quoted  by  the  prophets,  we  do  not  find  any  stanzas  that  de- 
serve the  name ;  for  something  more  than  a  refrain  or  burden  is 
essential  to  a  strophe.  This,  as  we  find  it  in  the  prophetic  speeches, 
is  a  mere  rhetorical  repetition,  such  as  is  nearly  as  natural  to  the 
impassioned  orator  as  it  is  to  the  poet. 

3.  Once  more ;  the  prophetic  style  admits  of  the  quotation  of 
poetic  lines  either  borrowed  or  original,  as  already  hinted,  and  the 
interspersion  of  plain  historic  statements ;  neither  of  which  is 
allowable  in  Hebrew  poetry.  Though  Ewald  does  not  rank  the 
projDhets  among  the  Hebrew  poets,  yet  he  would  lift  the  prophetic 
style  above  the  level  of  that  of  oratory ;  but  is,  after  all,  compelled  to 
acknowledge  that  this  style  has  certain  distinctive  qualities.  "  It  is," 
he  says,  "  on  the  one  hand,  too  elevated  in  its  subject  and  its  rano-e 
to  sink  down  mto  common  prose  "  (although  it  does  so  sink,  as  he 
concedes,  in  Ezekiel  from  the  40th  chap,  to  48th,  and  elsewhere), 
"  but,  on  the  other  hand,  its  object  is  too  directly  and  completely  that 
of  practical  life  for  it  to  retire  into  anything  so  remote  as  the  strictly 
poetical  form.  Consequently  it  fluctuates  between  the  two  in  such 
a  way  that  as  to  its  inclination  and  endeavour,  it  everywhere  strug- 
gles upward  to  the  height  of  poetry,  while  for  its  expression,  it 
makes  use  of  freer  and  more  usual  terms,  both  that  it  may  be  more 
directly  practical,  and  also  not  lose  the  proper  fulness  and  flexibility 
of  oratory.  From  the  fusion  of  these  two  elements  is  produced 
that  peculiar  form  which  prophecy  has  appropriated  to  itself 
Wherein  it  differs  from   strict  poetry  may  be  felt  more   distinctly 


1  Plutarch's  Morals  ;  Dialogue  on  the  question,  Why  the  Pytbia  has  ceased  to 
deliver  her  oracles  in  verse  1 

2  Die  Propheten  des  Alten  Bundes,  von  Heinrich  Ewald,  vol.  i.,  p.  46. 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

when  the  two  come  into  immediate  contact,  as  they  do  in  the  second 
and  third  chapters  of  Ilahakkuk."  The  same  author,  even  wliile 
lie  is  subjecting  tlie  free  prophetic  eloquence  to  his  arbitrary 
prosody,  is  candid  enough  to  allow  that  the  prophetic  poetry  "  is 
distinguished  by  the  fluctuating  of  the  rhythm,  by  its  alternations 
between  great  strength  and  great  beauty  of  sentiment,  and  es- 
pecially by  a  verse  rhythm  that  admits  of  longer  lines  and  more 
extended  and  more  multiform  stanzas."^  De  Wette,^  an  earlier 
authority,  is  uncommonly  correct  when  he  says  that "  as  the  prophets 
are  rather  orators  than  poets,  so  their  rhythm  is  usually  distinguish- 
ed from  that  of  lyric  poetry  by  the  use  of  longer  periods/'  On 
such  a  question  the  learned  Jews  also  certainly  deserve  a  hearing ; 
the  Rabbms  have  given  poetical  accents  to  only  three  of  the  sacred 
books,  namely,  the  Psalms,  the  Proverbs,  and  Job.^  In  the  proph- 
etic books  the  poetic  matter  is  always  in  the  form  of  the  lyric  or 
ode ;  and  mdeed  all  primitive  verse  apj^ears  to  have  been  composed 
solely  with  a  view  to  its  easy  and  eiFective  utterance  in  song. 

"Granting,"  it  is  further  insisted,  "that  the  projihets  were  not 
poetic  in  diction  and  in  structure,  were  they  not,  after  all,  very 
poetic  in  their  ideas,  modes  of  conception,  and  the  use  they  made 
of  the  imagination  ?"  This  is  a  question  which  men  of  taste  are  inces- 
santly answering,  and  will  perhaps  go  on  answering  forever,  at  least 
to  their  own  satisfaction.  Thus  much,  however,  is  tolerably  clear,  that, 
subjectively  speaking,  the  poet  is  a  creator  working  m  a  region 
above  that  of  the  knowable,  and  that,  therefore,  the  only  philosoph- 
ical antithesis  is  between  poetry  and  science.'*  According  to  this 
criterion  Hebrew  prophecy  is  not  poetry ;  for  it  reveals  the  primary 
elements  of  true  theology ;  the  prophets  are  promulgers  of  matters  of 
fact  concerning  God  and  man,  and  having  furnished  the  daia  of  theis- 
tic  speculations,  are  to  be  regarded  as  "  our  masters  in  the  school 
of  highest  reason."^  "But,"  it  will  be  demanded,  "  is  there  not,  as  in 
all  poetry ,''  so  in  Hebrew  prophecy,  a  peculiar  richness  and  arbitrari- 
ness m  the  imagery?"  Ti-ue,  the  genius  of  the  .Occident  is  taught 
to   pronounce  the  imaginative   combinations  of  the  old  Hebrews 

1  Die  Propheten  des  Alten  Bundes,  vol.  i ,  pp.  49-50. 

2  Die  Ileilifre  Scrift.  des  Alten  und  Neuen  Tcstament.s. 

3  Kcil  (Eiiil.  A.  T.)  includes  also  Canticles,  Lamentations,  and  Ecclesiastes 
among  the  poetical  books. 

4  Wordsworth's  Note  to  Observations,  prefixed  to  bis  Lyrical  Ballaids  ;  Prof. 
David  ALnsson's  Essaj's,  biographical  and  critical,  p.  i'J.0. 

5  Isaac  Taylor's  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  chap.  xii. 
6Ma8Son,  ut  supra,  p.  464. 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

almost  excessive  and  lawless ;  yet,  let  us  give  good  heed  to  this 
one  peculiarity  of  the  prophetic  imagmation,  that,  unlike  the  merely 
poetic,  it  is  never  intent  on  our  pleasure,  but  always  eager  for  our 
ethical  and  spiritual  improvement.  Isaac  Taylor,^  speaking  of  this 
entire  subordination  of  the  ideal  to  the  practical  in  Isaiah,  and  in 
opposition  to  those  who  aver  that  his  predictive  faculty  was  a  mere 
poetic  mspiration,  says  with  force  and  exactitude :  "  This  hypoth- 
esis does  not  consist  with  the  facts  in  view.  As  often  as  he  touches 
themes  that  are  the  most  awakenmg  to  poetic  feeling,  Isaiah  (and 
the  same  is  true  of  his  brethren)  is  brief,  and  seems  in  haste  to  quit 
the  ground  on  which  he  has  set  foot  for  a  moment."  .  .  .  .  "  How 
much  more  than  a  poet  is  this  prophet !"  How  much  more  than  a 
poem  is  a  sermon  ! 

Should  the  objector,  unwilling  to  part  with  his  favourite  opmions 
as  to  the  distmctive  qualities  of  poetry  and  oratory,  still  mauitam 
that,  in  his  judgment,  the  greater  part  of  the  Hebrew  prophecies  is 
poetry,  we  may  nevertheless  be  permitted  to  add  that  these  are 
not  the  only  mspired  models  that  we  ask  him  to  contemplate  ;  and 
that  if  the  prophets  are  poets,  he  ought  m  justice  to  himself,  as  a 
student  of  sacred  rhetoric,  to  imbue  his  mmd  with  their  varied  and 
matchless  songs.  Cicero,  Quintilian,^  and  other  classic  authorities 
recommend  the  orator  to  cultivate  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  the 
j)oets. 

But  when,  asks  the  impatient  reader,  will  you  have  done  refuting 
objections  ?  Is  it  not  ^j>/-w«a  facie  evidence  against  your  theory 
that  it  raises  so  many  difficulties?  By  his  favour  we  answer,  that 
several  of  these  difficulties  have  already  been  raised  by  learned  men 
with  whom  the  writer  has  talked  on  this  subject,  or  whose  writings 
he  has  read,  and  that  these  objections  proceed,  he  is  convinced, 
from  the  strength  of  other  men's  prepossessions  more  than  from  the 
weakness  of  his  own  positions.  This  assertion  may  strike  some  as 
too  bold,  and  others  as  totally  unwarranted  by  facts — but  we  are 
not  now  up  for  hostile  examination ;  we  only  challenge  the  reader 
to  that  free  and  well-willed  discussion  without  which  no  new  and 
unconsidered  theory,  however  sound  and  important,  ought  to  be 
received.  Gladly,  however,  would  we  here  lay  aside  the  weapons 
of  refutation. 

But  another  objector  is  stalking  out  against  us,  saying :  "  The  in- 
spired preachers  were  predictors.     Their  survey  of  the  future  and 

1  Ut  supra. 

2Quintilian,  B.  x  ,  chap,  i,  sec.  27-30;  B.  v,  chap,  xi,,  sec.  39;  Cicero  cle 
Oratore,  B.  i.,  chap,  xvi.,  xxsiv. 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

tlie  successive  visions  -which  were  pictured  on  the  broad  eye  of 
tlieir  imau'ination  necessitated  a  corresponding  elevation,  even  an 
oracular  <liirnity  of  style  which,  were  it  possible  for  him  to  adopt 
it,  would  ill  become  the  modern  uninspired  preacher."' 

Here  it  should  be  considered  that  the  words  rendered  prophet  m 
the  received  version  have,  m  the  original  Scriptures,  a  less  restrict- 
ed signification — ''  But  you  are  threatening  us  with  a  logomachy." 
Be  as  little  alarmed,  peaceable  reader,  as  the  matter  really  de- 
mands. Far  from  this  is  our  foremost  intention,  "We  only  desire 
the  objector  to  remember  that  the  primary  and  more  common 
meaning  of  the  Hebrew  JS^abi,  and  the  Greek  PropJietcs  is  not  that 
of  foreteller,  but  of  one  who  speaks  in  the  name  and  with  the 
authority  of  God  ;  to  remember  also  that  much  of  the  written  re- 
mains of  the  prophets  does  not,  in  any  strict  sense  belong  to  predic- 
tion ;  while  such  parts  of  them  as  are  really  predictive,  are  blended 
with  promises  and  threatenings,  nari-atives  and  precepts,  arguments 
and  consolations,  persuasives  and  dissuasives,  as  well  as  prayers  and 
praises.  These  things  we  may  take  as  facts,^  and  keep  tliem  in 
mind  without  disparaging,  in  the  least,  the  predictions  which  form 
the  sul)ject  matter  of  many  of  the  Hebrew  sermons,  and  which 
should  be  thoroughly  studied  by  reason  of  their  great  value  in  a 
rhetorical  point  of  view. 

Yes,  in  a  rlietorioal  point  of  view ;  for  though  the  Cliristian  can- 
not claim  vaticination  as  one  of  his  gifts  and  offices,  yet  can  it  be 
questioned  that  his  mind  looks  into  a  clearer  and  remoter  future 
than  was  commonly  jderceil  by  the  ken  of  the  Hebrew  preacher  ? 
Jesus,  l)y  bringing  innnortality  to  light,  has  given  the  freest  scope  to 
the  farsightedness  of  the  human  imagination.  Dr.  Manton  was  of 
opinion  that  the  true  ministers  of  his  time  were  more  properly  the 
Christian  lathers,  because  they  stood  on  their  shoulders,  and  were 
j)ermitted  a  wider  prospect  in  several  directions  than  those  early 
preachers  enjoyed.  To  the  same  purpose  wrote  Spener  concernuig 
Luther:  "  When  a  dwarf,"  says  he,  *'  stands  upon  the  shoulders  of  a 
giant,  he  owes  liis  commanding  view  to  the  talhiess  of  his  upholder. 
No  wonder,  therefore,  thai  a  common  instructor  who  is  for  inferior 
to  Luther  should  sometimes  see  things  the  great  Reformer  him- 
self did  not  see,  and  which  he  could  not  have  discovered  if 
he  liad  not  been  lifted  u]>  so  high  by  Luther.''  So,  too,  every 
Christian  preacher  that  has  studied  the  whole  body  of  Hebrew 
pr()i)hecy  has  jirobably  broculer  views  of  the  future  than  any  one 
of  those  prct|)hets  was  vouchsafed,   not  even    excepting  the   last 


1  Rev.  J.  Davison  on  Prophecy,  pp.  34-67. 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

of  them,  unless   the  last  was  versed  in  all   the    i^ermanent   pro- 
phetic writmgs  that  existed  in  his  time.     Our  divme  Master,  by  fully 
revealing  the  immortaUty  of  the  soul,  and  eternal  rewards  and  pen- 
alties, has   lifted  us  up  and  set  us  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  pro- 
l^hets,  and  has  thus  given  us  the  largest  possible  views  of  the  future. 
Not  only  are  our  visions  of  the  future  broader  and  longer,  but  they 
are   more  affectmg   also.     The   Hebrew  preacher  could   only  set 
before  his  hearers  rewards  and  penalties  that  were  either  wholly  or 
mostly  temporal;  and  whenever  he  foretold  temporal  blessings  and 
judgments  that  were  not  to  descend  upon  his  auditors  individually, 
but  on  the  nation  in  general,  or  upon  their  posterity,  the  success  of 
such  appeals  to  their  hopes  or  their  fears  depended  in  the  degree  of 
their  love  for  their  country  or  their  posterity.     But  the  Christian 
prophet  exhibits  before  his  congregation  heaven  and  hell,  and  draws 
thence  motives  of  ^the  utmost  momentum.     Can  he  not,  therefore, 
safely  imitate  the  prophetic  style  ?    Whenever  the  Christian  pro- 
phet declares  the  future,  not  of  time  only,  but  of  eternity  as  well, 
and  presses  home  upon  each  heart  an  endless  hereafter  as  a  matter 
of  personal  immediate  and  supreme  concern,  the  elevation,  the  fer- 
vour, the  energy,  and  the  pathos  which  became  the  Hebrew  predic- 
tor, he  ought  certamly  to  equal  and  if  possible  to  surpass. 

An   error  very  common  and  influential  is  that  we  have  m  holy 
Scripture  the  principal  utterances  of  all  the  prophets,  that  Samuel 
created  the  prophetic  "  order,"  and  that  though  Moses  had  in  the 
law  provided  for  that  "order,"  yet  it  was  not  developed  because 
there  was  then  no  demand  for  it.     But  Enoch,  Noah,  and  Abraham, 
it  should  be  remembered,  were  prophets,  and  that  in  the  days  of 
Ahab,  a  hundred  of  them  were  hid  in  two  caves  by  Obadiah,  to 
say  nothing  of  those  who  were  martyred  by  Jezebel,  and  of  those 
who,  like  Elijah  escaped,  and  ran  for  refuge  to  distant  mountains. 
Let  any  German  scholar  prove,  if  he  can,  that  all  these  did  not 
speak  from  mspiration,  and  did  not  occasionally  predict.     If  they 
differed  a,t  all  from  those  whose  writings  have  come  down  to  us,  was  it 
not  in  this  that  their  predictions  concerned  none  but  theu-  hearers 
or  contemporaries  ?     Presumption  favours  this  view.     There  is  no 
good  reason  to  suppose  that  the  extant  writings  of  Jeremiah,  or 
Ezekiel  or  those  of  any  other  prophet  of  the  Old  Testament  com- 
prised all  of  their  prophesymgs.     Why  then  did  these  prophets 
write  ?    It  seems  probable  that  the  Holy  Spirit  moved  them  to 
commit  to  writing  such  of  their  utterances,  and  only  such,  as  are  of 
universal  application  and  in  their  ultimate  sense  concerned  subse- 
quent ages,  and  as  would  by  their  fulfillment  be  striking  evidences 
of  the  reality  of  the  perfections  and  revelations  of  God.    But  in 


24  INTRODUCTION. 

whatever  way  we  account  for  these  things,  we  may  take  it  as  an  un- 
deniable fact  that  those  proplietic  writintrs  which  are  not  predictive, 
have  a  great  rhetorical  value,  Ijecause  they  enahle  us  to  form  just 
conceptions  of  the  nature  of  the  more  usual  and  ordinary  sermons 
of  the  unwriting  prophets  from  the  time  of  P^noch  to  the  day  of  the 
death  of  John  the  Baptist 

"We  conclude,  therefore,  that  it  is  inexact  to  term  the  prophets 
mere  predictors,  but  that  even  when  they  spoke  as  such  they  may 
properly  be  imitated  by  Christian  ministers  in  their  virtual  fore- 
showings. 

"  But  were  not  the  prophets  frequently  called  to  utter  reproofs 
and  denunciations,  even  to  imprecate  curses?  Would  not  the  at- 
tempt to  adopt  these  comminations  and  uj^braidmgs  have  a  tendency 
to  overcloud  the  spirit,  to  embitter  the  temper,  in  short,  to  make 
ministers  gloomy  misanthropes  ?  " 

This  objection  is  very  specious  when,  as  is  often  the  case,  it  pre- 
supposes that  Elijah  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  fair  sample  of  all  the 
j)rophets  in  this  respect.  But  it  should  be  recollected  that  he 
prophesied  in  the  worst  times,  and  was  sent  of  Jehovah  to  attack 
the  idolatry  which  Jezebel  and  Ahab  supported  in  apostate  Israel. 
His  first  prediction  of  a  judgment,  severe  as  it  was,  harmonized 
with  the  threatening  of  the  Law.^  It  ought  likewise  to  be  kept  in 
mind  that  neither  Elijah,  nor  John  the  Baptist,  nor  any  other  of  the 
true  prophets  launched  these  denunciations  in  their  own  name,  or 
from  the  impulses  of  malice  and  uncharitableness.  Moses,  Jere- 
miah, and  Ezekiel  certainly  did  not  desire  to  behold  the  miseries 
which  they  predicted.  All  the  prophets,  in  so  far  as  they  were  her- 
alds of  God's  judgment,  felt  the  weight  of  approaching  woe  as  a 
"  burden."  Of  all  these  holy  men  Jonah  alone  entertahied  any  com- 
placency in  view  of  what  seemed  to  him  the  inevitable  execution 
of  a  divine  penalty;  and  even  he  appears  to  have  believed  that  the 
veracity  of  God  demanded  that  the  Ninevites  should  be  uncon- 
ditionally destroyed. 

Besides,  little  as  we  may  think  of  it,  this  objection,  if  valid  against 
the  Hebrew  prophets,  is  equally  valid  against  the  Hellenistic 
prophets.  "  Can  any  one,"  says  George  Gilfillan,  "  wonder  at 
EzekieVs  burdens,  who  has  read  the  23d  chapter  of  Matthew  ?  The 
spirit  of  Jude  and  'Id  Peter  is  essentially  the  same  with  the  lOOlh 
and  137th  Psalms;  and  never  be  it  forgotten  that  the  most  fearful 
denunciations  of  sin  and  pictures  of  future  punishment  in  8crii)ture 
came  from  the  lips  of  Jesus  and  of  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved. 

1 1  Kings  xvii.  1 ;  Deut.  xi.  16,  17 ;  xxviii.  23,  24 ;  Levit.  xxvi.  19. 


INTRODUCTION.  25 

It  is  in  the  New  Testament,  not  the  Old,  that  that  sentence  of 
direst  and  deepest  import  occurs  :  "  It  is  a  fearful  thing  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  living  God."  The  Bible  is  one,  and  the  unity  of 
the  Divine  Spirit  may  be  proved  from  that  oneness.  The  triumph- 
ant defence  of  all  the  sacred  writers  is  their  plenary  inspiration : 
and  it  is  just  because  post-apostolic  ministers  do  not  speak  directly 
from  Grod  that  they  have  no  warrant  to  utter  any  other  denuncia- 
tions than  those  they  find  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  those  that 
are  either  impUed  in,  or  deducible  from  them,  for  the  correction  of 
modern  nations  and  classes  of  men  that  commit  the  oldest  sins  in 
the  newest  forms. 

But  if  we  look  into  this  matter  a  little  more  closely,  we  find  that 
the  difiiculty  in  question  would  be  easily  obviated,  if  students  would 
only  examine  these  minatory  texts  in  the  light  of  their  connections. 
The  prophet  speaks  just  as  the  Psalmist  sings,  "  of  mercy  and  judg- 
ment," always  beholding  both  sitting  together  on  one  equal  throne 
in  the  heart  of  God,  uniting  or  disjoinmg  their  respective  messages 
to  men  according  to  the  demands  of  the  divine  government  and  of 
human  character  and  conduct,  the  one  chastising  disobedience,  and 
the  other  shielding  against  despair,  but,  after  all,  rejoicing  against 
judgment  in  -behalf  of  God's  adopted  and  beloved  children,  and 
ofiering  pardon  to  rebels,  while  judgment  visits  final  retribution  on 
all  such  as  despise  the  proffers  and  terms  of  mercy.  These  are,  in- 
deed, the  merest  outlines  of  the  seer's  jjicture ;  as  to  the  details  of 
light,  and  shade,  and  shadow,  of  colours  and  tints,  from  the  most 
cheerful  to  the  most  sombre,  the  more  they  are  studied  the  more 
ought  they  to  be  admired.  Nothing,  accordingly,  can  be  more 
worthy  of  following  than  the  way  the  prophets  mingle  tender 
and  pathetic  passages  with  their  reproofs  and  imprecations.  Jere- 
miah, for  example,  was  compelled  through  forty  eventful  years  to 
stand  as  a  fenced  brazen  wall  against  his  people,  and  yet  how  tear- 
fully compassionate  are  many  of  his  expressions.^  Our  Lord,  like- 
wise, after  denouncing  eight  woes  against  the  Jews,  concludes  with 
that  most  affecting  lamentation,  "  O,  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,"  etc.2 
This  is  neither  the  manner  of  the  classic  orators  nor  of  modern 
public  accusers. 

To  this  should  be  subjoined  the  fact  that  the  prophets  inspire  us 
with  confidence  in  the  future,  and  in  the  ultimate  triumphs  of  all 
good  begmnings,  however  feeble  and  assailed.    It  has  been  justly  and 


1  Jer.  ix.  1 ;  x.  23-25 ;   xv.  10,  17 ;  xvii.  16. 

2  Matt,  xxiii ;  cf.  Dr.  Fairbaira's  Revelation  of  Law  in  Scripture,  pp.  356-364, 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

happily  remarkotl  by  Isaac  Taylor,i  tliat  the  prophets,  as  men  of 
hope  are  the  masters  of  moden  thouglit ;  for  it  is  they  who  have 
suggested,  and  have  supplied  the  text  for  those  forcastings  of  the 
destiny  of  nations  which,  m  these  times  especially,  have  been  i)rcva- 
lent  in  the  writings,  not  of  divines  merely,  but  of  philosophers. 
We  all,  in  these  days  of  great  movements,  have  learned  to  think 
hopefully  of  every  philanthropic  enterprise ;  and  our  teachers  in 
this  lino  have  been  "  the  goodly  fellowship  of  the  prophets."  .  .  . 
"  Certain  luminous  passages  of  theirs  have  been  made  use  of  to  jezcel 
the  machinery  of  modern  society.  .  .  .  This  catholic  mood  of  hope- 
fulness has  been  derived  much  more  from  the  Hebrew  than  from  the 
Christian  Scriptures."  Thus  Isaiah  generally  mixes  his  denuncia- 
tions with  promises,  while  the  last  twenty-seven  chapters  of  his 
book  are  aglow  with  almost  imshadowed  hopefulness.-  So,  too, 
Jeremiah  is  never  so  sad  as  to  abandon  himself  to  total  despair ;  even 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  dismal  captivity  of  its  inhabitants 
do  not  prevent  him  from  speaking  words  of  encouragement  to  his 
brethren.^  Ezekiel  is  not  less  hopeful,  and,  like  Isaiah,  vrinds  up 
his  prophecies  with  glimpses  of  Messianic  times  and  visions  of  the 
Xew  Jerusalem.  Not  with  any  fairness  can  they  be  called  mere 
heralds  of  evil  and  haters  of  their  kind,  who  can  thus  fling  golden 
(fUn-glances  of  hoj)e  through  the  heaviest  clouds  of  despair,  and  close 
many  a  temi^estuous  day  of  dolor  with  the  gorgeous  sunset  of  re- 
turning blessedness. 

Only  one  objector  remains — one  Avho  protests  against  the  use  of 
the  Hebrew  oracles  on  the  ground  of  their  obscurity  and  vague- 
ness. But  it  is  only  the  predictive  portions  of  them  that  can  be 
regarded  as  objectionably  dark,  and  these  are  reducible  to  obscuri- 
ty either  of  matter,  or  of  style,  or  of  both.  As  for  the  matter,  it 
was,  perhaps,  the  divine  intention  that  each  prediction  should  be 
rudimental,  or,  at  any  rate,  incomplete,  yet  a  part  of  a  series  of 
progressive  revelations  in  suchwise  that  man's  vision  might  not  be 
dazzled  by  a  light  too  concentrated  and  intensified.  "Wrongly, 
therefore,  do  we  blame  the  silver  dawnings  of  prophecy  because 
they  are  not  the  golden  noontides  of  history.  And  to  refuse  to 
study  these  prophecies  because  we  do  not  know  when,  where,  and 
how  they  are  fulfilled,  is  much  as  if  avc  refrained  from  hearing  a 
sermon  for  the  reason  that  the  preacher  did  not  choose  to  tell  us 
the  nimiber,  the  names,  and  the  addresses  of  those  for  whom  the 
application  was  intended.    Another  thing,  if  this  objection  is  allowed 

1  The  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetrj',  chap.  xi. 

2  Isa.  i.  18-20;  ii.  2-6  ;  vi.  1.3;  vii.  14-16  ;  ix.  1,  2;  vi.  7;  x.  20-22,  etc.  ; 
chaps.  40-66.        3  Jer.  xxvi.  27,  28. 


INTRODUCTION. 


27 


to  prevail,  it  will  advance  to  fight  up  against  that  tower  of  Chris- 
tion  prediction  which  looks  towards  eternity ;  to  say  nothino-  of 
every  work  of  genius  the  mystery  of  which  is  the  excellency  of 
its  power.i  And  if  it  comes  to  that,  we  must  seal  the  scrolls  of 
Creation  by  reason  of  such  of  their  meanings  as  are  ascertainably 
hid ;  and  stop  our  ears  to  all  the  questions  of  Providence,  on  the 
plea  that  for  many  of  them  we  have  no  answer.  Or,  agam,  is  it  said 
that  their  style,  particularly  their  figures,  are  of  the  region  of  the 
mist  ?  Eemember,  we  rejoin,  that  both  Jesus  and  his  prophets  con- 
fessedly used  that  kind  and  measure  of  perspicuity  which  at  the 
same  time  shows  to  believers  new  journeys  along  the  highway  of 
holiness,  and  to  unbelievers  some  untrodden  turn  in  the  criss-cross 
and  devious  paths  of  sin.  These  figures  are,  therefore,  tests  of  the 
heart's  grace  rather  than  trials  of  the  intellect's  cunning  such  as 
the  riddle  of  the  sj^hinx  was  to  CEdipus.  Does  any  one  say  that 
none  of  these  answers  overcomes  his  difficulties  ?  Then  let  him 
return  to  the  outset  and  survey  those  interspaces  of  prophecy  Avhich 
are  not  predictive.  There  will  he  find  many  an  address  that  is 
lucid  enough  for  rhetorical  instruction,  and  that  is,  beyond  question, 
contributory  to  real  eloquence. 

But  as  it  is  high  time  this  refutation  were  ended,  the  writer  will 
only  add  a  few  sentences  concerning  the  source  and  beginning  of  this 
system.  Its  chief  peculiarities  are  the  fruit  of  endeavours  to  answer 
the  question  which  he  had  often  and  thoughtfully  asked  himself: 
What  manner  of  preaching  has  the  most  direct  tendency  to  Chris- 
tianise any  poor,  ignorant,  common  man  ?  This  question  ignored  all 
thoughts  respecting  popularity  and  congregations,  whether  large  or 
small,  that  are  made  up  of  kindred  minds  attracted  together  out  of 
many  thousands.  It  regarded  these  as  extraneous  considerations. 
To  learn  how  the  writer  answered  this  question,  how  the  light 
gradually  dawned  upon  his  mind,  after  what  nights,  and  through 
what  clouds,  would  be  of  small  interest  to  most  readers.  Thus 
much,  however,  he  should  divulge,  that  some  three  years  after  he  had 
conceived,  and  in  part  executed  this  work,  he  met  Avith  those  golden 
words  of  John  Livingstone,  which  so  happily  sum  up  his  own  that 
he  has  adopted  them  as  his  motto.  This  great  Scottish  preacher 
of  the  seventeenth  century  Avas  the  first,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows, 
to  catch  a  true  glimpse  of  the  theory  of  sacred  oratory.  He  did 
not,  indeed,  vrrite  many  sentences,  and  never,  it  would  seem,  con- 
templated any  treatise  on  the  subject.  Only  one  of  his  addresses 
has   come   down   to   us;    but  that  is  very  precious,  as  it  aifords 


1  E.g.  Uhland's  Verlorene  Kirche  and  our  own  Spencer's  and  million's  best  poems. 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

somcthincj  liko  a  frac^mentary  example  of  liis  idea.  It  contains  sev- 
eral similitudes  of  his  own,  from  wliich  and  other  peculiarities  we 
may  infer  that  be  considered  the  sermons  of  the  Divine  Teacher  as 
proper  oljjects  of  intelligent  imitation.  But  what  is  far  Letter,  he 
evidently  felt  that  he  must  imitate  the  piety  if  he  would  success- 
fully imitate  the  preaching  of  the  Master  of  the  prophets ;  for  we 
have  accounts  of  his  praying  all  night  more  than  once,  and  of  a  sin- 
gle sermon  which  after  one  of  those  nights  of  prayer  awakened  five 
hundred  souls  at  the  kirk  of  Shotts.^  To  find  the  footprints  of 
such  a  man  on  the  pathless  island  was  very  encouraging. 

The  writer  must,  in  justice  to  himself,  add  that  he  has  sought 
truth  and  utility  rather  than  a  reputation  for  uncommon  originality 
From  Looks  without  nuniLer,  and  many  of  them  most  unpromising, 
he  has  derived  valuaLle  suggestions  and  maxims.^  The  materials 
for  a  system  of  sacred  rhetoric  have  Leen  slowly  accumulating 
from  the  day  that  Moses  first  opened  his  mouth  and  j)roj)hesied 
amidst  the  wilds  of  AraLia ;  and  they  are  the  most  trustworthy 
writers  on  this  suLject,  who,  having  Leen  guided  Ly  the  Lest  con- 
sidered plans,  have  ransacked  those  materials  most  deeply  on  all 
sides,  and  selected  therefrom  the  most  judiciously.  Other  (jualifica- 
tions  Leing  equal,  they  are  the  safest  teachers  of  the  present  who 
are  the  most  largely  indeLted  to  the  Lest  instructors  of  the  past. 
"As  one  country,"  says  George  IlerLert,  "  doth  not  Lear  all  things, 
that  there  may  Le  commerce  ;  so  neither  hath  God  opened,  or  will 
open,  all  to  one,  that  there  may  Le  a  traffic  in  knowh'dge  Lctv.eeu 
the  servants  of  God,  for  the  pljuiting  Loth  of  love  and  humility."' 
5L 

1  Select  Biographies,  edited  by  the  Wotliow  Society,  vol.  i.,  pp.  138,  144,  104- 
212,  287. 

2  Bibliographers  will  not  scorn  to  learn  that  the  method  and  bulk  of  the  matter 
of  this  work,  and  the  composition  of  the  first  book  were  produced  as  early  as  the 
end  of 18C2. 


BOOK  I. 


INSPIRATION 


OE, 


THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  DIVINE  SPIRIT  IN  PREACHING. 


This  system  of  Christian  Rhetoric  begins  with  the  principle  that 
Invention,  Style  and  Delivery  owe  their  proj^er  life  and  efficacy  to 
such  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  quickens,  directs  and  enlightens  the 
heart  and  intellect  of  the  preacher.  This  pi-incij^le,  in  all  its  prac- 
tical bearings,  it  is  the  object  of  the  First  Book  to  elucidate  and  dis- 
cuss=  It  is  here  taken  for  granted  that  the  jDreacher  is  regenerated 
and  advancing  in  grace  and  in  the  knowledge  of  Christ,  It  is  like- 
wise presupposed  that  he  will  look  elsewhere  for  answers  to  his 
questions  concerning  plenary  inspiration,  a  subject  which — as  he 
has  to  bear  in  mind — is  here  investigated  only  so  far  as  it  is  related 
to  that  of  partial  inspiration. 

To  the  reader  who  passes  by  the  First  Book  the  remainder  will 
probably  prove  injurious.  The  habit  of  regarding  sermons  as  mere 
works  of  art,  is  hardening  both  to  preacher  and  hearer ;  making 
the  former  an  iron  automaton  that  speaks  mechanically;  the 
latter  a  leviathan  to  which  "sling-stones  become  stubble."  The 
question  of  questions  is:  Dost  thou  O,  Spirit  of  Life,  deny,  or  dost 
thou  vouchsafe  thy  gracious  presence  ?  For  without  Thee  the 
greatest  of  our  sermons  will  be  but  little  better  than  the  Fisherman's 
sword,  or  the  Son  of  Thunder's  prayer  for  lightning ;  but  with  Thee, 
the  smallest  of  our  preachments  will  be  an  authentic  successor  of 
the  apostle  Peter's  Pentecost  sermon,  and  thus  mightily  serve  to 
fulfill  the  Patmos  visions  of  St.  John  the  Divine.  Enable  us  then, 
first  of  all,  to  answer  this  life-and-death  question. 

29 


CHAPTER  I. 

SOME  ACCOUn  OF  PARTIAL  INSPmATIOJs\  AND  ITS  EFFECTS  OX  THE 

WILL. 

Partial  or  homiletical  inspiration  is  that  assistance  of  the  Divine 
Spirit  wliich  our  Lord  promised  to  his  mmisters  in  the  apostolical 
commission.!  Different  it  widely  and  obviously  is  from  that  rhet- 
orical afflatus2  of  some  god  or  demon,  under  which  many  ancient 
orators  were,  it  was  believed,  moved  to  speak  with  superhuman 
eloquence;  but  it  is  less  easily  distinguished  from  that  plenary 
inspiration  which  was  given  to  the  prophets  and  apostles ;  partly 
because  homiletical  inspiration  has  not  yet  finished  its  work,  and 
consequently  cannot  furnish  us  with  full  evidence  as  to  its  distinc- 
tive qualities  and  sphere. 

The  knowledge  of  the  Divine  Spirit  is  progressive,  as  the 
knowledge  of  Immanuel  was.  The  Son  of  God  revealed  his  divine 
nature  to  his  disciples  but  dimly  at  first,  because  their  eyes  were 
not  yet  attempered  to  the  blaze  of  his  full  divinity.  It  was  not 
mitil  after  his  glorious  ascension  that  they  were  all  brought  to  com- 
prehend the  great  truth  that  he  who  sojourned  among  them  as  son 
of  man,  was  God,  manifest  in  the  flesh.  And  quite  as  unworthy  of 
the  dignity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  are  the  views  held  by  not  a  few  at 
this  day  respecting  him,  as  the  notions  entertained  by  some  of  the 
primitive  disciples  concerning  their  Divine  Master  were  unworthy  of 
his  dignity.  Taking,  as  the  Holy  Ghost  condescends  to  do,  the  last 
place  in  the  apostolic  benediction  and  in  the  work  of  redemption, 
many  of  us,  it  is  to  be  feared,  give  him  the  last  place  also  in  our  studies 
and  adorations.  The  Divine  Spirit  may,  however,  adopt  the  lan- 
STuaace  of  Immanuel :  "  The  works  that  I  do  bear  witness  of  me." 
And  let  us  hope  that  as  the  years  of  redemption  apj^roach  their 
close,  His  character,  attributes  and  offices  will  be  better  understood 
and  more  genei-ally  known  and  acknowledged.     The  day,  we  be- 

1  Matt,  xxviii.  19,  20 ;  cf.  Acts  xxvi.  18. 

2  Plato's  Menon  ;  Aristides,  contra  Platonem  ;  Longinus,  Da  Sublim.,  C.  16  ;  Plu- 
tarch, Life  of  Coriolanus ;  Cicero  De  Orat.,  L.  2,  C.  46 ;  Infra,  chap.  iv. 

31 


32  PARTIAL  IXSPIRATION; 

lieve,  is  coming;  when  his  victories  and  trophies  and  triumphs  will 
greatly  confirm  the  Scripture  testimony  as  to  Ilim,  and  cause  multi- 
tudes in  all  nations  to  esteem  Him  deserving  of  no  subordinate 
dignity  and  honour. 

The  operations  of  the  Holy  Spirit  may  be  termed  general  and 
special ;  general  as  in  creating  and  preserving  the  universe  ;^  special, 
as  in  regeneration  and  sanctification,  in  raising  from  the  dead  the 
bodies  of  the  saints,  in  working  miracles,  in  the  bestowment  of 
"  spiritual  gifts,"  and  in  inspiration. 2  The  special  may,  again,  be  di- 
vided into  two  kinds :  those  called  Charis,  Charisma,  Charismata, 
and  those  termed,  more  specifically,  Charismata.  The  former  in- 
cluding the  Grace  of  regeneration,  and  sanctification,  and  glorifica- 
tion; the  latter,  the  Gifts  of  miracle  working,  speaking  with 
tongues,  and  plenary  and  partial  inspiration' — gifts  which  enable 
all  true  prophets  and  preachers  to  discharge  the  duties  of  their 
office — gifts  differing  indeed,  according  to  the  nature  and  end  of 
their  duties,'*  and  yet  distinct  from  those  of  men  that  bear  other 
offices.  To  true  prophets  or  preachers  in  all  ages  the  Divine  Spirit 
has  been  promised  and  granted.  Thus  the  Lord  promised  to  be 
with  the  mouth  of  ^Moses  and  Aaron,^  and  his  Spirit  is  said  to  have 
rested  upon  Eldad  and  Medad.c  One  of  the  seraphim  took  from 
the  altar  a  live  coal,  the  emblem  of  the  Spirit's  power,  and  touched 
therewith  the  lips  of  Isaiah.''  The  Lord  put  forth  his  hand  and 
touched  the  mouth  of  Jeremiah,  and  said  to  him,  "  I  am  with  thee."^ 
The  spirit  of  the  Lord  is  said  to  have  entered  into  Ezekiel.'-^  The 
hand  of  the  Lord  was  upon  Ezra.^"^  The  prophet  Micah,^!  said 
*'  Truly,  I  am  full  of  power  by  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord,  and  of  judg- 
ment, and  of  might,  to  declare  unto  Jacob  his  transgression,  and  to 
Israel  his  sin.''  Zechariah,i-  about  the  same  time,  had  a  vision  of 
two  olive  trees,  whose  oil  fed  the  seven  lamps  on  the  golden  can- 
dclabi'um  of  the  temj)le.  When  the  prophet  asked,  "  What  are 
these  ?  "  the  angel  answered,  "  This  is  the  Avord  of  the  Lord  unto 
Zerubbabel,  saying,  Not  by  might  nor  by  power,  but  by  my  Spirit, 
saith  the  Lord  of  hosts."  This  was  intended  to  show  among  other 
things,  that  as  the  oil  was  necessary  for  the  lamps,  in  order  to  light- 

IQen.  i.2,  26,  27  ;  Tsa.  civ.  30;  Job.  xxvi.  18. 

2  John  iii.  5,  6,  8;   Rom.  xv.  16;  1  Cor.  vi.  11  ;    1  Peter  iii.  18;  Ri>m.  viii.  11  ; 
Matt.  xii.  28  ;  Rom.  xv.  19 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  4-11  ;  2  Tim.  iii.  16  ;  2  Peter  i.  21. 
31  Cor.  viii.  1,  and  chaps.  12,  18,  14  ;    Matt.  vii.  22. 

4  Matt.  XXV.  14-30  ;  Rom.  xii.  4-8.         5  Exoil.  iv.  1.5.        6  Num.  xl.  26-29. 
1 1sa,.  vi.  6,  7.  8  Jer.  i.  5-9.  9  Ezek.  ii.  2.  10  Ezra  vii.  6,  9. 

llMicah  iii.  8.         l^Zecli.  iv.  1-7,  11-14;  vii.  7;  compare  Rev.  ix.  3-12. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  33 

ing  the  temple,  so  the  Divine  Spirit  was  necessary  for  the  prophets, 
in  order  to  the  moral  illumination  of  the  people.  And  accordingly 
when  our  Lord  began  his  jDrophetic  work  at  Nazareth,  he  quoted, 
as  fulfilled  in  himself,  the  words  of  Isaiah,  "  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord 
is  upon  me,  because  he  hath  anointed  me  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
the  poor,"  etc.i  The  apostles  also,  when  they  received  their  com- 
mission from  him,  were  encouraged  by  the  assurance  of  the  con- 
tinual aid  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  these  words,  "  Lo  !  I  am  with  you 
alway,  even  unto  the  end  of  the  world."  2  Agreeably  to  this  view, 
Peter  informs  us  that  he  and  the  other  apostles  "j^reached  the 
Gosj)el  with  the  Holy  Ghost  sent  down  from  heaven."  ^ 

All  these  were  by  the  Divine  Spirit  supplied  with  such  gifts  as 
they  needed  in  doing  the  duties  of  their  prophetic  office.  And  as 
all  true  preaching  is  essentially  prophetic  work,  all  such  men  as  are 
called  of  God  to  preach  the  Gospel,  may  expect  that  peculiar  assist- 
ance from  the  Holy  Ghost  which  their  work  requires.  From  the 
days  of  Enoch  until  now  there  have  been  prophets.4  The  prophet 
was  before  the  priest  and  the  apostle,  was  contemperaneous  with 
both,  and  is  to  continue  until  the  close  of  time. ^  The  jDrojDhet  is 
not,  however,  superior  in  rank  to  the  2">riest  or  to  the  apostle. 
There  is  a  parity  in  these  three  offices,  as  is  apparent  from  the  fact 
that  more  than  one  of  them  has  been  borne  by  the  same  person  at 
the  same  time.  The  prophet  could  bear  the  office  of  the  priest,  as 
Samuel  and  Elijah  did,  or  he  could  be  of  the  priestly  order  as  Jere- 
miah and  Ezekiel  were,  or  like  Immanuel  he  could  be  at  once  pro- 
phet and  priest  and  king.  All  the  apostles  were  prophets,G  and  so 
have  been  all  the  Christian  preachers  that  have  come  after  them,  be- 
cause all  alike  have  been  the  successors  of  Jesus  as  to  his  prophetic  of- 
fice.^  The  prophetic  office  is  one  of  service  and  not  of  dignity.  The 
Christian  prophet  is  a  servant  of  God,  a  servant  of  the  word,  and  a 
servant  of  all  his  brethren.  His  greatness  consists  in  his  humble  and 
faithful  ministrations,  and  not  in  any  rank  man  has  power  to  confer 
upon  him  or  his  office.  But  while  the  office  is  essentially  the  same 
in  all  ages,  its  duties,  not  being  always  equally  imi:)ortant,  do  not 

1  Luke  iv.  16-20  ;  Isa.  Ixi.  1-3  ;    xi.  2. 

2  Matt,  xxviii.  16-20  ;  John  xiv.  16-27  ;  xvl.  7-16.        3  1  Peter  i.  12. 

4  Jude  14;    Hos.  xii.  13  ;  1  Kings  xviii.  4  ;  1  Cor.  xiv.  3  ;  Rev.  x.  11 :   xi.  3. 

5  Isa.  lix.  20,  21  ;  Lxiii.  10-14  ;  Haggai  ii.  5. 

6  Eph.  ii.  20;  iii.   5;  Matt,  xxiii.   34;  Luke  xi.  49;  Rev.  x.  7,  11;  xvi.  6; 
xviii.  20 ;  xxii.  9.  • 

7  John  XX.  21  ;  Matt.  x.  40;  2  Cor.  ii.  20  ;  1  Cor.  xi.  1 ;  1  Thes.  i.  6  ;  Rev. 
xiv.  4. 


34  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION; 

always  need  the  same  measure  or  degree  of  the  Spirit's  assistance. 
The  spiritual  power  of  all  is  from  the  same  origin,  although  every  one 
possesses  it  not  in  an  equal  degree.  The  loadstone,  to  borrow  an 
illustration  from  Plato,  communicates  its  virtue  first  to  one  ring 
and  then  to  another,  and  so  to  many  iron  rings ;  but  with  grad- 
ual abatement :  and  yet  Avhenever  there  is  any  attraction  it  has  pro- 
ceeded from  the  same  source. 

But  coeval,  and  often  in  company  with  the  true  prophet,  appears 
the  false  ]»rophet,  sj)eaking  either  from  a  poetic  or  rhetorical,  or 
even  a  demoniac,  if  not  a  diahoVic  a  flatus.  Thus  always  does  the 
counterfeit  circulate  along  with  sterling  coin,  and  the  slight  differ- 
ence in  the  weight  and  the  ring  cannot  always  be  detected  by  the 
expert  himself  Does  the  prophet  Elisha  follow  the  armies  of  the 
allied  kings  of  Judah,  Israel  and  Edom  ?  So  must  Alexander  in 
his  great  expedition  have  his  inspired  Aristander.  Does  Paul  in 
his  journeys  meet  with  the  true  prophet  Agabus  ?  Even  thus 
must  Tclemachus  in  his  voyages  encounter  the  fiilse  prophet  Theo- 
clymenus. 

And  even  in  true  inspiration,  the  plenary  and  the  partial  differ 
from  and  resemble  each  other  as  to  several  important  points.  Par- 
tial inspiration  (riiflrs  from  plenary  in  the  following  particulars  :  It 
does  not  make  any  new  revalation  to  us.i  It  is  not  accompanied 
with  the  power  of  working  miracles,  or  any  extraordinary  gitt,  such 
as  that  of  speaking  with  tongues,  etc.^  Though  it  guards  against 
many  errors  and  sins,  yet  it  secures  not  against  all  errors  of  the 
intellect  or  sins  of  the  heart,  in  so  far  as  they  effect  the  act  of  writ- 
ing or  of  preaching  or  of  praying.3  Another  point  of  difference  is 
this:  it  docs  not  commonly  (although  it  does  sometimes)  art  on 
the  mind  independently,  so  as  to  make  needless  all  premeditation 
on  the  matter  and  manner  of  communication.*  It  is  usually  a  guid- 
ing, teaching,  and  co-operative  power.^  Besides,  though  it  does 
not  move  men  to  reveal  and  apj)ly  divine  verities  for  the  first  time 
and  on  certain  occasions  alone ;  yet  what  is  better  for  them,  it  is  ready 
at  all  times  to  lead  them  to  the  further  knowledge  and  fresh  appli- 
cation of  the  truth  that  is  already  revealed.'^  Holy  men  of  old, 
when  not  under  plenary  inspiration,  were  as  dependent  as  we  upon 


1  Deut.  iv.  2;  xii.  32;  1  John  ii.  20,  27  ;  R(>v.  xxii.  18,  19. 

2  I.«a.  viii.  I'J,  20  ;  Matt.  vii.  15-20  ;  xxiv.  23-28  ;    2  Tlies.  ii.  9;  Rev.  xiii.  13, 
14  ;  Luke  xvi.  28-31. 

3  1  Tim.  i.  3,  4 ;  iv.  fi-lG.         4  2  Tim.  i.  6  ;  ii.  15;  1  Tim.  iv.  13,  15. 
6  Isa.  Ixiii.  10-14;  John  xiv.  26;  xvi.  13;  Rom.  viii.  14  ;  Gal.  v.  18. 
6  JoliM  xvi.  13;   1  .lohn  ii.  20,  27. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  35 

jji-ayer  and  study  as  means  of  acquiring  a  clear  and  full  knowledge 
of  the  Scriptures  then  existing.  In  the  119th  Psalm  the  prophet 
jsrays  for  divine  illumination  in  studying  the  word  of  God  ;  and  it 
was  by  books  of  prophecy  and  by  prayer  that  Daniel  understood 
the  duration  of  the  captivity  and  the  time  and  object  of  the  Mes- 
siah's advent.^  In  us,  then,  the  lack  of  j^lenary  inspiration  is  com- 
pensated by  the  following  advantages :  We  of  to-day  have  the  en- 
tire volume  of  the  inspired  oracles — a  treasure  which  none  of  the 
sacred  writers  except  St.  John  could  have  possessed.  And  hence 
we  have  means  they  did  not  enjoy  of  deriving  from  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  that  comprehensive  knowledge  which  is  only  to 
be  obtained  by  a  comparative  study  of  all  parts  of  them,  and  by  the 
assaults  of  error  which  have  made  certain  doctrines  announce 
themselves  with  new  distinctness  and  emphasis.  We  can  again 
study,  as  they  could  not,  many  of  the  Scripture  predictions  in  the 
lio-ht  of  their  fulfillments  in  our  own  or  earlier  times.  Each  subse- 
quent generation  is  also  permitted,  as  they  were  not,  to  make  and 
to  witness  the  ever  new  and  ever  clear  applications  of  all  revealed 
truth  to  human  duties,  dangers,  experiences,  and  privileges. 

But  to  return :  this  partial  aid  is  not  given  merely  to  men  of  one 
nation,  or  one  order  of  ministers,  but  is  accessible  to  all  true  preach- 
ers of  all  nations  and  ranks.2  Herein  is  fulfilled  the  responsive  cry 
of  the  seraphim  -.^  "  The  whole  earth  full  of  his  glory ! "  And  yet  it 
carries  not  with  it  that  distinct  and  unmistakable  evidence  of  its 
own  presence  which  plenary  inspiration  bore  to  holy  men  of  old,  in 
whom  the  Divine  Spirit  was  his  own  independent  witness.  They 
received  from  God  such  signals  and  signs  of  his  presence,  and  ideas 
in  such  harmony  w^th  the  divine  attributes,  and  had  such  experi- 
ences of  the  heavenly  verity,  holiness  and  goodness  of  the  thmgs 
revealed  to  and  by  them,  as  that  they  were  absolutely  certain  that 
the  Divine  Spirit  was  movmg  them,  and  that  the  communications 
they  received  were  given  to  them  by  his  holy  inspiration.  We  do 
not  say  that  partial  inspiration  bears  no  testimony  of  its  presence. 
Only  it  is  often  less  distinct  and  trustworthy  than  the  plenary  was, 
which  appears  to  have  sometimes  carried  in  itself  its  own  evidence, 
not  only  to  the  speakers  but  to  the  hearers  as  well.^  One  more 
point  of  difference  is  this :  It  is  not  waited  for  in  such  a  way  that 
we  are  always  to  refuse  to  study  or  preach  or  pray,  imless  we  re- 


1  Dan.  ix.  2,  25,  26 ;  cf.  x.  21 ;  1  Peter  i.  10,  12. 

2  Joel  ii.  28,  29 ;  Acts  ii.  17,  18.  3  Tsa.  vi.  3. 

4  2  Chron.  sx.  18 ;  Isa.  xlv.  14,  15  ;  Zech.  viii.  23  ;  John  vii.  46  ;  Acts  xiv.  12; 
1  Cor.  xiv.  25. 


36  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION ; 

ceive  indubitable  dictates  and  impulses  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  par- 
tial insi)iration  -we  are  less  guided  as  to  times  of  speaking  and  of 
ceasing  to  speak  than  as  to  the  matter,  feeling,  object  and  manner 
of  our  communications. 

Plenary  and  i)artial  inspiration  have  certain  points  of  rese?nbkmce, 
among  Avhich  are  the  following : 

Both  are  from  tlie  same  source,  or  auctor  j^i^iinariufi,  though  they 
are  given  for  different  purposes  and  produce  different  effects. 
They  are  the  same  ex  jyat'te  princij)ii,  but  diverse  ex  jKirte  terrahii. 
And  yet  no  doubt  they  are  theoretically  separahlc,  though  not  often 
practically  separated,  from  the  Spirit's  "  inspiration  of  grace. "^  Ac- 
cording to  the  Schoolmen,  we  receive  from  the  Divine  Spirit  gifts, 
expedite  cujere,  in  order  that  we  may  act  easily  and  skillfully  ;  and 
grace,  hene  agere,  in  order  that  we  may  act  holily  and  beneficently. 
And  yet  gifts  are  bestowed  by  the  Holy  Ghost  in  order  to  be  help- 
ful to  grace.  ''  When,"  says  Owen,2  "  spiritual  affections  and  due 
preparation  of  heart  unto  the  duty  do  excite  and  animate  the  gift 
of  prayer,  and  not  the  gift  make  impressions  on  the  affections,  then 
we  are  spiritually  minded  therein.  Gifts  are  servants,  not  rulers  in 
the  mind ;  are  bestowed  on  us  to  be  serviceable  unto  grace,  not  to 
lead,  but  to  follow  it,  and  to  be  ready  with  their  assistance  in  its 
exercise.  For  the  most  part,  where  they  lead  all,  they  are  all 
alorie."  Again,  gifts  are  said  to  be  opus  ad  extra,  or  artificial  as 
distinguished  from  c>pi(s  ad  intra,  or  the  proper  and  natural  effects 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  in  regeneration,  sanctification,  and  consolation. 
These  are  the  fruits  or  off'sjiriiKj,  and  not  the  artificial  operations  of 
the  Spirit. 

Both  usually  work  through  our  natural  faculties  and  in  o^)edience 
to  their  laws.  As  the  Holy  Ghost  has  a  more  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  our  minds  than  we  have,  he  can  influence  them  con- 
naturally  in  ways  unknown  to  us.  But  as  while  under  plenary 
inspiration,  the  human  mind  is,  for  the  time,  rendered  impeccable 
and  infallible  in  conveying  to  men  thoughts  that  are  wholly  from 
the  Divine  Spirit,  bo  the  individual  peculiarities  of  the  man  inspired 
are  less  active  and  manifest  than  they  are  in  a  man  who  is  under 
partial  inspiration,  and  who  consequently  is  liable  to   mingle  Mith 


1  Though  plenary  inspiration  acted  for  the  most  part  through  holy  men,  and 
the  New  Testament  sliows  that  it  was  accompanied  by  faith,  charity,  boldness, 
and  such  like  virtues,  we  are  not  thence  to  conclude,  that  either  full  or  partial 
inspiration  is  ahcaijit  and  ncccssarilij  associated  with  eminent  piety,  much  less  with 
a  consciousness  of  the  lively  exercise  of  the  graces. 

2  Works,  vol.  xiii ,  p.  250. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  37 

inspii-ed  thoughts  both  the  sins  and  errors  to  which  he  is  most  in- 
clined. The  operation  of  the  inspiring  Spirit  aj^jjears  to  be  circular ; 
beginning  with  the  will  or  heart,  it  thereby  inclines  and  fixes  the 
attention,  and  so  prepares  the  intellect  to  receive  ideas ;  it  thus 
describes  the  first  semicircle ;  the  second  is  described  by  the  inspired 
reaction  of  the  intellect  on  the  heart  or  will.  The  common  theory 
would  be  more  correct  and  practical,  were  it  not  for  its  halfiiess. 
While,  therefore,  the  Divine  Spirit  works  in  harmony  with  the  laws 
of  the  mind,  yet  we  are  not  at  liberty  thence  to  conclude  either 
that  his  operations  can  never  be  distmguished  from  those  of  our 
mental  faculties,  or  that  these  operations  of  his  go  forward  in  the 
same  way  that  an  accepted  Gospel  does,  namely :  first  gaining 
access  to  the  intellect,  and  next  infl.uencing  the  will  by  a  regular  and 
common  process  of  the  understanding.  Some  may  safely  exercise 
caution  here ;  "  for,"  says  Turretin,i  "  if  the  whole  work  of  God 
consists  in  a  clear  and  timely  proclamation  of  the  Gospel,  why  is 
omnipotence  required  in  its  behalf?  What  is  there  in  this  to 
exceed  the  ordinary  powers  of  man  ?  If  God  does  not  work  differ- 
ently from  man's  mortal  and  outward  working,  why  is  the  almighti- 
ness  which  God  exerts  in  us,  described  by  Paul  in  these  splendid 
words  :  "  The  eyes  of  your  understanding  being  enlightened  .  .  . 
that  ye  may  know  what  is  the  exceeding  greatness  of  his  power 
toward  us  w^ho  believe  according  to  the  working  of  his  mighty 
power  w^hich  he  wrought  in  Christ  w^hen  he  raised  him  from  the 
dead"  (Eph.  i.  18-20). 

Once  more :  Each  may,  in  some  sense,  be  called  "  an  inspiration 
of  elevation,"  as  distinguished  from  that  of  "  revelation,"  and  that 
of  "suggestion"  and  that  of  "superintendence."  In  each  the 
mental  faculties,  though  acting  according  to  psychological  laws, 
may  sometimes  be  invigorated  and  raised  to  such  an  extraordinary 
degree,  that  they  make  communications  which  surpass  in  sublimity 
or  beauty,  splendor  or  force,  the  best  productions  of  natural  genius. 
But  while  partial  inspiration  sometimes  outdoes  the  native  powers 
of  the  most  exalted  genius,  it  cannot,  for  obvious  reasons,  equal  in 
this  respect,  the  utterances  of  plenary  insj)iration.  So  partial 
inspiration  also  bears  some,  though  remote,  resemblance  to  that  of 
"  superintendance." 

These  are  some  of  the  more  important  points  of  difference  and 
likeness  as  to  these  two  kinds  of  inspiration ;  the  recollection  of 
which  will  assist  the  reader  to  imderstand  more  clearly  the  contents 
of  the  following  pages. 

1  Institutio  Theolog.  Elenct ,  Pt.  ii. ;  Quass.  4,  §33,  Da  Vocatione  Efficaci. 


38  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION; 

We  now  proceed  to  examine  the  co-operation  of  the  Divine  Spirit 
in  preaching  as  it  is  related  to  the  laws  and  phenomena  of  the 
human  mmd.  It  has  been  said  of  secular  rhetoric  that  it  reposes  on 
psychology.  Though  we  must  add  that  sacred  rhetoric  reposes  on 
l)neumatology,  yet  we  cannot  deny  that  psychology  is  its  pillow. 

Partial  inspiration  seems  usually  to  ©iterate  on  the  mind  accord- 
ing to  much  the  same  method  as  the  inspiration  of  grace  operates 
in  regeneration  and  sanctification.  Be  it  remembered,  hoAvever, 
that  it  is  not  here  our  purpose  to  raise  the  question,  In  the  act  of 
hearing  or  studying  the  Gospel,  which  is  primordial,  intellect  or 
feeling  ?  We  go  behind  this  to  consider  the  question  which  now 
more  nearly  concerns  us  :  Is  the  heart  (or  Avill)  before  the  intellect 
in  bending  and  fixing  the  attention  in  such  Avise  as.  to  render  the 
hearing  or  studying  of  divine  truth  profitable  to  the  preacher.  In 
this  mental  act  the  heart  it  is  that  receives  the  first  divine  impulse, 
and  the  intellect  the  second ;  but  the  one  is  not  greatly  moved 
without  the  other  being  also  moved,  though  in  a  less  degree ;  for 
both  Scripture  and  philosophy  regard  all  the  principal  mental  phe- 
nomena as  complex. 

I.  But  to  avoid  taking  another  step  on  disputed  ground,  let  us  try 
to  illustrate  the  operations  of  j^artial  inspiration  by  examining  the 
first  important  jirocess  in  that  gracious  change  termed  regeneration. 
What  do  the  best  authorities  understand  by  it  ?  Such  a  vivifica- 
tion  of  the  will  as  enables  it  to  exercise  f.iith  in  God ;  meaning  by 
the  phrase  falih  in  God,  a  consent  to  and  acquiescence  of  the  will 
or  heart  in  all  light  coming  from  God,  either  through  creation  or 
providence  or  grace,  or  through  all  of  these  at  once.  But  in  the 
exercise  of  faith  does  not  desire  precede  the  perception  of  the  ground 
whereon  it  rests  ?  That  we  cannot  deny ;  for  Pascal  has  said  that 
we  must  love  in  order  that  we  may  know,  and  Thomas  Carlyle  has 
asserted,  with  equal  truth,  that  love  is  the  beginning  of  all  thought 
that  is  worth  the  name.  If,  therefore,  we  search  faith  psychologic- 
ally, we  shall  find  love  hid  within  it,  as  Anacreon  discovered  Cupid 
lurking  in  tlie  petals  of  a  rose  ;  while  practically  we  may  with  St. 
Paul  consider  "  faith  as  working  by  love.''  The  Scriptures  teach  us 
that  faith  dejiends  much  on  that  function  of  the  will  which  is  termed 
volition  or  choice;^  and  that  if  we  regard  words  of  wisdom  more 


1  Rom.  vi.  11;  Eph.  v.  5;  Rom.  x.  10;  Mark  ix.  23;  John  v.  44 ;  xi.  30. 
'■  Only  be  williiifi,"  says  Basil,  "  and  God  is  in  advance."  "  God  draws  tlie  in- 
firm will,"  says  Clirysostom  ;  and  Augustine  demands,  "  AVho  is  he  that  runs  to 
the  Lord  for  grace,  but  he  whose  steps  are  directed  thereto  by  the  Lord  ?  And, 
therefore,  to  seek  the  assistance  of  grace  is  the  very  begiiming  of  grace."     Cf 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  39 

than  the  wisdom  of  words,  in  speaking  to  the  people,  and  in  persuadino- 
them  to  duty,  we  shall  speak  of  faith  as  the  foremost  of  the  graces 
of  the  new  heart.i  Faith  is,  by  Augustme,  called  the  first-born  of 
the  regenerate  heart,2  and  the  root  of  all  the  virtues.s  We  do  not 
thmk  it  worth  while  here  to  speculate  about  that  which  the  philoso- 
phers term  niotus  2:>rimo-2)rimus,  the  first  agitation  or  primordial 
bias  of  the  will ;  it  is  enough  for  our  present  purpose  to  affirm 
that  the  gracious  act  of  the  Divine  Spirit  is,  in  the  order  of  nature, 
antecedent  to  the  act  of  the  will,  and  that  the  first  act  of  the  will  in 
regeneration  is  faith. 

Some  theologians  teach  that  the  first  effect  of  the  regenerating 
Spirit  is  a  gracious  illumination  of  the  intellect ;  but  such  an  opinion 
does  not  appear  to  be  well  supported  by  Scripture  authority,  and  is 
contrary  to  the  views  of  Augustine,  who  says,  "  It  is  faith  which  first 
bows  down  the  soul  to  God,  then  come  precepts  concerning  life, 
by  observing  which  that  begins  to  beam  on  the  sight  which  before 

was  only  believed Therefore,  before  our  mind  be  cleansed, 

we  ought  to  believe  what  we  are  not  yet  able  to  understand ;  since 
most  truly  is  it  said  by  the  prophet,  '  Unless  ye  shall  believe,  ye 
shall  not  understand.'  "'^  Calvin  also  has  said  that  "  Faith  is  the  only 
medium  by  which  the  Divine  Spirit  leads  us  into  the  light  of  the 
Gospel."^  Were  we  here  discussing  the  means  and  antecedents  of 
regeneration  we  could  not  deny  an  important  place  to  the  illumina- 
tion of  the  intellect,  as  a  common  preparation  for  regeneration. 
But  it  will  be  remembered  that  we  have  been  dwelling  upon  the 
question  whether  faith  be  the  first-boi'n  of  the  family  of  the  Chris- 
tian graces. 

It  cannot  be  questioned  that  one  of  the  most  important  requisites 
for  preachmg  is  a  deep  conviction  of  the  reality  of  divine  things, 
and  particularly  of  the  absolute  certainty  of  every  word  that  the 
Spirit  of  truth  has  spoken  to  us.  A  proj)het  says,  "  I  have  believed, 
therefore  have  I  spoken."  Paul,  speaking  for  himself  and  the  other 
apostolic  prophets,  quotes  these  words  as  follows  :  "  We  having  the 
same  spirit  of  faith,  according  as  it  is  written,  I  believed,  and  there- 


St.  Bernard  passim;  Melancthon    Loci  TaEOhOGici,  a.rt.  de  libera  Arbitris ;   De- 
litzscli's  Biblical  Psychology,  Tr.,  pp.  242-244. 

1  John  i.  12,  13  ;  iii.  26  ;  Heb.  xi.  6  ;  1  Peter  i.  5.     • 

2  Sermo  8,  De  Decern  Plagis  et  Decern  Pr£eceptis.     Opera,  tome  v. 

3  Id.,  Epistola,  194. 

4  De  Agone  Christiano,  ()14i,  15  ;  Isa.  vii  9,  according  to  the  Septuagint. 

5  Institutes,  B.  iii.  C.  i.,  sec.  4. 

4 


40  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION ; 

fore  have  I  spoken ;  we  also  believe  ami  therefore  speak."  '  Wo  are 
here  tauglit,  lirst,  that  the  true  prophets  of  all  ages  have  the  same 
spirit  of  faith ;  secondly,  that  this  faith  is  the  compeller  and  defender 
of  boldness  of  sj)eech.  ^Ve  are  not  to  be  understood  that  the  pro- 
phetic fliith  is  always  firm  and  unstaggering,  for  Jeremiah,  who  prob- 
ably wrote  the  psalm  above  quoted,  always  had  a  confidence  in  God 
that  made  him  very  bold  and  pathetic  in  his  preaching,  and  yet  in 
times  of  suffering  he  was,  like  the  prophet  John  the  Baptist, 
tempted  to  unbelief^  This  Pistls,  it  would  seem,  is  sometimes 
nearly  synonymous  with  Parrhesia,  as  in  Eph.  iii.  12 ;  1  Tim.  iii. 
13;  Heb,  iii.  6;  x.  35;  1  John  iii.  21.  Faith  greatly  contributes 
to  moral  courage,  and  is  indispensable  to  its  exercise,  especially 
that  confidence  or  assurance  which  I\arheskf,  in  one  of  its  senses, 
imports.  It  was  not  self-confidence,  but  self-conviction  that  made 
the  apostles  and  other  prophets  bold.  Let  us  not,  however,  as  some 
do,  make  this  self-conviction  the  soul  of  all  eloquence.  A  free- 
spokenness,  flowing  from  a  settled  conviction  of  truth,  contributes 
much,  but  not  all  that  constitutes  the  soul  of  eloquence. 

It  should  here  be  remarked  that  this  faith  is  something  different 
from  that  conviction  of  certainty  wliich  results  from  logical  demon- 
stration. When  the  apostles  Peter  and  John  declared  to  their  ad- 
versaries, "  We  cannot  but  speak  the  things  we  have  seen  and  heard," 
they  did  not  thereby  profess  that  it  was  their  faith  that  compelled 
them  to  preach.  They  avoAved  that  they  spoke  as  witnesses  who 
were  forced  to  bear  testimony  as  to  Avhat  they  had  demonstrated, 
and  not  what  they  merely  believed  to  be  true.  Hence  those  minis- 
ters who  cannot  i)reach  on  any  subjects  with  confidence  and  feeling  ex- 
cept such  as  have  been  matters  of  actu:d  experience  in  their  own  souls* 
have  no  just  cause  to  suppose  themselves  to  be  men  of  very  strong 
faith.  Far  from  censuring  those  who  preach  from  experience 
(would  to  God  we  all  preached  more  from  our  own  experience  and 
had  more  experience  to  preach  from),  we  cannot  ajiprove  the  course 

1  Psa.  cxvi.  10;  2  Cor.  iv.  13.  The  "miraculous  faith"  of  Matt.  xvii.  20;  1 
Cor.  xii.  'J;  xiii.  2,  dilFers  from  "  .saving  faith  "  in  nioasure,  not  in  kind.  It  was 
not  always  associated  witli  the  gift  of  iiropiiecy,  nor  could  it  be  especially  help- 
ful to  those  who,  after  all,  ediflod  the  churches  by  the  slower  process  of  public 
address.  Some  gather  from  Rom.  xii.  6,  that  the  apostolic  prophets  received 
degrees  of  inspiration  varying  according  to  the  measure  of  their  faith.  They 
who  are  worthy  can  alone  receive  Ilim,  nor  is  ho  moroly  received  in  one  "  meas- 
ure," but  according  to  the  "  proportion  of  faith,"  he  disttibutes  his  operations. 
{Jiasil,  de  Spirit,  Sanct.  c.  9.)  With  this  view,  as  we  show  elsewhere,  we  cannot 
concur. 

2  Jer.  XX.  7-!i;  :\Intt.  xi.  2,  3. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  4j 

of  those  who,  misled  by  the  example  of  John  Owen  and  Brown  of 
Haddington,  jireach  from  experience  almost  exclusively ;  who  do 
not  recollect  that  Owen  did  not  exclusively  preach  from  his  own 
experience,  and  that  the  second  thing  which  he  prescribed  to  him- 
self for  regulatmg  his  ministry  powerfully  counteracted  the  ten- 
dency of  the  first,  namely,  "to  press  those  duties  which  present  oc- 
casions, temptations,  and  other  circumstances  rendered  necessary  to 
be  attended  to."     Many  a  man  is  in  danger  here  of  preachino-  him- 
self and  not  Christ  the  Lord.     No  preacher  has  so  deep  and  varied 
an  experience  as  to  make  it  safe  and  good  for  him  to  keep  within 
the  limits  of  God's  dealings  with  his  own  soul.     Happily  for  him 
and  his  congregation,  they  are  not  limited  to  the  study  of  their 
own  spiritual   exercises,  but  are  permitted  to  range  freely  over 
the  inspired  records  of  the  experiences  of  Jehovah  and  of  a  multi- 
tude of  people  for  thousands  of  years,  to  say  nothing  of  post-apos- 
tohc  history,  throughout  Avhose  pages  the  inner  life  of  martyrs,  con- 
fessors, and  other  holy  men  is  so  often  betrayed  and  revealed.  '  The 
true  doctrine  as  to  this  point  is  summed  np  in  the  words  of  our 
Divine  Master:  "Thomas,  because  thou  hast  seen  me,  thou  hast 
beheved :  blessed  are  they  that  have  not  seen,  and  yet  have  be- 
lieved." 

n.  The  grace  born  next  after  the  eldest  is  "  virtue  "  or  personal 
holiness,!  or,  better  still,  perhaps,  a  love  of  holiness.     The  next  step 
from  acquiescing  in  the  truth,  is  the  complexus  fidei,  or  that  em- 
bracing and  acknowledging  of  the  truth  which  is  the  begmnmo-  of 
holy  living.     This  would  appear  to  be  included  in  the  notion  of 
faith  working  by  love.2     It  is  remarkable  that  this  quality,  in  th- 
lower  ethnic  sense  of  jorohlty,  is  the  second  thing  which  Aristotle 
in  his  rhetoric  recommends  to  the  orator  in  order  to  inspire  the 
confidence  of  the  hearer.s     But  unhappily,  this  great  pagan  philos- 
opher IS  satisfied  if  the  orator  for  selfish  ends  keeps  up  the  appear- 
ance of  probity.     Christian  virtue,  on  the  contrary,  is  sincere  be- 
fore God  and  man.     As  it.  has  its  source  in  that  Christian  love 
which  is  satisfied  and  delighted  with  every  moral  excellence  and  a 
hatred  and  loathing  of  every  moral  evil,4  it  must  entertain  a  dis- 
placency  towards  all  dishonesty  and  hypocrisy.     This  love  of  holi- 
ness is  one  of  the  regenerate  heart's  inmost  fountams.     Christian 
charity  begins  at  home  in  the  profoimdest  sense  of  the  phrase.     It 
owes  and  pays  its  first  complacency  to  its  own  kindred  moral  ex- 
cellences, and  first  cherishes,  guides,  and  disciplines  them,  not  by 

1  2  Peter  i  5.  2  Gal.  v.  6,  7.  3  Riiof.,  Lib.  ii,  cap.  1,  sec  5 

4  Phil.  ii.  13;  1  Cor.  ii.  12:  1  John  v.  21 


42  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION ; 

giving  attention  exclusively  to  them,  but  by  being  chiefly  concerned 
to  keep  the  divine  precepts  and  to  do  good  to  all  in  all  lawful 
ways.  This  love  of  all  the  Christian  virtues  appears  to  be  tlie 
heart  of  Paul's  idea  of  charity. ^  Of  these  virtues  the  perfections  of 
the  Lord  are  the  patterns,  and  the  Divine  Spirit  the  parent  and  the 
teacher  by  whom  we  are  changed  into  the  image  of  Jesus  which  we 
behold  reflected  in  the  mirror  of  the  Gospel.^ 

And  as  this  transformation  goes  forward,  we  are  prompted,  not  to 
single  acts  only,  but  to  a  series  of  actions  and  a  habitual  and  har- 
monious exercise  of  all  tlie  Christian  virtues.  The  Divine  Spirit 
does  not  form  a  holy  character  as  a  sculptor  works  upon  a  statue, 
sometimes  upon  its  feet,  sometimes  on  its  hands,  sometimes  on 
its  face,  but  he  proceeds  as  the  Creator  does,  says  Bolingbroke, "  in 
forming  a  flower,  an  animal  or  any  other  of  his  productions.  He 
throws  out  altogether  and  at  once,  the  whole  system  of  every  being 
and  the  rudiments  of  all  its  jiarts."  This  we  say  is  the  method  on 
which  the  Spirit  proceeds.  And  yet  we  must  not  fail  to  observe 
that  by  reason  of  our  depravity  this  method  and  harmony  are  dis- 
turbed and  checked  so  that  the  Christian  graces  do  not  practically 
grow  in  perfect  proportion.  The  first  principle  of  holiness  is,  ac- 
cording to  Baxter,^  the  Divine  Spirit.  In  the  imity  of  this  ])rinciple 
tJtiere  are  three  radical  graces,  a  Spirit  of  power  (or  life)  and  love, 
and  of  a  soimd  mind  ■*  (or  light),  which  are  the  immediate  effects  of 
the  divine  influx.  As  the  simshine  on  the  earth  and  planets  is  all 
one  in  itself  as  emitted  from  the  sun,  light,  heat,  and  moving  force 
concurring,  and  yet  is  not  ecjually  effective  because  of  the  difference 
of  recipients,  so  that  by  reason  of  their  incapacity  one  may  have  less 
of  heat,  another  less  of  motion,  and  another  less  of  light ;  even  thus 
the  potentiality  of  these  radical  graces  may  be  equal  while  practi- 
cally their  acts  and  liabits  are  often  very  unecpial.  But  still  the 
consideration  that  they  are  not  only  coetaneous  but  mterdependent 
should  move  us  to  their  simultaneous  and  proportional  exercise. 
If  the  preacher  has  the  love  of  holiness  it  will  appear  hi  his  life,  and 
particularly  in  liis  ])reaching. 

It  will  show  itself  in  the  choice  of  his  texts  which  will  be  devo- 
tional rather  than  controversial,  as  George  Herbert  advises.  We 
cannot,  indeed,  and  ought  not  always  to  select  such  texts.    "We  are 


U  Cor.  xiii.  2  2  Cor.  iii.  17,  18. 

3 Baxter's  Works,  vol.  xii.  ;  Life  of  Faitli,  PL  iii.,  cliap.  xi.,  pp.  357-363  ;  Ed- 
wards on  tlie  Affections,  Pt.  iii.,  sec.  10;  On  the  Beautiful  Symmetry  and  Pro- 
perties of  Gracious  Affections. 

•1  2  Tim.  i.  7. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  43 

required  to  teach  the  doctrines  and  duties  of  our  religion  in  the  pro- 
portion wherein  the  Bible  exhibits  them.  To  dwell,  therefore,  on 
the  Psalms  or  other  devotional  Scriptures  exclusively  would  lead  to 
sad  and  dangerous  omissions.  But  in  cases  where  we  are  free  to 
choose  our  texts  without  regard  to  the  foregoing  considerations,  as 
in  occasional  sermons,  our  santification  will  often  be  indicated  by 
the  choice  of  our  texts  and  subjects. 

This  love  of  holiness  will  also  aj^pear  in  his  proofs  and  illustra- 
tions, These  should  not  be  drawn  from  pagan^  or  other  doubtful 
sources,  if  they  are  liable,  as  they  sometimes  are,  to  be  associated 
in  the  minds  of  the  hearers  with  subjects  foreign  to  things  sacred. 
But  to  refuse  to  employ  all  analogies  and  evidences  from  creation,  his- 
tory, and  common  life,  were  to  refuse  to  follow  the  best  inspired  ex- 
amples. Nor  is  heathen  mythology  without  some  pure  and  safe 
materials  with  which  to  illustrate  and  enforce.  This  love  is  Uke- 
wise  manifest  in  the  gravity  of  his  spirit  and  manner,  "  Of  all  the 
preaching  in  the  world  (that  speaks  not  stark  hes),  I  hate,"  says 
Baxter,  "  that  preachmg  most  which  tendeth  to  make  the  hearers 
laugh,  or  to  move  their  mind  with  talking  levity,  and  affect  them  as 
stage  players  use  to  do  instead  of  affectmg  them  with  a  holy  rever- 
ence of  the  name  of  God,"  And  yet  we  may  well  believe  that  there 
is  a  divine  laughter  which  is  very  remote  from  levity.2  Laughter  is 
good  or  bad  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  according  to  the  known  char- 
acter of  the  preacher,  and  to  the  nature  of  the  thoughts  and  emotions 
which  provoke  it.  Habitual  laughter,  however,  is  a  bad  sign,  for  it 
evinces  the  absence  of  every  deep  Christian  affection,  "  Salt,"  says 
Jean  Paul,  "  is  a  very  good  condiment,  but  very  bad  food," 

This  love  of  the  holy  sometimes  throws  the  mind  of  the  mmister 
into  the  attitude  of  an  angel  on  whom  the  breath  of  the  Almighty 
has  suddenly  descended,  and  turned  one  wing  and  one  eye  towards 
heaven ;  and  so  moving  it  to  make  apostrophies  to  God,  We  may 
mdeed,  if  we  watch  not,  thus  form  a  habit  of  even  taking  the  name 
of  the  Lord  in  vain ;  but,  as  George  Herbert  says,  "  some  such 
irradiations  scatteringly  in  sermons  carry  great  holiness  in  them. 
The  proi^hets  are  admirable  in  this.  So  Isa,  64th,  "  Oh,  that  thou 
wouldst  rend  the  heavens,  that  thou  wouldst  come  down,"  etc. 
And  Jeremiah  10th,  after  he  had  complained  of  the  desolation  of 
Israel,  turns  to  God  suddenly,  "  O,  Lord,  I  know  that  the  way  of 

1  Herein  Jeremy  Taylor  sometimes  offends  :  Paul  indeed  quotes  from  Menander, 
Aratus,  and  Epimenides,  but  as  Bengel  fon  Titus  i.  12)  observes,  he  does  not 
mention  their  names. 

2  Psa.  cxxvi.  2. 


44  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION; 

man   is   not  in  himself/'  etc.     Of  .Siimmerfiekl,  Dr.  Bethune  says, 
"  As  the  thought  of  souls  i)crishlng  in  sui  pressed  upon  his  heart,  lie 
would  break  his  order  with  an  earnest  ejaculation.  *  Would  to  God! ' 
'  O,  that  God !'     '  God  grant ! '  were  frequently  upon  his  lips,  not 
carelessly,  but  with  an  emi)hasis  of  devotion  that  none  could  doubt. 
Indeed   he    not   only   prayed   before   he   preached   and   after   he 
preached — for  he  went  to  the  jiulpit  from  his  knees  and  back  to  his 
knees   from   the   pulpit — but  he   seemed  to  be  praymg  while  he 
preached.      Prayer   was    so    much   his   breath,  that   as    Gregory 
Nazianzen  says  of  the  true  Christian,  the  breathmg  went  on  what- 
ever he   was   doing,  not  hindering  him  but  necessary  to   him." 
Hence  the  holy  preacher   opportunely  reminds  the  peo})le  that  he 
speaks  in  the   name  of  God,  or  on  behalf  of  his  people,  truth  or 
cause.     He  solemnly  declares  to  them  that  if  he  held  his  peace,  his 
conscience  would  condemn  him,  or  that  however  painful  to  him  his 
duty  is,  yet  he  is  too  deeply  concerned  for  their  eternal  welfare  to 
withhold  the  divine  message  from  them.i     Then  according  to  '"  the 
Country  Parson,"  in  the  reading  of  which  Baxter  took  such  delight, 
"the  man  of  God  will  often   ui-ge  the  presence   and  majesty  of 
Jehovah  by  these  and  like  speeches,  '  Oh,  let  us  take  heed  what  we 
do  !     God  sees  us ;  he  sees  whether  I  speak  as  I  ought  or  you  hear 
as  you  ought ;    he  sees  hearts  as  we  see  faces.     He  is  among  us ; 
for  if  we  be  here,  he  mnst  be  here ;  since  we  are  here  by  him,  and 
without  him   could  not  be  here.'      Then  turnmg  the   discourse  to 
his  majesty,  '  and  he  is  a  great  God  and  terrible ;  as  great  in  mercy, 
so  great  in  judgment.  "     Sometimes  applause  has  been  reproved  by 
quoting   the  words   of  Habakkuk,  "  But  the  Lord  is  in  his  holy 
temple ;    let  all  the  earth  keep  silence  before  him."     But  t^jacula- 
tions  should  be  made  2)rincipally  with  a  view  to  olttain  spiritual  aid 
for    the  preacher  himself.     It  Avas   not  for   others   that  Angelico 
painted  in  the  attitude  of  prayer. 

Finally,  this  holiness  Avill  i)ronipt  the  preacher  to  teach  and  apply 
the  truths  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  beautiful  j^roportion  in  which 
they  are  there  revealed  to  us.  If  the  Spirit  is  a  principle  of  new 
life  within  the  preacher,  he  is  impelled  by  it  to  an  even-paced 
motion  along  the  path  of  duty  towards  the  adorable  Jesus,  amidst 
the  broad  and  unclouded  light  of  divine  revelation.  As  he  lives  in 
the  Spirit,  so  he  walks  in  the  Spirit.  He  exercises  all  the  graces  in 
their  })roper  places,  on  their  proper  occasions,  and  objects,  without 
setting  one  to  fight  another,  or  allowing  one  to  sleep  while  he  is 
exercising  the  other  beyond  moderation.     Hence  something  of  tlio 


1  Ezek.  xxxiii.  1-16  ;  Amos  iil.  8;  2  Cor.  v.  20. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  45 

symmetry  of  holiness  will  appear  in  liis  mode  of  preaching.  He 
preaches  the  law  but  only  in  conjunction  with  the  Gospel.  He 
preaches  doctrines  experimentally  and  practically,  and  preaches 
experience  and  practice  doctrinally.  A  like  proportion  will  be 
visible  m  the  spirit  of  liis  preaching.  Has  he  fervency  ?  It  is 
tempered  with  wisdom  and  tenderness.  Has  he  boldness  ?  It  is 
prompted  by  love ;  and  his  smcerity  is  void  of  pride  and  severity. 
Is  he  positive  and  uncompromising  ?  It  is  not  from  bigotry,  or 
austerity,  or  obstinacy,  but  from  that  holmess  which  would  either 
escape  or  master  all  error  and  sin,  and  defend  and  advance  all  truth 
and  goodness.  When  he  was  regeherated  he  received  that  princi- 
ple of  holmess  which  leads  him  to  obey  from  the  heart  that  mould 
of  doctrine  mto  which  he  was  then  cast.^ 

III.  The  inspiration  of  the  Divine  Spirit  in  its  operation  on  the 
heart  or  will  imparts  to  it  a  love  of  revealed  truth,2  especially  the 
truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus.  It  was  the  promise  of  our  Divine  Master  that 
the  Spirit  of  truth  should  "  testify  "  of  Christ,  and  guide  his  disciples 
into  the  whole  truth  respecting  him.  "He  shall  not  speak  of  him- 
self ...  He  shall  glorify  me  ;  for  he  shall  receive  of  mine  and  shall 
show  it  unto  you."3  As  the  Son  came  into  the  world  to  honor  the 
Father,  so  the  Holy  Ghost  came  into  the  world  to  honor  the  Son. 
And  accordingly  we  are  told  that  no  man  can  say  that  Jesus  Christ 
is  Lord  but  by  the  Holy  Ghost.*  The  Spirit  alone  can  enable  us  to 
entertain  a  sincere  conviction  of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  this  the 
Spirit  does  by  illuminating  our  hearts.^  He  also  helps  us  to  com- 
prehend the  love  of  Christ.^ 

This  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  nature  and  character  of 
Jesus  is  not  the  sole  privilege  of  Christian  preachers.  The  Hebrew 
preachers  were  in  their  studies  and  ministrations  frequently  led  up 
into  the  watch-tower  to  look  hopefully  for  the  distant  coming  of  the 
Messiah.'  And  it  is  worthy  of  attention,  as  showing  the  spiritual 
intimacy  that  was  maintamed  between  Jesus  and  the  prophets,  that 
ui  one  place  the  testimony  of  the  prophets  is  called  the  spirit  of 
Christ,  while  in  another,  the  testimony  of  Jesus  is  called  the  spirit 
of  prophecy.8  When  John,  as  a  prophet,  communicated  to  us  the 
mward  history  of  the  Church,  he  had  a  yet  more  frequent  refer- 
ence to  our  Lord.  The  angel  who  revealed  to  him  the  contents  of 
the  Apocalypse,  told  him  that  he  was  himself  a  prophet  and  had 
the  testimony  of  Jesus.° 

1  Rom.  vi.  17.        2  1  Cor.  xiii.  6  ;  2  Thes.  ii.  10.       3  John  xv.  26  ;  xvL  13,  U. 
4  1  Cor.  xii.  3.       »  2  Cor.  iv.  6.        6  Eph.  iii-  17-19.        7  John  v.  39. 
8  1  Peter  i.  10,  11  ;  Rev.  xix.  10.     9  Rev.  xxii.  9. 


46  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION; 

The  preacher,  therefore,  whose  heart  is  filled  by  the  Spirit  with 
the  love  of  divine  verity  will  dwell  copiously  and  earnestly  on 
whatever  is  peculiar  to  the  religion  of  Christ.  He  will  take  the 
facts,  the  doctrines,  the  precepts,  and  promises  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  carry  their  light  through  the  Old  Testament  and  into  all 
the  paths  of  private,  social,  and  political  life.  The  Christian  system 
will  be  the  great  central  light  of  all  his  studies  and  preaching. 

The  doctrine  of  salvation  by  the  death  of  Christ  will  oi\cn  be 
either  the  direct  or  the  indirect  topic  of  his  sermons — direct  when 
he  makes  the  cross,  as  our  atonement,  the  topic — indirect  when  he 
shows  the  relations  of  all  divine  teachings  to  that  cross.  "  I  may," 
says  Andrew  Fuller, "  establish  the  moral  character  and  government 
of  God;  the  holiness,  justice,  goodness,  and  perpetual  obligation  of 
the  law;  the  evil  of  sin;  and  the  exposedness  of  the  sinner  to  eter- 
nal punishment ;  but  if  I  have  any  other  end  in  view  than,  by  con- 
vincing him  of  his  lost  condition,  to  make  him  feel  the  need  of  a 
Saviour,  I  cannot  be  said  to  have  preached  the  Gospel.''''  Fuller  is 
here  wu'iting  about  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  solely  with  a  view 
to  the  conversion  of  smners.  But  if  the  preacher  aim,  as  he  often 
must,  to  advance  the  sanctification  of  believers,  he  will  be  equally 
careful  to  keep  ever  before  himself  and  his  hearers  the  relation 
between  the  cross  and  all  doctrines,  duties,  experiences,  and  j^rivi- 
leges. 

If  we  preach  imder  a  true  inspiration,  our  teachings  in  general 
will  be  in  harmony  with  Scripture.  The  Holy  Spirit  does  not  con- 
tradict himself  He  brings  our  will  into  unison  with  his,  as  we 
find  it  in  Holy  Writ ;  "  I  will,"  says  the  Lord,  "  write  my  law  in 
their  hearts."  ^  His  inward  work  is  a  transcript  of  his  outward 
work.  And  hence,  as  we  before  remarked,  the  inspired  Scriptures 
are  the  standard  by  which  to  test  the  quality  of  our  inspiration. 

But  we  have  need  of  caution  here.  The  knowlege  of  most  divine 
things  is  progressive.  From  the  force  of  early  prejudices,  or  lack 
of  faithful  instruction,  or  want  of  regeneration,  or  slow  progress  in 
sanctification,  the  young  preacher  may  at  first  have  failed  to  gain  a 
full  apprehension  and  complacent  love  of  the  divinity  and  atone- 
ment of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  But  if  he  have  the  gracious  assist- 
ance of  the  Spirit,  he  will  be  always  searching  for  the  whole  truth 
respecting  the  Messiah,  and  he  will  give  himself  no  rest  before  he 
discover  it.  The  kingdom  of  heaven  within  him  will,  according  to 
the  i>arable  of  the  merchantman,^  assiduously  go  on  seeking  what  is 
good  until  it  find  the  best^  even  Jesus  "  the  pearl  of  price,"  and  for 

1  Jer.  xxxi.  33.  2  Matt.  xiii.  45,  46. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  47 

his  sake,  if  need  be,  it  will  ignore  or  neglect  all  other  teachings, 
all  other  ransoms,  and  all  other  examj^les  of  moral  excellence.  It 
will,  in  short,  account  the  Lamb  of  God  as  the  only  and  all-sufficient 
sacrifice  for  sin,  and  the  soul's  supreme  good. 

IV.  This  inspiration  fills  the  heart  of  the  preacher  with  a  devoted 
love  to  his  people.  It  is  often  overlooked  that  the  apostle  Paul's 
description  of  charity^  was  written  for  the  express  purj^ose  of  en- 
forcing a  proper  and  edifying  use  of  spiritual  gifts.  He  begins  by 
saying,  "  Though  I  speak  with  the  tongue  of  men  and  of  angels,  and 
have  not  charity,  I  am  become  as  soimding  brass,  or  a  tinkling  cym- 
bal." The  whole  chapter  has  a  more  direct  application  to  Christian 
ministers  than  to  any  other  class  of  men,  and  shows  the  total  nullity 
of  all  inspired  gifts,  when  they  are  not  exercised  with  love  to  the 
souls  of  such  as  are  committed  to  our  care.2  What  an  outburst 
of  ethical  feeling  is  Paul's  exclamation  before  Agrippa  in  Acts  xxvi. 
29.  Hence  all  malice  and  ill-will,  all  hatred  that  is  not  consentaneous 
with  God's  hatred,  quench  the  holy  fire.  The  Rabbinss  believed 
that  anger  did,  for  the  time  being,  deprive  the  wise  man  of  his  wis- 
dom, and  the  prophet  of  the  spirit  of  prophecy. 

V.  The  Holy  Ghost  also  inspires  fervency.  This  seems  to  be 
implied  in  the  vision  of  the  live  coal  which  the  angel  took  from  the 
altar  and  touched  therewith  the  lips  of  Isaiah.^  The  Spirit  caused 
the  word  of  the  Lord  to  be  in  the  heart  of  Jeremiah  as  a  burning 
fire  shut  up  in  his  bones.^  John  the  Baptist  "  was  a  burning  and 
shining  light."  As  some  one  has  said  respecting  this  passage, 
"  The  burning  comes  before  the  shining ;  ardor  of  mind  is  the  light 
of  instruction."  The  same  idea  appears  to  be  conveyed  by  the 
cloven  tongues  of  fire  which  descended  upon  the  disciples,  other- 
wise they  might  have  been  termed  cloven  tongues  of  ligltt.  The 
Holy  Ghost  imparts  both  light  and  heat. 

There  is  no  one  thing  that  is  more  characteristic  of  the  prophets 
than  this.  Fervor  is  sometimes  another  name  for  prophecy,  and 
the  most  diligent  student  who  has  it  not,  is  incapable  of  interpret- 
mg  its  utterances.     (See  example  of  this  quality  in  Isa.  Iviii ;  Joel 

1  1  Cor.  xiii. 

2  This  love  will  promote  invention.  "  A  desire  to  gain  souls  will  be  fruitful  in 
matter.  A  man  who  feels  unable  to  quit  till  he  has  gained  you,  will  surprise 
you  with  new  specimens  of  his  invention.  When  you  think  he  has  exhausted  his 
subject,  he  will  bring  forward  new  matter,  not  forced  in.  but  so  necessary  that 
you  wonder  that  you  should  have  thought  the  subject  ended  without  it."  {Br. 
E.  D.  Griffin,  Ser.  on  Jer.  iii.  15.) 

3  John  Smith  of  Cambridge,  Complete  Works,  pp.  9,  10. 

4  Isa.  vi.  6.  5  Jer.  xx.  9. 


48  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION ; 

iii. ;  Amos  i. ;  Acts  xx.  24-38.)  Ephraem  Syrus,  speaking  of  the 
Trinity,  compares  the  Father  to  the  smi,  Jesus  to  his  radiance,  and 
the  Divine  .Spirit  to  his  heat.  "By  the  heat,"  says  he,  "  all  things 
are  ripened ;  Ijy  the  Spirit  all  things  are  hallowed.  By  heat  things 
which  the  frost  hath  hound  are  loosened,  as  souls  which  the  wicked 
one  hath  bound  are  loosened  hy  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  warmth 
awakeneth  the  heart  of  the  still  earth  as  the  Divine  Spirit  doth 
awaken  that  of  the  holy  Church."  This  sacred  fire  manifests  itself 
in  a  tender  sensibility  and  lively  sympathy.  It  M'as  this  that  ena- 
bled St.  Paul  to  practise  a  great  but  honest  flexibility  in  the  varied 
application  of  gospel  truth  :  "  This,"  says  he,  "  I  do  for  the  Gospel's 
sake,  tJiat  1  ini(i]d  he  partaker  thereof  vnth  youP  ^  It  is  never  sepa- 
rated from  that  aifectionateness  or  true  benevolence  which  is  deeply 
moved  by  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  others ;  and  which  speaks  and 
acts  Avith  such  a  ready  and  timeful  fellow-feeling  as  a  malevolent 
zeal  counterfeits  unskillfully  and  in  vain. 

VI.  But  this  ardor  is  always  tempered  with  peace  of  mind  and 
manner.  That  peace  which  is  one  of  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit  may  be 
defined  with  Cicero,  "  liberty  in  tranquillity."  It  is  like  the  stars 
as  characterised  by  Goethe,  "  imliasting  yet  unresting,"  or  better 
still,  in  the  langauge  of  Isaiah,.like  a  river,  not  stagnant  but  flowing 
with  an  equable  and  unrufiled  motion.  The  preacher  who  is  wildly 
and  painfully  agitated,  may  have  the  Spirit,  but  he  is  not  Avholly 
under  his  control :  his  own  passions  and  affections  are  trying  to 
assert  the  sujircmacy  which  rightfully  belongs  to  the  Holy  Ghost. 
He  Avho  prays  deliberately  as  he  ought,  according  to  IMacarius,  is 
Uke  a  man  Avho,  in  climl)ing  a  mountain,  puts  forward  his  arms  to 
make  a  i)ath  among  thick  shrubbery.  ''  God  has  taught  us,"  ob- 
serves Tertullian,^  "  that  the  Divine  Spirit,  as  being  of  a  sensitive 
and  delicate  nature,  operates  Avith  tranquillity,  quietude,  and  peace; 
but  does  not  agitate  Avith  fury,  sullenness,  and  grief"  This  Chris- 
tian father,  Avhilc  he  Avas  a  ]\Iontanist,  granted  that  the  prophetesses 
Maximilla  and  Priscilla  spoke  in  ccstacy,  but  denied  that  they  fell 
into  any  rage,  which,  he  maintained,  Avas  the  character  of  every  false 
prophet.''  Chryostom  Avas  of  the  same  ojiinion ;  "  for,"  says  he,  "  this 
is  i»eculiar  to  the  soothsayer,  to  be  beside  himself,  dragged  as  a 
madman.  But  the  prophet  is  not  so,  but  Avith  sober  mind  and  com- 
posed temper,  and   knowing  Avhat   he   is  saying,  he   uttereth   all 

1  1  Cor.  X.,  10-23.      2  De  Spectaculis,  chap.  xv.     He  refers  to  Eph.  iv.  30-32. 

3  Jolm  Smith  of  Cambridge,  Discourse  on  Prophecy  in  Watson's  Tracts,  vol. 
iv.,  310-321.  The  Holy  Spirit  of  the  Rabbinical  writers  is  synonymous  with  the 
Sliekinah.     Sec  Complete  Works  of  John  Smith  of  Cambridge,  p.  9. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  49 

things."  He  accordingly  maintained  that  prophecy  was  volimtary, 
while  soothsaymg  was  compulsory.  -'  The  prophecy,"  says  he,  "  was 
exercised  among  the  prophets  as  was  proper  for  their  condition,  with 
understanding  and  with  entire  freedom.  Wherefore  you  perceive 
they  had  power  either  to  speak  or  to  refrain  from  speaking.  For 
they  were  not  bound  by  necessity,  but  were  honoured  withli  privi- 
lege. For  this  cause  Jonah  fled  (Jonah  i.  3) ;  for  this  cause  Ezekiel 
delayed  (Ezekiel  iii.  15) ;  for  this  cause  Jeremiah  excused  himself 
(Jer.  i.  6).  And  God  thrusts  them  not  on  by  compulsion,  but  advis- 
ing, exhorting,  threatening,  not  darkening  their  mind ;  for  to  cause 
distraction  and  madness  and  great  darkness,  is  the  proper  work  of 
a  demon :  but  it  is  God's  work  to  illummate,  and  with  considera- 
tion to  teach  things  needful. "i 

^  This  serenity  and  repose  of  mind  pervade  the  prophetic  commu- 
nications. The  prevailing  style  of  these  holy  men  is  easy  and 
peaceful.  The  rhythm,  though  free  and  varied,  appears  but  the 
audible  breathing  of  Peace  herself,  and  it  never  degenerates  into  the 
impetuous  and  dissonant  ravings  of  the  Bacchic  dithyramb.  What 
Ewald  2  says  of  Isaiah's  style  is  not  2'>ecuUar  to  him  but  common 
to  all  the  prophets.  "  His  only  fundamental  peculiarity  is  the  lofty, 
majestic  calmness  of  his  style,  proceeding  out  of  the  perfect  com- 
mand which  he  feels  he  possesses  over  his  subject  matter.  This 
calmness,  however,  no  way  demands  that  the  strain  shall  not,  when 
occasion  requires,  be  more  vehemently  excited  and  assail  the  hearer 
with  mightier  blo.ws ;  but  even  the  extremest  excitement,  which 
does  here  and  there  mtervene,  is  in  the  main  bridled  still  by  the 
same  spirit  of  calmness,  and,  not  overstepping  the  limits  which  that 
spirit  assigns,  it  soon  with  lofty  self-control  returns  to  its  wonted 
tone  of  equability."  And  it  is  remarkable  that  not  only  Isaiah  but 
Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  and  Zechariah  speak  in  strains  of  matchless  elo- 
quence of  that  same  peace  Avhich  Jesus  left  as  his  legacy  to  his 
people.  John  Wesley  and  Jonathan  Edwards  are  good  examples 
of  the  union  of  inspiration  and  peacefulness. 

The  effects  of  this  grace  of  the  Spirit  on  the  style  and  delivery 
of  the  preacher  are  too  manifest  to  need  an  extended  enumeration. 
They  promote  clearness,  brevity,  continuity,  number,  gravity  and 
force  of  style ;  and  distinctness,  variety,  calmness,  melody,  and  man- 
liness of  delivery.  On  this  last  quality  its  effect  is  very  marked.  An 
easy  and  expressive  utterance  depends  much  on  beginning  with  and 
always  returning  to  the  middle  tones  of  the  voice.  Nothing  is  more 
helpful  to  this  than  a  gracious  tranquillity  of  mind.    But  more  con- 

1  Homily  xxix.  on  1  Cor.         2  Propheten  des  Alten  Bundes,  vol.  i.,  p,  177. 


50  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION; 

cerning  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  on  style  and  delivery  will  be 
said  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

VII.  The  inspiration  of  the  Divine  Spirit  acts  on  the  will  or 
heart  by  restoring  and  maintaining  the  supremacy  of  the  con- 
science.i  By  conscience  we  here  mean  that  moral  sense  which 
approves  the  right  and  disapproves  the  wrong,  which  is  attended 
with  a  conviction  of  the  good  desert  of  virtue,  and  the  ill  desert  of 
vice,  and  which  results  sulyectively  in  the  hope  of  reward  or  the 
fear  of  puiiishment.2  The  sense  of  obligation  and  responsibility 
furnishes  a  prevailing  motive  to  faithfulness  in  preaching.  It  may 
operate  powerfully  when  the  love  of  holiness  and  truth  and  good- 
ness, has  become  lukewarm  or  inconstant,  so  that  the  m.an  of  God 
is  actuated  by  the  deep  conviction  of  the  apostle  when  he  said, 
"  Wo  is  me  if  I  preach  not  the  Gospel  of  Christ."  By  sedulously 
cultivating  it  and  habitually  obeying  its  promptings,  especially  in 
his  studies,  he  will  learn  how  to  deal  Avith  the  consciences  of  his 
hearers.  lie  will  thereby  be  enabled  to  preach  from  his  oa\ti 
experience  on  subjects  that  are  far  more  important  than  is  com- 
monly supposed.  Yes,  for  the  experiences  of  the  conscience  are  the 
most  painful,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  safe  and  profitable  of 
all  experiences. 

The  Christian  love,  before  considered,  along  with  the  hope  and 
feai'  which  an  inspired  conscience  produces,  greatly  contribute  to 
the  animation  and  tenderness  of  the  preacher.  It  is  a  comfortable 
thought  that  if  a  conscience  full  of  grace  is  more  troublesome  than 
any  other,  it  is  also  more  convincing  and  persuasive  than  any  other. 
VIII.  The  Divine  Spirit  acts  on  the  heart  or  will  by  inspiring  in 
it  right  aims.  If  love  and  hojjc  and  fear  are  graciously  exercised, 
they  will  fix  .our  intentions  on  right  ends.  We  will  then  act 
unwaveringly  in  view  of  the  supreme  good.  It  is  partly  through 
the  will  that  we  ol)tain  that  wisdom  which  is  profitable  to  direct.^ 
The  words  holiness,  truth,  benevolence,  right,  wrong,  heaven,  hell, 
will  in  our  vocabulary  come  to  be  fi-aught  with  a  wealth  of  meaning 
which  no  human  mind  can  calculate.  The  Spirit  causes  the 
preacher  to  intend  right  words,  not  only  as  a  moral  being  but  also 
particularly  as  a  herald  of  the  Gospel — as  a  prophet  sjieaking  in 
behalf  of  God,  as  an  ambassador  for  Cin-ist,  as  an  under-shepherd  of 
the  flock  of  God,  as  a  teacher  of  divine  knowledge,  and  the  servant 
of  the  Church  for  Christ's  sake.  Gain,  applause,  power,  ])lace, 
honour,  ease — these  and  other  such  earthly  objects  cannot  habitually 

1  Rom.  vii.,  viii.;  ix.  1 ;  1  Tim.  i.  8 ;  Heb.  x.  2.         2  Heb.  x.  27  ;  2  Cor.  i.  12. 
3  Eccles.  X.  10. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  51 

direct  the  studies  and  utterances  of  any  man  whom  the  Holy  Ghost 
has  put  into  the  ministry. 

IX.  This  inspiration  affects  the  will  or  moral  nature  of  man,  by 
producing  fixed  and  steadfast  resolutions.^  It  removes  all  disposi- 
tion to  waver  or  delay  in  discharging  the  obligations  of  conscience 
or  acting  from  the  promptings  of  Christian  love.  It  also  supplies 
the  inward  vitality  and  strength  which  impel  to  ready  and  perse- 
vering action.  "  Our  Saviour,"  says  John  Owen,2  "  calls  grace  '  the 
good  treasure  of  the  heart '  of  a  good  man,  whence  that  which  is 
good  doth  proceed.  It  is  a  principle  constantly  and  abundantly 
inciting  and  stirring  up  unto,  and  consequently  bringing  forth, 
actions  conformable  and  like  unto  it ;  and  it  is  also  called  a  treasure 
from  its  abundance.  It  will  never  be  exhausted,  it  is  not  wasted 
by  men's  spending  it.  .  .  .  The  Scripture  speaking  of  the  heart  as 
the  principle  of  men's  good  or  evil  actions,  doth  usually  insinuate 
two  things  belonging  unto  the  manner  of  their  performance. 

"  Firsts  Suitableness  and  pleasingness  unto  the  soul  in  the  things 
that  are  done.  When  men  take  delight,  and  are  pleased  in  and 
with  what  they  do,  they  are  said  to  do  it  heartily,  with  their  whole 
hearts.  Thus  when  God  himself  blesseth  his  people  in  love  and 
delight,  he  says,  he  doth  it  with  his  whole  heart  and  his  whole  soul 
(Jer.  xxxii.  41). 

"  Secondly^  Resolution  and  constancy  in  such  actions.  And  this  also 
is  denoted  as  the  metaphorical  expression  before  used  of  a  treasure, 
from  whence  men  do  constantly  take  out  the  things  which  they  either 
stand  in  need  of,  or  do  intend  to  use."  The  Holy  Ghost  inspires 
not  only  wishing,  but  choosing,  and  is  not  pleased  with  half-pur- 
poses and  double-mindedness.^  Resolute  action  and  decision  of 
character  distinguish  ancient  men  of  God,  and  are  demanded  by 
them  of  all  who  profess  to  engage  in  his  service.  Elijah,  Paul, 
James,  and,  above  all,  our  Divine  Master,  exemplify  this  remark.* 

The  Divme  Spirit  thus  impels  the  man  of  God  to  practise  his  own 
teachings.  Through  love  and  conscience  he  moves  the  minister  to 
follow  wherever  truth  leads  the  way.  Old  prejudices,  the  ties  of 
kindred,  the  precious  memory  of  the  dead,  temporal  interests,  a 
shortsighted   expediency,  fond   fancies,  strong  passions,  the  desire 

1  Psa.  Ixxviii.  37  ;  Jer.  xxx.  21  ;  Acts  xi.  23  ;  Col.  i.  23. 

2  Works,  vol.  xiii.,  pp.  20-22. 

3  We  would  not  here  ignore  the  fact,  that  the  intellect  has  an  important  share 
in  reaching  2jr«rf«cz«?2  dictamen,  the  ultimate  resolution  of  the  judgment. 

41  Kings  xviii.  21;  1  Cor.  ii.  2;  2  Cor.  i.  17;  James  i.  6-8;  Matt.  vi.  24; 
Luke  xii.  50. 


52  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION; 

of  originality,  the  vanity  of  genius,  a  love  of  logical  or  rhetorical 
victories,  these  and  other  such  terrene  forces  will  he  overruled  hy 
a  deep,  abiding  and  practical  love  of  revealed  truth. 

And  this  obedience  helps  to  interj)ret  and  teach  the  Scriptures. 
Ezra,  we  arc  told,  prepared  his  heart  to  understand  and  to  do  the 
law  of  the  Lord  before  he  taught  it  to  Israel.i  The  moral  blindness 
of  those  degenerate  prophets,  the  Scribes,  appears  to  have  been 
partly  occasioned  by  their  recommending  to  others  what  they  did 
not  do  themselves.  As  the  sacred  oracles  everywhere  relate  to  ex- 
perimental and  practical  life,  they  cannot  be  thoroughly  understood 
by  the  disobedient,  however  gifted  and  learned  they  may  be.  Xor 
will  prayer  and  study  and  preacliing  of  themselves  Suffice  to  make 
us  accurate  Biblical  scholars,  or  profound  theologians,  or  powerful 
preachers.  If  we  would  comprehend  the  first  principles  of  the 
Christian  religion  we  must  daily  endeavour  to  do  all  Christian  du- 
ties.- The  teachings  of  Holy  Scripture  on  this  subject  are  com- 
prehended in  the  saying  of  Justin  Martyr,  "There  is  no  true 
knowledge  Avithout  life,"  and  that  other  of  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
"  Practice  is  the  Avay  to  knowledge." 

X.  Xearly  allied  to  resoluteness  is  that  boldness  which  charac- 
terised the  sermons  and  prayers  of  the  apostles.  The  Church  at 
Jerusalem  prayed  saying,  "  Grant  unto  thy  servants,  that  with  all 
boldness  they  may  speak  thy  word."'  This  i)raycr  "vvas  answered; 
for  we  are  told  that  "  they  Avere  all  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
they  spake  the  word  of  God  with  boldness."^  It  is  clear  from  this 
and  other  Scriptures  that  this  freedom  of  speech  was  imparted  to 
the  primitive  disciples  by  the  Divine  Spirit.  The  apostle  Paul 
expected  that  this  freespokenness  would  be  imparted  to  him  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  in  answer  to  the  intercessions  of  his  converts.'*  Not 
only  Paul  but  Barnabas,  ApoUos,  Peter,  John  and  others,  were 
endowed  with  this  freedom  of  speech.  In  what  did  this  ministerial 
virtue  consist  ?  It  did  not  consist  merely  in  an  unembarrassed 
fluency  in  extemporaneous  preaching  and  prayer.  One  text  (2 
Cor.  iii.  17)  is  often  misquoted  so  as  to  encourage  the  conviction 
that  the  Divine  Spirit  gives  '•  liberty,"  or  readiness  of  utterance. 
Th3  word  liberty  here  signifies  freedom  from  the  mental  blindness 
of  an  unregencrate  Hebrew.  But  there  is  no  passage  of  Scripture 
which  justifies  the  belief  that  the  Holy  Ghost  inspires  liberty  of 

1  Ezra  vii.  10. 

2Psa.  1.  23;    Prov.  iv.  18;    Isa.  Iviii.  8;    Hos.  vi.  3;    Matt  xxv.  14-30;   Joliii 
vii.  17.,  viii.  12;  Acts  v.  32. 
3  Acts  iv.  29-31.  4  Phil.  i.  19,  20  ;  Epb.  vi.  18,  20. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  53 

utterance  or  delivery  altogether  apart  from  the  notion  of  boldness 
and  frankness. 

This  quality  did  not  consist  in  a  fierce,  lion-like  delivery.  It  was 
more  intimately  related  to  the  confidence  of  the  mind  than  to  any 
audacity  of  manner,  as  is  manifest  from  the  texts  which  mention  it 
as  a  qualification  for  acceptable  prayer  to  God.^  Paul  was  one  of 
the  boldest  of  the  apostles,  and  yet  his  voice  appears  to  have  been 
feeble.2 

This  boldness  did  not  partake  of  the  nature  of  personality  or  any 
thing  needlessly  ofiensive.  Paul  employs  the  word  in  his  speech 
before  Agrippa,  where  he  introduces  his  subject  in  the  most  courtly 
manner.^  From  this  we  may  infer  that  the  apostle  did  not  regard 
this  strain  of  compliment  as  inconsistent  Avith  his  notion  of  a  bold 
speech.  The  Eev.  Daniel  Moore*  playfully  remarks  that  the  Greek 
word  should  not  be  rendered  "  baldness." 

It  did  not  manifest  itself  in  heterodoxical  or  irreverent  thoughts 
and  expressions.  The  prayer  of  the  Church  was  that  with  all  bold- 
ness the  servants  of  God  might  speak  his  word,  not  man's  word. 
As  this  freespokenness  was  prompted  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  so  of 
necessity  it  communicated  nothing  but  the  word  of  God. 

Neither  is  humour  any  evidence  of  the  possession  of  this  quality. 
Not  a  few  facetious  preachers  have  the  reputation  of  much  bold- 
ness ;  but  true  boldness  has  its  source  in  Christian  love  :  and  this, 
like  every  other  deep  passion,  little  as  we  may  think  of  it,  is  grave 
and  rather  inclined  to  sadness  than  to  levity.  Says  St.  Bernard, 
commenting  on  the  words,  "  The  voice  of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  our 
land,"  "  I  hear  the  voice  of  that  teacher  with  the  greatest  pleasure 
who  moves  me  not  to  clap  my  hands  in  applause,  but  to  beat  my 
bosom  with  sorrow.  Verily  thou  dost  exhibit  the  turtle-dove  if 
thou  teachest  how  to  groan,  and  if  thou  wouldst  persuade  thou 
oughtest  to  study  the  art  of  groaning  rather  than  the  art  of  de- 
clamation." 

Passing  f.-om  a  negative  to  a  positive  view  of  the  term  Parrhesia, 
it  will  be  found  to  signify  either  fearlessness  of  speech  or  publicity 
of  utterance,  or  else  frankness  as  opposed  to  all  concealment  or  in- 
tended obscurity  of  language. 

Holy  Scripture  teaches  us  to  expect  that  the  Divine  Spirit  alone  will 
deliver  us  from  timidity  in  the  hour  when  we  are  summoned  to  de- 
clare unwelcome  but  salutary  truths.  That  which  removed  all  fear 
from  the  hearts  of  the  prophets  was  the  assured  presence  of  the  in- 

1  Heb.  lii.  6,  iv.  16,  x.  35  ;  1  John  ii.  28,  v.  14.  2  2  Cor.  ?.  10. 

3  Acts  sxvi.  2,  3,  26  ;  Gal.  iv.  16.        4  Thoughts  on  Preaching  (2d  ed.),  p.  121. 


54  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION ; 

vincible  Spirit  which  was  variously  called  '•  the  hand  of  God,"  and 
"  the  finger  of  God."^  Nor  was  it  otherwise  when  the  Lord  Jesus  ap- 
peared in  his  heavenly  mystery  before  John  who  fell  at  his  feet  as 
dead ;  his  glorified  Master  laid  his  hand  upon  him,  saying,  ''  Fear 
not.''  This  act  of  gracious  condescension — tliis  stooping  of  the  Di- 
vine to  the  human  reassured  the  apostle's  faith  and  restored  his 
shuddering  frame  to  something  more  than  its  former  composure. 
"Without  this  inspired  courage,  the  greater  your  sj^iritual  ihvunina- 
tion,  the  smaller  is  your  freedom  in  utterance ; 

"  For  tlie  echo  in  you  breaks  upon  the  words  which  you  are  speaking, 
And  the  chariot-wheels  jar  in  the  gate  through  which  you  drive  them  forth." 

This  boldness  is  increased  by  pastoral  labours  among  the  poor.^ 

XI.  Distinct  from  Parrheski,  yet  working  in  tmison  with  it,  is  that 
power  or  Dynamis  which  is  so  often  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Now  what  are  the  significations  of  this  word  which  pertain 
to  the  present  subject  ?  To  answer  this  question  may  not  be  as 
pleasant  as  to  read  supinely  the  dialogue  of  Fenelon  or  some  other 
brilliant  essay  on  sacred  eloquence,  and  so  glance  at  one-sided  and 
dissolving  views  of  this  subject ;  but  if  we  read  only  such  books  as 
stimulate  rather  than  nourish,  we  may  idtimately  have  to  take  up 
the  lamentation  of  the  prophet,  "  My  leanness,  my  leaimess,  woe 
unto  me  !  the  treacherous  dealers  have  dealt  treacherously ;  yea,  the 
treacherous  dealers  have  dealt  very  treacherously."  Among  other 
things,  then,  we  find  that  the  word  means  an  energy  inspired  in  holy 
men  by  the  Divine  Spirit  (Luke  i.  17;  iv.  14;  xxiv.49;  Actsi.8;  vi.8; 
2  Tim.  ii.  1 ).  This  was  wanting  in  the  pagan  philosophers,  in  order  to 
make  their  teachings  widely  and  permanently  useful  to  others,  but  in 
Daniel,  for  exam})le,  it  brought  his  wisdom  into  full  exercise  (Dan.  ii. 
23,  Septuagint  version).  Again  it  signifies  the  original  and  essential 
efficacy  of  inspired  thought  as  contrasted  with  words  (1  Cor.  iv.  19, 
20;  1  Thes.  i.  5).  Plutarch  (de  Defectu  Orac.)  em])loys  the  word  in 
the  sense  of  nature  or  essence.  Li  one  instance  it  imports  that  forti- 
tude which  the  Spirit  begets  and  sustains  (Eph.  iii.  13-16;  vi.  10). 
Let  it  not,  however,  be  confounded  with  Exonsla^  "  authority,"  a 
word  applied  to  the  preaching  of  Christ,  and  to  his  dominion. 
None  of  his  ministers  may  ])retend  to  or  assume  any  such  authority 
in  speaking  as  He,  the  one  Divine  Master,  exercised.  Even  his 
apostles  did  not  profess  to  exert  it.  Power  they  did  indeed  claim 
as  coming  from  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  nothing  beyond  tliis ;  r-  pas- 
toral authority  they  had,  but  it  was  something  very  different  from 


1  Dan.  X.  10-10 ;  Rav.  i.  17.  2  1  Tim.  iii.  18. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  55 

this,  and  expressed  by  a  different  word  ;    namely,  Epitages  (Titus 
ii.  15). 

All  things  considered,  this  power  must  be  regarded  as  a  divme 
influence  imparting  and  sustaining  the  strength  and  energy  which 
were  required  for  doing  and  suffering  the  will  of  God.  In  some 
instances  the  Divine  Spirit  inspired  even  physical  strength  and 
activity,  as  in  Samson ;  and  in  Elijah  also,  who  after  the  prophetic 
labours  of  a  day  without  food  or  rest,  ran  before  the  chariot  of 
Ahab,  five  miles  from  Mount  Carmel  to  the  gates  of  Jezreel.^  That 
the  Holy  Ghost  can  and  does  give,  restore  and  support  physical 
energy,  seems  to  be  implied  in  the  laudatory  words  of  David  and 
Habakkuk,  and  in  one  of  the  predictions  of  Isaiah.2  Our  Divine 
Master,  after  his  fast  of  forty  days  in  the  desert,  was  inspired  with 
such  physical  vitality  and  might  that,  according  to  the  evangelist,  he 
"returned  in  the  power  of  the  Spirit  unto  Galilee."'^  And  on  that 
morning  after  Paul  had  preached  and  talked  all  night,  what  was  it 
but  the  same  Spirit  that  impelled  him  to  walk  from  Troas  to  Assos, 
when  he  would  naturally  have  reposed,  m  the  ship  while  she  was 
doublmg  the  cape  ? 

XII.  This  power  is  often  attended  with  what  has  been  termed 
self-difiidence  as  opposed  to  self-sufficiency.  The  Apostle  Paul  con- 
fesses the  sense  of  this,  generally  accompanied  with  an  assurance 
of  gracious  aid.^  His  experience  in  this  regard  is  full  of  encour- 
agement to  the  lowly,  and  of  reproof  to  the  proud.  It  is  also  simi- 
lar to  that  of  many  other  prophets.  "  I  am  now  an  old  man,"  said 
Luthei',  "  and  have  been  a  long  time  used  to  preaching,  but  I  never 
ascend  the  pulpit  without  a  tremour."  John  Welch,  the  Scotch  wor- 
thy, would  sometimes  send  for  his  elders  before  preaching,  and  tell 
them  he  was  afraid  to  go  mto  the  pulpit  because  he  found  himself 
sadly  deserted,  and  then  ask  one  or  more  of  them  to  pray  for  him. 
It  was  observed  that  these  humiliations  were  commonly  followed  by 
extraordinary  assistance.  John  Livingstone,  his  great  cotemporary^ 
was  subject  to  similar  humiliations.5  John  Newton  used  to  say  he 
never  spoke  well  till  he  felt  that  he  could  not  speak  at  all.  A  ser- 
mon thus  begun  with  dejection  has  not  unconmaonly  ended  with 
Joy.  The  same  thing  is  observable  of  our  secret  prayers  for  the 
Spirit's  assistance.     Begun,  perhaps,  like  some  of  the  Psalms,  with 


1  Judges  xiv.  6  ;  xv.  14  ;  1  Kings  xviii.  46. 

2  Psa.  xviii.  33  ;  Hab.  iii.  9  ;  Isa.  xL  29-31.  3  Lulie  iv.  14. 

4  1  Cor.  ii.  3-5.;  xv.  9,  10.;  iv.  7-10.;  xii.  9,  10.;  xiii.  4. 

5  Life  and  Remains,  by  the  Wodrow  Society,  pp.  138,  139,  194,  283,  285, 


50  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION; 

dou])ts,  fears,  confessions,  lamentations,  and  deprecations,  they  have 
concluded  with  peace,  jubilation,  praise,  and  triumph. 

"Why  should  this  be  bo  ?  Some  of  the  operations  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  are  mysterious ;  but  this  part  of  the  preacher's  experience 
may  be  exi)lained  thus :  The  Sjjirit  first  reveals  to  us  our  omti 
natural  weakness  and  unworthiness,  with  a  view  to  lead  us  to 
repose  entire  confidence  in  his  all-sufficient  aid.  When  he  has  thus 
brought  us  to  put  our  whole  trust  in  him,  then  and  not  till  then  has 
he  prepared  us  to  receive  the  plentitude  of  his  i)Ower.  The  Holy 
Breath,  by  beating  down  the  sacrificial  flame,  lengthens  it,  and  thus 
causes  it  ultimately  to  rise  all  the  more  high.  Going  forth,  per- 
haps, through  midnight  darkness  to  importime  of  a  sleeping  neigh- 
bour three  loaves  of  bread  for  a  friend,  his  joy  on  receiving  them  is 
all  the  greater  for  his  having  begged  and  sliivered  so  long  in  the 
cold.  By  this  we  do  not  mean  that  self-diffidence  is  noAv  exchanged 
for  self  confidence.  No,  it  is  as  deeply  felt  as  ever ;  only  it  now  allies 
itself  with  the  strongest  confidence  in  the  grace  of  the  Spirit,  in  the 
true  sayings  of  God,  and  the  strength  of  his  cause.  A  serene  con- 
sciousness of  mental  or  moral  strength  is  no  mark  of  the  Spirit's 
gracious  aid,  but  quite  the  reverse.  In  a  company  of  ministers  the 
following  question  was  once  discussed  :  "  To  what  causes  in  minis- 
ters may  much  of  their  want  of  success  be  imputed  ?"  The  answers, 
as  Andrew  Fuller  reports  them,  resolved  themselves  uito  a  want  of 
personal  religion  as  the  principal  cause.  One  reason  assipied  for 
this  want  of  success  was  "  our  not  being  emptied  of  self  sufficiency. 
In  proportion  as  we  lean  upon  our  own  gifts,  or  parts,  or  prepara- 
tions, we  slight  the  Holy  Sjjirit ;  and  no  wonder  that  bemg  grieved, 
he  should  leave  us  to  do  our  work  alone.  Besides,  when  this  is  the 
case,  it  is,  humanly  speaking,  imsafc  for  God  to  prosper  us,  especially 
those  ministers  who  possess  considerable  abilities."  Agreeable  to 
this  view  is  the  fact  that  in  all  works  of  grace  the  Divine  Spirit  dis- 
a])p()iiits  all  expectations  that  are  merely  reasonable,  human  and 
earthly.  He  aims  to  convince  men  of  the  reality,  peculiarity,  and 
supreme  excellence  of  his  own  work.  This  he  often  does  either  by 
giving  to  the  ignorant  and  basliful  an  illumination  and  courage  they 
naturally  lack,  or  by  giving  to  the  bold  and  knowing,  timidity,  im- 
readiness  of  mind,  and  feebleness  of  speech,  such  as  the  i)ossessor  is 
a.shamed  of,  but  such  as  the  Divine  Spirit  nevertheless  uses  to 
advance  the  glory  of  his  grace.^ 

1  This  accords  with  the  song  of  Ilannnh  ami  Alary,  with  the  drift  of  the  proph- 
etic teachings,  and  with  the  providential  dealings  of  God  in  nations,  churches 
and  families  (1  Sam.  ii.  1-lU;  Luko  i.  46-65). 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  57 

In  other  cases  the  preacher  is  appalled  by  that  which  is  revealed 
by  the  success  of  the  Gospel,  or  rather  by  the  spectacle  of  the  blind- 
ing and  hardening  effect  of  the  Gospel  in  some,  as  it  is  seen  in  the 
light  of  the  neighbouring  triumphs  of  grace  over  the  blindness  and 
obduracy  of  others  ;  so  that  like  the  apostles  his  rejoicing  because 
of  the  victories  of  the  Gospel  is  succeeded  by  trembling  in  view  of 
his  awful  responsibility  and  utter  unworthiness.  "  Now  thanks  be 
unto  God,  which  always  causeth  us  to  triumph  in  Christ,  and 
maketh  manifest  the  savour  of  his  knowledge  in  every  place. "1 
During  a  triumph,  or  on  the  approach  of  a  triumphal  procession, 
sweet  spices  and  fragrant  flowers  were  thrown  about  the  streets, 
and  aromatic  incense  was  burnt  on  the  altars  of  the  gods ;  thus 
diffusing  their  blended  joerfumes  far  and  wide  through  the  homes 
of  the  city.  The  apostle  felt  that  he  was  like  such  torn  and  scat- 
tered flowers,  trodden  as  he  was  under  foot  of  persecutors.  Or  as 
incense  was  consumed  by  fire,  so  was  he  by  his  arduous  labours,  and 
yet  all  was  as  acceptable  to  God  as  the  smoke  of  a  sacrifice  that  was 
typical  of  Christ  as  the  Lamb  of  God,  and  as  perv^asive  as  the  fragrance 
of  that  incense  which  was  typical  of  his  grace.  But  alas  !  the  Gos- 
pel has  a  doitble  working.  "  For  we  are  unto  God  a  sweet  savour 
of  Christ,  in  them  that  are  saved,  and  in  them  that  perish ;  to  the 
one  we  are  the  savour  of  death  imto  death ;  and  to  the  other,  the 
savour  of  life  unto  life."  "  Vultures,"  says  Theodoret,  "  fly  from 
sweet  odours  of  myrrh ;  yet  myrrh  is  myrrh  though  the  vultures 
avoid  it."  "  And  who,"  asks  Paul,  "  is  sufficient  for  these  things  ?  " 
His  answer  is,  "  Not  that  we  are  sufficient  of  ourselves,  to  think 
any  thing  as  of  ourselves,  but  our  sufficiency  is  of  God.^  One-half 
of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  like  the  terraqueous  globe,  perpetually 
rolls  forward  in  darkness,  and  the  self-diffidence  of  his  ministers 
would  soon  degenerate  into  despair,  did  it  not  at  a  certain  stage  of 
despondency  feel  a  firmer  and  warmer  grasp  of  tte  hand  of  God. 
It  is  through  self-diffidence,  patience,  and  other  passive  graces  that 
the  Spirit,  like  the  indwelling  deity  of  Socrates,  tells  us  what  we 
should  not  do  and  say.s 

XIII.  Inspiration  sometimes  or  in  some  persons,  operates  on  the 
will  or  heart  to  such  a  degree  as  to  cause  a  plentitude  of  the  Spirit. 
The  phrase  "  filled  with  the  Spirit,"  occurs  in  several  places  in  the 
New  Testament.  The  Greek  Pleres,  and  its  derivatives,  like  the 
Latin  Plenus  is,  by  euphemy,  sometimes  employed  in  the  sense  of  ex- 
hilarated and  even  of  drunken.     One  passage  (Eph.  v.  18)  suggests 

1  2  Cor.  ii.  14-16.  2  2  Cor.  ii.  16.;  iii.  5. 

3  Acts  xvi.  7;  Zech.  ii.  13;  Habak.  ii.  20;  Amos  viii.  11  ;  Ezelv.  xx.  -3. 


58  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION  ; 

tlie  idea  that  between  inebriety  by  wine  and  a  plentitude  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  there  is  some  resemblance  in  the  immediate  and  appa- 
rent effects,  but  a  great  difference  in  the  causes  and  consequences 
of  the  two  ;  the  former  venting  itself  in  .wild  and  profane  shouts; 
the  latter  "  speaking  in  psalms,  hymns,  and  spiritual  songs,  making 
melody  in  the  heart  unto  the  Lord." 

The  Primitive  Christians  are  described  as  enjoying  this  plenitude 
of  the  Spirit,  either  habitually  or  occasionally.  Who,  let  ns  ask, 
enjoyed  it  always  or  habitually  ?  The  seven  deacons  (Acts  vi.  3) ; 
Paul  (Acts  ix.  17) ;  Barnabas,  (Id.,  xi.  24).  Cases  like  these  show 
that  the  mind  is  not  disordered  by  this  constant  fulness.  And  Avho 
occasionally  ?  Elizabeth  and  Zacharias  (Luke  i.  41-67) ;  Christ 
(Luke  iv.  1) ;  the  Pentecostal  assembly  (Acts  ii.  4) ;  Peter  (Id.,  iv.  8) ; 
the  apostles  (Id.,  iv.  31)  ;,  the  Church  (Id.,  xiii.  52).  Paul,  though 
mentioned  above  as  habitually  full  of  ihe  Holy  Ghost  is,  in  Acts 
xiii.  9,  described  as  if  occasionally  so  favoured.  This  and  other  simi 
lar  apparent  inconsistencies  and  discrepancies  may  be  reconciled  by 
supposing  that  the  occasional  plenitude  imports  nothing  more  than 
this,  that  the  effects  of  the  Jiahitual  plenitude  w^ere  only  manifest  as 
occasions  demanded,  in  exhibitions  of  miraculous  power,  or  displays 
of  convicting  or  converting  grace  that  followed  the  declarations  of 
Gosj^el  truth. 

This  plentitude  sometimes  designates  the  fruits  and  manifestations 
of  the  Divine  Spirit.  Stephen  is  said  to  have  been  full  of  faith  and 
power  (Acts  vi.  8).  In  the  church  at  Antioch  this  plenitude  foimd 
utterance  in  joy  (Acts  xiii.  52).  Once  the  phrase,  "  the  fulness  of 
God,"  is  lased  to  convey  the  idea  of  the  possession  of  all  the  gifts 
and  graces  of  the  Spirit  (Eph.  iii.  16-19). 

Nearly  related  to  this  subject  is  the  question :  What  are  we  to 
understand  by  the  phrase,  "  a  doxible  portion  of  thy  Spirit,"  in 
Elisha's  request  to  Elijah  ?  The  words  "  double  portion,"  when 
traced  to  the  Hebrew  originals,  mean  a  ration  of  two,  derived  from 
the  custom  of  setting  before  the  person  whom  it  is  intended  to 
honour,  a  twofold  or  even  manifold  ])ortion  ;  also  from  a  provision 
of  the  Levitical  laAv,  accordhig  to  which  the  first-born  received  a 
double  portion  in  the  inheritance  of  his  father.^  Elisha  did  not 
therefore  desire  a  double  measure  of  the  spirit  of  his  prophetic 
father.  He  that  is  departing  cannot  bequeath  to  his  heir  more  than 
he  himself  has  ;  and  the  heir,  in  this  case,  could  not  reverently  ask 
a  greater  spiritual  endowment  than  Elijah,  his  father,  possessed. 
Elisha  asks  for  himself  as  the  first-born  spiritual  son,  a  favourite's 

1  2  Kings  ii.  8-10 ;  Deut.  xxi.  17 ;  Gen.  xliii.  34  ;  Keil  and  Bertheau,  in  loc. 


i 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  59 

portion  of  Elijah's  spirit,  such  as  would  be  needful  and  fitting  to  the 
successor  of  so  great  a  prophet. 

But  let  us  not  wander  too  far  from  the  subject  of  the  plenitude 
of  the  Spirit,  as  described  in  the  New  Testament.  The  examples 
of  the  effects  of  this  plenitude  in  causing  a  kind  of  spiritual  inebriety 
are  many  and  striking.  The  instance  of  the  Pentecostal  assembly 
is  too  familiar  to  need  a  repetition  here.  Many  of  the  martyrs  and 
Flavel,  Edwards,  Payson,  Madam  Guyon,  and  numbers  more,  appear 
to  have  enjoyed  either  occasionally  or  habitually  this  exhilaration 
or  inebriety.  It  has  often  served  to  lift  believers  above  the  power 
of  pain,  feebleness,  despondency,  fear  and  sorrow,^  to  transport  the 
soul  with  unutterable  joy,  and  to  inspire  the  tongue  with  an  over- 
powering eloquence.  It  is  reported  of  a  certain  English  martyr 
that  when  he  was  bound  to  the  stake,  and  the  fagots  were  collect- 
ing around  him,  a  skylark  moimted  on  high  and  sung  over  his  head ; 
at  which  he  clasped  his  hands  together  and  exclaimed,  "  Thank  God 
there  is  still  one  free  creature  which  can  pour  forth  its  gratitude  to 
the  Giver  of  all  good,  according  to  the  dictates  of  its  own  heart." 
A  dangerous  man  that !  And  one  whom  the  votaries  of  Antichrist 
could  ill-afford  to  allow  the  liberty  of  speaking  to  the  common  jieo- 
ple  in  such  a  manner. 

Happy  in  their  work  are  those  preachers  who  seek  and  trust  the 
fulness  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  However  infii-m  their  health,  or  perse- 
cuted, or  otherwise  afflicted,  they  have  a  sure  remedy  for  all  evils, 
and  an  all-sufficient  stimulant  and  cordial  to  invigorate  and  animate 
them  in  their  arduous  labors.  Mr.  Arthur,  in  his  "  Tongue  of  Fire," 
writing  about  the  analogy  between  the  condition  of  being  drunk 
with  wine  and  that  of  being  filled  with  the  Spirit,  concludes  his 
remarks  with  these  words  of  warning :  "  Nor  do  we  need  to  look  far 
for  the  grounds  of  that  analogy.  To  men  of  the  world  wine  is  a  resort 
when  they  want  something  above  their  natural  strength  of  mind 
and  body,  and  in  it  they  seek  three  things,  strength.,  cheering,  and 
mental  elevation.  Under  its  influence  they  will  do  more  work  than 
they  could  otherwise.  They  will  cast  off  their  cares,  and  their 
mental  j^owers  will  reach  a  state  which  they  themselves  call  '  inspi- 
ration.' That  worldly  orators,  even  of  the  highest  reputation, 
often  seek  in  wine  such  animation  of  their  powers  as  is  necessary  to 
great  success  is  only  too  well  known.  The  physical  tendency  to 
seek  elevation  in  such  a  source  cannot  be  even  slightly  yielded  to 
without  fatally  affecting  '  the  tongue  of  fire.' "  The  last  sentence  of 
Dr.  Arthur  conveys  a  momentous  truth — a  truth  which  he  might 

12Cor.  vii.  4;  Col.  i.  11. 


60  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION ; 

have  established  by  the  declaration  of  the  prophet  Isaiah  who  con- 
fesses that  the  prophets  not  only  of  Israel  but  of  Judah  even,  had 
erred  in  vision  and  wavered  in  judgment  through  the  eftect  of  wine 
and  strong  drink. i 

How  small  is  the  fliith  of  such  preachers  in  the  sufficiency  and 
love  of  the  Infinite  Spirit.  Very  much  better  is  it  to  say  in  times 
of  temptation :  ''  I  am  like  a  green  olive-tree  in  the  house  oi  God ; 
I  trust  in  the  mercy  of  God  for  ever  and  ever."  We  have  met  witli 
a  passage  in  the  works  of  Augustine  which  from  the  deep  experi- 
ence of  this  father,  and  his  thorough  knowledge  of  Biblical  pneu- 
matology  is  worthy  of  special  examination.  "  Let  us,"  says  he, 
"  taste  how  gracious  the  Lord  is  who  has  given  us  as  a  pledge  tlie 
Spirit,  so  that  in  him  we  have  a  foretaste  of  his  sweetness,  and  long 
for  the  fountain  of  life  itself,  where  with  a  sober  inebriation  (sobria 
ebrietate)  we  may  be  overflowed  and  watered  like  a  tree  which  is 
planted  by  the  water  courses.  .  .  .  For  the  Divine  Spirit  says, 
'  But  the  sons  of  men  shall  hope  under  the  cover  of  thy  wings ; 
they  shall  be  made  drunken  with  the  fatness  of  thine  house,  and  of 
the  river  of  thy  pleasure  shalt  thou  cause  them  to  drink.  For  with 
thee  is  the  fountain  of  life  '  (Psa.  xxxvi.  8).  Such  drunkenness  does 
not  overthrow  the  mind  but  lifts  it  powerfully  upward,  and  gives  it 
an.  oblivion  of  all  earthly  things."  (De  Agone  Christiano,  ^10, 
Opera,  Benedict,  ed.,  tome  vi.,  245-2G2.) 

Augustine  here  quotes  from  the  3Gth  Psa.  of  the  Septuagint, 
which  agrees,  in  the  main,  with  the  Vulgate,  Psa.  xxxv.  0.  By  a 
bold  but  beautiful  figure  the  Psalmist  represents  the  saint  as  drunk 
with  holy  oil.  The  word  translated  "  fatness,"  is  in  the  Hebrew 
employed  for  the  oil  of  tlie  olive  (Judges  ix.  0),  an  oil  which,  when 
consecrated  to  the  Lord,  became  the  symbol  of  the  power  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.     See  also  Jer.  xxxi.  10-14. 

But  on  the  whole,  we  must  here  caution  the  preacher  against 
receiving  the  impression  that  tlie  foregoing  concomitants  of  inspira- 
tion are  either  its  constant  attendants  or  are  confined  to  the  minis- 
ters of  the  Gospel.  Our  especial  aim  has  been,  by  exhibiting  tlie 
method  according  to  whic-h  the  Spirit  operates  on  the  heart  and  the 
graces  it  there  creates  and  nourishes,  to  illustrate  our  idea  of  the 
secret  process  and  manifest  results  of  homiletical  inspiration.  In 
examining  a  subject  so  mysterious,  we  have  gained  much  when  we 
have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  those  things  wliich  are  collaU'rally 
related  to  it;  just  as  astronomers  by  discoverint;  an  abborratiou  oi" 
a  planet,  or  a  slight  reflection  of  light  i\\um  it.  find  out  that  part  of 

1  Isa.  xxviii.  7. 


ITS  EFFECTS  ON  THE  WILL.  61 

celestial  fields  in  which  to  watch  for  the  approach  of  a  new  star.  And 
this  is  the  more  important  since  partial  inspiration  is  more  nearly 
allied  than  plenary  to  the  ordinary  exercises  of  grace  or  "  walking  in 
the  Spirit."  Here  also  it  is  pre-eminently  true,  that  "  the  secret  of  tho 
Lord  is  with  them  that  fear  him."  It  has,  indeed,  heen  often  and 
well  said,  that  these  graces  are  not  the  Spirit,  and  that  it  is  only  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  not  our  faith,  our  love,  and  other  such  Christian 
virtues,  that  can  of  themselves  enable  us  to  preach  aright.  And 
yet,  be  it  remembered,  that  these  graces  of  the  Christian  heart  are 
so  many  strings  of  that  ^olian  lyre  whose  melodious  vibrations 
teach  us  the  direction,  the  pressure,  and  the  continuance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit's  motions. 


62      RELATIONS  OF  SEMI  INSPIRATION  AND  THE  INTELLECT. 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE  RELATIONS  OF  SEMI-INSPIRATION  AND  THE  LNTELLECT. 

Inspiration  seems  to  aflfect  the  intellect  through  the  heart  or 
will.  But  it  should  ever  be  kept  in  mind  that  all  the  actual  phe- 
nomena of  mind  are  complex.  "  In  our  philosophical  system,"  says 
Sir  William  Hamilton,  "  these  phenomena  may  stand  separated 
from  each  other  in  books  and  chapters ; — in  nature  they  are  ever  in- 
terwoven. These  elements  are  found,  indeed,  in  quite  various  pro- 
portions in  different  states — sometimes  one  preponderates,  some- 
times another ;  but  there  is  no  state  in  which  they  are  not  all  co- 
existent."^ And,  accordingly,  we  find  that  all  exercises  of  faith 
and  conscience,  though  originating  in  the  heart,  are  more  or  less 
intellectual  acts  also.  The  same  holds  good  of  all  other  operations 
of  the  will.  Were  it  our  purpose  to  write  a  philosophical  disqisi- 
tion  on  the  relations  of  the  Divine  Spirit  and  the  intellect,  it  would 
be  necessary,  as  here,  to  reverse  the  general  order  which  psycholo- 
gists adopt  by  treating  of  the  heart  or  "  active  powers  "  in  the  first 
place,  and  so  passing  to  the  intellect,  discuss  the  intuitive  or  regula- 
tive faculty  in  the  next  place,  and  consciousness  in  the  last  place. 
But  as  our  aim  is  more  humble,  specii^  and  practical,  avc  choose 
first  to  consider  the  mental  phenomenon  termed  Attention. 

I.  This  mental  state  is  entitled  to  our  first  consideration  here,  by 
reason  of  its  relation  to  the  problem  of  the  influence  of  the  will  on 
the  intellect.  "  Attention,"  says  Prof  Spalding,'-  "  is  the  concen- 
tration of  consciousness  on  certain  objects.  It  is  plain  that  atten- 
tion is  often  the  result  of  volition  ;  the  knotty  question  is,  whether 
it  is  always  so  ?  '     It  may  be  that  those  are  right,  who  hold  that  an 

1  From  our  thus  quoting  Sir  William  Hamilton,  let  not  not  the  reader  infer  that 
we  accept  his  division  of  the  phenomena  of  mind.  We  prefer  for  all  theological 
uses,  the  scholastic  division  into  powers  of  the  understanding  and  powers  of  the 
will ;  or,  as  it  is  less  clearly  expressed,  into  intellectual  and  active  powers.  Here- 
in we  follow  Augustine,  Calvin,  Owen,  and  Edwards. 

2  Art.  Rhetoric,  Encyclop.  Britan.,  vol.  xix.,  p.  118. 

3  Here  Hamilton  and  his  disciples  have  lost  themselves  in  a  Scottish  mist,  by 
confounding  the  Arrainian  volition  with  the  Angustinian  will-  Spalding's  con- 
clusion is  just  and  important.  Cf.  Acts  xvi.  14  ;  Jer.  vi.  10,  17  ;  Isa.  vi.  10; 
Deut.  xxix.  4. 


RELATIONS  OF  SEMI-INSPIRATION  AND  THE  INTELLECT.      63 

instinctive  concentration  of  thought,  an  attention  not  determined 
by  will,  is  a  necessary  condition  of  all  consciousness ;  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  see  one's  way  through  the  difficulties  which  stand  between 
us  and  that  conclusion.  At  present  it  is  enough  to  make  this 
assertion : — that  attention,  strictly  so  called,  a  concentration  of 
thought,  determined  by  will,  is  an  indisjDensable  condition  of  the 
rise  of  consciousness  above  that  confused  state,  of  which  feeling  is 
the  norm.  A  fact  of  attention,  in  this  sense  of  the  word,  is  a  men- 
tal process,  consequent  on  volition  and  its  antecedents.  It  must 
either  be  constituted  exclusively  by  cognitive  facts,  or  have  cogni- 
tion as  its  first  and  determining  step ;  and  lastly,  it  must  involve 
what  is  usually  called  abstraction,  or  the  throwing  certain  objects 
out  of  consciousness,  and  retaining  others.  Attention,  then,  and 
attention  which  is  voluntary  and  abstractive,  is  an  antecedent  and 
peremptory  condition  of  all  cognition  that  is  "  clear  "  (in  Leibnitz's 
sense  of  the  word);i  "  and  such  cognition  must  precede  all  further 
progress  of  thought  that  is  available  for  any  practical  purpose  what- 
ever. .  .  .  For  our  use  here,  this  doctrine  of  attention  supplies 
invaluable  corollaries.  If  the  doctrine  is  accej^ted  (and  it  does  ap- 
pear to  be  almost  a  truisum),  the  process  by  which  volition  may  be 
excited,  is  perceived  to  have  a  field  infinitely  wider  than  that  which 
at  first  it  might  seem  to  cover.  The  theory  bears  directly,  not  on 
persuasion  only,  but  on  the  attempt  to  generate  pure  belief;  and 
its  applications,  not  confined  to  eloquence,  range  far  and  sink  deep 
in  the  realm  of  poetry." 

It  is  then  of  the  first  importance  to  secure  such  an  ascendency  of 
the  Divine  Spirit  over  the  will  that  it  may  arrest  and  fix  our  atten- 
tion on  the  most  edifying  and  timely  themes,  and  hold  and  concen- 
trate our  minds  upon  the  principal  and  subordinate  facts  of  these 
themes,  until  they  enlighten  and  move  us  and  our  hearers,  according 
to  the  will  of , God. 

II.  The  next  eflfect  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Spirit  is  visible  on 
perception,  and  the  result  of  such  inspiration  is  termed  si^iritual 
discernment.2  This  power  is  imparted  to  the  intellect  through  the 
heart.  The  method  of  the  Spirit  in  inspiring  this  faculty  is  by 
creating  in  the  heart  or  will,  a  bias  or  inclination  towards  divine 
truth,  holmess,  and  goodness.     "  Spiritual  understanding,"  says  Ed- 

1  "Clear  cognition  is  such  a  notion  of  anything  that  I  may  know  it  when  it  is 
represented."     (Opera,  tome  ii.,  p.  15,  Genevse,  1765.) 

2  Isa.  hii.  2  ;  Rom.  i.  17-32  ;  1  Cor.  ii.  12-14  ;  2  Cor.  iii.  18  ;  iv.  3-6  ;  Eph.  iv. 
17,  18 ;  Acts  ssvi.  17,  18 ;  Phil.  i.  9,  10 ;  1  John  ii.  20-27 ;  Deut.  xxix.  4 ;  Jer. 
xxiv.  7. 


64      RELATIONS  OF  SEMI-INSPIRATIOX  AND  THE  INTELLECT. 

wards,  "  consists  primarily  in  a  sense  of  heart  of  the  supreme  beauty 
and  sweetness  of  moral  perfection,  and  includes,  secondarily,  all 
that  discerning  and  knowledge  of  religious  thhigs  that  depends 
upon  and  flows  from  such  a  sense."^  Here  and  elsewhere,  Edwards 
teaches  that  a  holy  relish  of  the  heart  goes  before  the  spiritual  per- 
ceptions of  the  intellect,  and  this  original  relish  conveys  to  us  more 
knowledge  than  a  mere  intellectual  perception  does :  "  as  he  that 
has  perceived  the  SAveet  taste  of  honey  knows  much  more  about  it 
than  he  who  has  only  looked  upon  it  and  felt  it."  To  this  we  may 
add  that  as  the  revelations  of  God  in  the  Scriptures  contain  that 
knowledge  which  is  necessary  to  our  santification.  Faith  also,  by 
receiving  this  knowledge  (which  cannot  be  obtamed  from  any  other 
source,  and  cannot  be  acquired  through  any  other  faculty),  co-works 
with  this  holy  taste  to  put  us  in  heartfelt  and  happy  possession  of 
the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  Infinite  Mind,  and  of  all  that  it  is 
crood  for  us  to  know  concerning  the  eternal  Past  and  the  eternal 
Future. 

It  ought  also  to  be  observed  that  the  Scriptures  make  this  spir- 
itual discernment  to  depend  on  the  cultivation  of  the  Christian 
graces.  The  apostle  Peter  (2  Epis.  i.  8,  9)  assures  us  that  if  we 
diligently  exercise  them,  we  shall  be  productive  and  fruitful  in  the 
knowledge  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  while  he  who  lacks  these 
graces  shows  that  he  is,  in  great  measure,  unable  to  exercise  his 
intellectual  powers  on  matters  of  supreme  concern.  He  "  is  blind 
and  cannot  see  afar  oif,  and  hath  forgotten  that  he  was  purged  fi-om 
his  old  sins."  Thus  he  evinces  an  intellectual  incapacity  as  to  the 
presentative  faculty,  or  perception ;  as  to  the  conservative  faculty,  or 
memory ;  as  to  the  rejiresentative  faculty,  or  imagination,  and  the 
elaborative  faculty,  including  the  powers  of  abstraction,  judgment, 
and  reasoning.-  For,  as  Bengel  remarks,  such  a  man  is  dim-sighted 
as  to  2^>'cse)it  privileges  (verse  12);  he  forgets  that  he  was  cleansed 
from  his  sins  which  are  lyast,  and  he  cannot  see  those  privileges 
which  are  far  oflF  in  the  future  (verse  11). 

III.  The  third  result  of  inspiration  as  to  the  intellect  may  be 
termed,  according  to  Scripture,  Wisdom — a  term  which  in  its  more 
general  signification  means  the  right  moral  direction  and  use  of  all 
the  intellectual  faculties.  It  is  coupled  with  sjViritual  discernment 
{sijnesis,  Col.  i.  9) ;  with  theoretical  knowledge  {[//losis,  Col.  ii.  3 ; 
1  Cor.  xii.  8)  and  Avith  prudence  {plin»irsii^,  Eph.  i.  8),  or  that  good 
sense  which,  as  Aristotle  says,  is  the  first  requisite  of  the  orator,  in 

1  Treatise  on  Rolisious  Affections,  Pt.  iii.,  sec.  4;  cf.  Discourse  on  tlie  True 
Way  of  Atiaiuing  Divine  Knowledge,  by  John  Smith  of  Cambridge,  Works,  pp.  1-22. 


RELATIONS  OF  SEMI-INSPIRATION  AND  THE  INTELLECT.       65 

order  to  gain  the  confidence  of  his'  hearers  which,  he  confesses,  is 
the  most  important  jDoint.i  It  is  also  associated  with  spiritual  judo-. 
ment  {anacrino,  1  Cor.  ii.  13-15).  Wisdom,  in  a  profomider  sense, 
denotes  taste  and,  in  the  Scriptures,  that  relish  for  spiritual  things 
which  the  Divine  Spirit  imparts  to  all  the  powers  of  the  intellect ; 
so  that  in  most  cases  the  signification  of  the  word  covers  that  of  all 
those  metaphysical  terms  with  which  it  is  conjoined. 

For  as  much  as  it  is  a  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  was  anciently 
represented  by  the  symbol  of  a  holy  ointment,  it  is  sometimes  called 
an  unction.  Far  back  in  antiquity,  wisdom  was  considered  the  first 
requisite  of  kmgs  and  priests.  Solomon,  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  and 
the  Messiah  received  fi-om  the  Divme  Spirit  that  spiritual  wisdom 
of  which  anointing  was  the  sign.2  So  closely  were  the  Divine 
Spu-it  and  wisdom  identified  in  the  minds  of  some  of  the  early 
Greek  fathers  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  by  them  called  Wisdom.' 
Theophilus,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  gives  the  Trinity  the  following  titles 
"The  Father,  His  Word,  and  His  Wisdom." 

This  Wisdom  was  a  divine  magnet  which  indicated  to  the  primi- 
tive converts  the  direction  wherein  truth  was  to  be  found.  As  the 
Holy  Spirit  inspired  in  them  a  love  of  divine  teachings  and,  at  the 
same  time,  therefore,  an  aversion  to  the  mere  inventions  of  men  in 
matters  of  religion,  they  were  not  easily  deceived  by  false  teachers. 
This  anointing  remained  in  them  as  a  constant  guide  to  divine  truth 
amidst  the  manifold  and  changeful  heresies  that  surrounded  them.3 
For  as  he  who  was  once  anointed  king  or  priest  was  always  king  or 
priest,  so  in  this  sense,  as  well  as  in  some  others,  believers  may  be 
said  to  be  kings  and  priests  imto  God.'* 

This  wisdom  was,  it  seems,  exercised  by  the  sanctified  minds  of 
the  apostles  in  writing  and  speaking  under  jDlenary  inspiration.5 
This  state  or  lAenomenon  of  the  intellect,  as  above  defined,  was 
perfected  by  the  inbreathmgs  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  was,  how- 
ever, something  different  from  "  the  word  of  wisdom,"  or  wise 
speech,  which  was  one  of  the  "  gifts  of  the  Spirit "  bestowed  on  some 
of  the  members  of  the  primitive  churches.  Some  modern  German 
writers  have  dogmatised  in  making  nice  distinctions  between  th?s 
gift  and  the  charlsm  of  "  the  word  of  knowledge."  These  Teutonic  • 
Gnostics  teach  us  many  things  which  the  Author  of  divine  revela- 

1  Aristot.  Rhet.,  Lib.  ii.,  cap.  i.,  sec.  5,  and  Lib.  i.,  cap.  ii.,  sec.  4.  Aristotle 
elsewhere  distinguishes  this  from  sophia  which  he  refers  to  things  divine  and  un- 
changeable.    {Greater  Ethics,  Lib.  i.,  cap.  xxxv.) 

2  1  Kings  iii.  5-15  ;  Jer.  xviii.  18;  Isa.  xi.  23. 

3  1  John  ii.  20-27.  4  Rev.  i.  6  ;  v.  10.  5  2  Peter  iii.  15. 


06       RELATIONS  OF  SEMI-INSPIRATION  AND  THE  INTELLECT. 

tion  has  withheld  from  us.  Tlius  much  we  may  reasonably  infer 
from  Scripture,  that  neither  of  these  gifts  assured  the  possession  of 
the  gift  of  jirophesying,  while  the  latter  always  contained  and  dis- 
played the  former.^  The  apostles  are  called  sophoi,  wise  men; 
compare  Matt,  xxiii.  34 ;  Luke  xi.  49.  They  were  also  teachers  of 
this  higher  wisdom.^ 

Its  attributes  are  mentioned  by  the  apostle  James.^  It  is  "  first 
pure.''  It  is  holy,  and  the  opposite  of  the  wisdom  which  descends 
not  from  above,  which  is  "  earthly,  sensual,  and  devilish."  It  is  else- 
where (Prov.  XXX.  3)  called  "  the  knowledge  of  the  holy."  The 
grand  defect  of  all  human  philosophy,  ancient  and  modern,  is  the 
absence  of  this  holiness.  Unsanctified  itself,  it  does  not  really  aim 
to  promote  sanctification  Even  most  of  our  systems  of  moral 
philosophy  ignore  the  Gospel  doctrine  of  regeneration.  "  Then 
peaceable."  How  different  from  the  wisdom  of  the  pagan  sophists, 
which  was  very  disputatious.  The  apostles  in  meekness  instructed 
opposers ;  the  sophists  in  pride  contradicted  them.'*  "  Gentle."  It 
is  not  harsh  but  moderate  and  lenient  in  all  cases  where  the  question 
is  respecting  the  duties  which  others  owe  to  us.^  "  And  easy  to  be 
entreated."  It  is  tractable,  patient,  and  forgiving.  It  yields  to  sound 
argument  and  Scriptural  persuasion.  "  Full  of  mercy  and  good 
fruits."  Unlike  the  pagan  philosophy,  which  was  essentially  malev- 
olent, it  is  replete  with  compassion  towards  the  miserable,  and 
abounds  in  good  works.  It  is  not  a  passive  and  feeble  virtue,  but 
active  and  yoked  with  energy,  as  it  was  in  Solomone  and  Daniel.'' 
"  Without  partiality  "  (or,  as  it  is  rendered  in  the  margin,  "  without 
wrangling  ") ;  "  without  hypocrisy."  This  last  consists  either  in  con- 
cealing what  we  are,  or  in  assimiing  to  be  what  we  are  not,  or  both. 
And  the  righteous  fruit  of  wisdom  "  is  sown  in  peace  of  them  that 
make  peace."  Here  is  a  regression  Avhich,  going  back  to  the  idea 
of  peace  first  expressed,  amplifies  and  applies  it.  The  ultimate 
consequences  of  the  heavenly  Avisdora  may  not. soon  appear;  but 
God's  times  and  seasons  will  cause  the  seeds  of  truth  that  are  peace- 
alely  sown  to  spring  up  and  bear  good  and  abundant  fruit :  for  the 


1  1  Cor.  xii.  and  xiv.  2  1  Cor.  i.  24  ;  ii.  4-7,  13. 

3  Jas.  iii.  17,  18.  See  Abp.  Leishton's  Sermon  on  the  Nature  and  Properties 
of  Heavenly  Wisdom.  Cicero,  De  Otf.  L.  1,,  C.  43,  calls  Hapienlta  the  leader  of  all 
the  virtues.  • 

4  2  Tim.  ii.  24-26. 

5  Epicikeia,  Leniency  or  Equity,  is  a  virtue  which  the  ethnic  rhetorician  Hermo- 
genes  (Peri.  Ideon.,  chap,  ii.)  recommends  to  youns  orators. 

6Eccle3,  X.  10.  7  Dan.  ii.  20-23. 


RELATIONS  OF  SEMI-INSPIRATION  AND  THE  INTELLECT.       67 

seed  is  not  sown  on  a  battle-field  where  the  marchings  and  counter- 
marchings  of  armies  crush  and  destroy  much  of  it,  but  it  is  scattered 
over  gromids  well  furrowed  by  the  gentle  and  weaponless  hand  of 
the  farmer  in  a  time  of  general  tranquillity.  "  Light  is  sown  for  the 
righteous,  and  gladness  for  the  upright  m  heart."  It  not  only  pro- 
duces its  harvest  in  peace,  but  it  likewise  produces  peace  as  one  of 
the  fruits  of  its  harvest ;  for  the  promise  is :  "  Wisdom  and  knowl- 
edge shall  be  the  stability  of  thy  times."  Om-  metaphysicians  would 
here  and  elsewhere  in  Scriptures  have  given  knowledge  the  prece- 
dence, but  He  who  weighs  our  thoughts  is  not  ignorant  of  the  powers 
by  which  wisdom  establishes  jDeace  as  j)rereqiiisite  to  knowledge. 
Hence  wisdom  gives  right  aims  and  ends  to  all  the  preacher's  exer- 
tions (Eccles.  X.  10),  more  especially  in  teaching  and  admonishing 
(Col.  i.  28;  iii.  16). 

IV.  This  wisdom  regulates  the  imagination,  and  this  it  does  by 
promoting  its  purity,  its  humility,  and  its  general  usefulness. ^  Sec- 
ular poetry  sprmg.s  from  and  excites  emotions  that  are  beautiful  or 
sublime,  ludicrous  or  pathetic.  "  It  must,"  says  Mr.  Spalding,^  "  be 
maintained  firmly  as  the  central  doctrine  of  all  the  fine  arts,  that 
while  their  mode  of  operation  is  the  excitement  of  the  imagination, 
their  end,  the  result,  for  the  sake  of  which  the  operation  is  per- 
formed, is  the  excitement  of  emotion,  or  state  of  mind  which  is  feel- 
ing. If  it  is  admitted  that  their  end  is  pleasure,  this  is  accepting 
the  doctrine,  only  specificating  it  (and  correctly)  by  saying  that  the 
emotion  is  pleasing.  If  the  mental  process  which  it  excites  shall 
travel  onward  even  by  one  step  further,  in  that  normal  develop- 
ment of  consciousness  which  issues  in  action,  the  art  has,  in  its 
results,  trespassed  on  groxmd  which  it  cannot  continue  to  occupy 
■v^dthout  becoming  an  alien  to  its  native  domain.  But  if  it  has  taken 
the  one  step  only,  its  position  is  easily  recoverable ;  the  wish,  the 
desire,  the  longing,  may  generate  only  a  new  emotion,  purely  con- 
templative ;  and,  such  llowings  and  ebbings  being  successively 
prompted  through  successive  images,  whether  suggested  by  the 
poem  or  by  the  imagination  of  the  reader,  wish  and  emotion  may 
float  through  the  soul  on  a  series  of  delightful  alternations,  each 
impelled  and  guided  by  some  new  image  in  the  train  of  airy  fanta- 
cies.  None  of  the  emotions  can  be  more  than  momentary ;  no  emo- 
tion can  be  more.  But  it  is  for  the  sake  of  the  emotion  that  the 
images  and  wishes  are  cherished ;  and  so  long  as  the  poetical  mood 
endures,  it  is  back  into  that  emotion  that  wish  and  image  will  inces- 

1  Rom.  i.  21-29  ;  Judge  viii. ;  2  Cor.  x.  5.        • 

2  Art.  Rhet.  in  Encyclop.  Britan.,  vol.  xix.,  p.  137. 


68      RELATIONS  OF  SEMI-INSPIRATIOX  AND  THE  INTELLECT. 

santly  fall.  That  which  would  most  effectually  annihilate  the 
poetical  mood,  would  be  the  development  of  the  wi.sh  into  a  con- 
sequent volition.  The  calm  lake  which  has  been  darkened  by  a 
passinoc  cloud,  becomes  again  the  mirror  of  its  woody  bank  as  soon 
as  the  sunshine  again  breaks  out ;  but  when  the  mountain  blast  has 
swept  over  it,  its  surface,  lashed  into  agitation,  can  no  longer  reflect 
the  brilliant  shadow.  This,  then,  is  what  must  not  happen  as  the 
eftect  of  poetry,  the  transformation  of  desire  into  will.  If  such  a 
transformation  should  take  place  incidentally,  the  mind  which  is  the 
subject  of  it  has  been  thrown  do^vn  into  a  mood  which  is  anti-poet- 
ical, and  from  which  it  cannot  easily  be  elevated  by  the  i)urest 
poetry  which  may  be  i^rescnted  to  it.'' 

Now  while  it  is  not  the  effect  of  true  inspiration  to  destroy  poetic 
contemplation,  its  direct  tendency  is  to  utilise  poetry  and  every 
other  product  of  a  holy  imagination, — to  chain  together  image  and 
desire  and  volition  in  such  a  way  that  the  first  inevitably  prompts 
to  action.  ''  Religion,"  says  Abraham  Tucker,  "  is  the  art  of  dis- 
ciplining the  imagination;"  and  a  greater  than  he  has  said  that 
spiritual  weapons  cast  doAvn  imaginations  and  every  high  thing  that 
exalteth  itself  against  the  knowledge  of  God,  and  bring  into  cap- 
tivity every  thought  to  the  obedience  of  Christ.  The  imagination 
is  thus  made  at  once  the  captive  and  the  servant  of  the  Great 
Teacher.  And,  accordingly,  in  each  of  the  prophets,  we  observe 
the  complete  subjection  of  the  poetic  genius  to  the  practical  aims 
of  the  man  of  God.  "  Isaiah,  we  are  told,  was  a  man  who  should 
rank  among  the  men  of  genius  of  all  ages  ;  and,  as  to  his  prescience, 
it  was  that  only  which  is  a  characteristic  of  the  poetic  inspiration  : 
he  was  a  'prophet  just  so  far  as  he  was  a  poet.  This  hypothesis  does 
not  consist  with  the  facts  in  view.  As  oflen  as  he  toucl^'s  themes 
that  are  the  most  awakening  to  poetic  feeling,  Isaiah — and  the  same 
is  true  of  his  brethren — is  brief  and  seems  in  haste  to  quit  the 
ground  on  which  he  has  set  foot  for  a  moment."  ^  The  true  expla- 
nation of  this  prophet's  moderate  use  of  poetical  representation  is 
found  : 

First,  in  the  laws  of  oratorical  persuasion  which  forbid  every 
thing  beyond  short  and  occasional  soarings  into  the  regions  of  poetic 
contemplation.  The  progress  of  true  semi-poetic  eloquence  has 
been  compared  by  Macaulay  to  that  of  the  ostrich,  in  which  the 
wings  assist,  but  do  not  supersede  the  activity  of  the  feet.  Or  as 
Spalding  has  happily  illustrated  it  by  another  figure  :  "  It  is  when 
the  poetic  voice  is  but  imperfectly  modulated   that  oratory  may 

»        — — 

1  Isaac  Taylor's  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  chap.  xii. 


1 


RELATIONS  OF  SEMI-INSPIRATION  AND  THE  INTELLECT.       69 

most  freely  emulate  its  tones.  Eloquence  of  all  kinds,  indeed, 
speedily  grows  languid  in  the  rarefied  atmosphere  which  fans  the 
serenely  sensitive  existence  of  the  highest  poetic  art ;  if  its  breathing 
is  to  be  free  and  its  action  energetic,  it  must  not  climb  above  those 
sub- Alpine  heights,  on  which  the  dense  air  of  real  life  has  been  re- 
lieved but  in  a  slight  degree  from  the  superincumbent  pressure." 
The  young  preacher  who  ia  puzzled  to  decide  how  far  he  may  in- 
dulge his  imagination,  can  resolve  his  doubts  and  hit  the  path  be- 
tween too  much  and  too  little  by  a  study  of  the  inspired  oratory  of 
Holy  Scripture.  The  Divine  Spirit  has  here  exemplified  perfectly 
and  abundantly,  the  method  by  which  the  imagination  is  made  in 
the  highest  degree  helpful  to  oratorical  persuasion. 

This  explanation  is  further  found  in  the  fact  that  though  the 
prophetic  oratory  does  not  often  mount  into  the  region  of  pure 
poetry,  it  keeps  the  imagination  always  at  work,  and  that  health- 
fully, because  never  beyond  its  strength.  Anticipating  the  caution 
contained  in  the  German  proverb,  "  Let  no  one  attempt  to  fly  higher 
than  his  plumage  will  carry  him,"  it  never  fatigues  itself,  and,  what 
is  better,  never  forsakes  that  practical  benevolence  towards  which 
its  vitality  and  energy  are  ever  stooping.  The  Divine  Spirit, 
therefore,  strengthens  and  develops  the  imagination  by  keeping  it 
in  moderate  but  continual  exercise.  And  this  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  those  imaginations  are  the  largest  and  most  vigorous  which 
are  ever  intent  upon  doing  all  faithful  service  to  God  and  to  hu- 
manity. 

We  cannot  dismiss  this  part  of  the  subject  without  remarking 
that  there  is  no  amount  of  culture  that  can  supersede  the  necessity 
of  a  true  inspiration.  Without  this  the  best  disciplined  intellect  is 
left  a  very  long  distance  behind  any  inspired  mind,  however  igno- 
rant and  uncultivated.  "  When  a  man  speaks,"  says  some  one,  "  as 
in  the  sight  of  God,  with  an  open  heaven,  with  Christ  and  his  angels 
before  him,  he  catches  the  true  prophetic  fire ;  he  preaches  a  present 
salvation  from  a  present  Saviour ;  the  Spirit  of  glory  and  grace 
descends,  and  the  flame  communicates  to  his  audience,  and  accom- 
panies them  to  their  houses.  This  is  the  celestial  science  of  the 
sanctuary,  not  to  be  taught  in  schools  nor  learned  in  books."  Ac- 
cording to  Professor  Leechman  something  more  than  merely  ijitel- 
lectual  conceptions  are  demanded.  "  This  divine  eloquence  cannot  be 
acquired  by  human  learning  and  skill  m  the  choice  and  arrangement 
of  words,  but  by  a  ^owevM  fed wf/  of  what  is  great  and  good,  pro- 
duced in  us  by  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God." 


70  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION  AS  AFFECTING 


CHAPTER  III. 

PARTIAL  LNSPffiATION   AS  AFFFX'TING  LWEXTIOX,  STYLE,  AXD 

DELIVERY. 

OxE  important  difference  between  plenaiy  and  partial  inspiration 
is  this :  the  former  communicated  to  men  of  old  the  divine  ideas 
and  thoughts  as  we  find  them  in  Scripture;  the  latter  enables  us 
rightly  to  understand,  illustrate,  reason  upon,  and  apply  the  sacred 
oracles.  And  yet  the  two  kinds  have  tliis  in  common :  that  both 
assist  and  superintend  study — the  former  sometimes,  the  latter 
almost  always.  Many  things  in,  the  Psalms,  the  Proverbs,  and 
other  parts  in  Holy  Scripture  evidently  owe  their  present  form  to 
divinely  superintended  study  and  meditation.  DanieU  understood 
by  books  the  number  of  years  whereof  the  word  of  the  Lord  came 
to  Jeremiah,  the  prophet,  that  he  would  accomplish  seventy  years 
in  the  desolations  of  Jerusalem ;  so  also  respecting  Clirist  and  the 
woi'k  of  Christian  salvation,  we  are  told  2  that  the  prophets  "  in- 
quired and  searched  diligently."  But  plenary  inspection,  be  it  re- 
membered, never  superintended  study  and  research  Avithout  secur- 
ing the  writer  or  sjjcaker  against  eiTor  and  sin,  whilst  on  the  other 
hand,  the  matter  and  form  of  the  divine  communication  oftentimes 
were  such  as  obviated  the  necessity,  and  even  possibility,  of  mental 
labor.  Here  again,  by  sonielhnes  superseding  study  or  sujtplying 
its  defects,  partial  inspiration  shows  its  resemblance  to  plenary.^ 

Legitimably,  therefore,  may  study  accompany  every  kind  of  divine 
communication  and  effusion.  The  Jews,  though  they  were  brought 
into  direct  intercourse  with  God  the  Son,  were,  nevertheless,  ex- 
horted by  him  to  search  the  Scriptures  in  order  to  find  testimony 
to  confirm  his  own  teachings.^  The  strongest  motives  for  the  ac- 
quisition of  religious  knowledge  are  urged  by  Solomon,  who  was 
endowed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  with  sui>ernatural  wisdom.  In  this 
respect  he  followed  the  divine  advice  he  gave,  so  that,  though  he 
enjoyed  at  times  plenary  inspiration,  yet  he  was  an  example  of 

1  Dan.  ix.  2.  2 1  Pet.  i.  10,  11. 

3  Thus  do  inspiration  and  study  conspire  to  tlie  cow</««(7/ progress  of  tlie  Gos- 
pel. True  preaching  goes  forward  like  the  galley,  now  depending  on  sails,  then 
on  oars,  and  sometimes  propelled  by  both  at  once. 

4Johnv.  89. 


INVENTION,  STYLE,  AND  DELIVERY.  71 

studiousness.^  Maimonides^  thinks  the  prophet  ought  to  endeavour 
after  intellectual  perfection  by  study.  "  It  cannot  be,"  says  he, "  that 
a  man  should  go  to  bed  no  prophet  and  rise  the  next  day  a  prophet, 
like  a  man  who  finds  something  without  searching.  Such  simple 
children  of  this  world  are  no  more  able  to  prophesy,  in  my  judg- 
ment, than  an  ass  or  a  frog."  Paul  exhorts  Timothy  to  study,  to 
meditate,  and  not  to  neglect  the  divine  gift.3  Not  to  study  is  to 
wrap  our  talent  in  a  napkin  and  bury  it  in  the  the  earth  and  leave 
it  there  to  rust ;  it  is  to  fill  the  lamps  of  the  temple  with  crude,  un- 
beaten oil ;  it  is  to  offer  a  lame  sacrifice  upon  God's  altar.  If  the 
Holy  Ghost  did  not  intend  we  should  study  the  Scriptures,  he  would 
not  have  given  them  to  us.  All  holy  Scripture  is  profitable  to  the 
man  of  God,  in  order  that  he  may  be  complete,  fully  equipped 
for  all  good  works.^  If  we  love  the  indwelling  Spirit,  we  shall  like- 
wise love  the  oracles  he  inspired  and  the  pages  he  continues  to 
illuminate.  Indeed,  it  were  presumptuous  to  expect  that  the  mind 
of  the  Divine  Spirit  will  deign  to  assist  us  to  understand  and  a2:)ply 
subjects  which  we  have  not  considered  worthy  of  the  protracted 
attention  of  our  own  minds. 

"  But  if  we  insist  so  much  on  the  necessity  of  study,  are  we 
not  depending  too  much  on  our  own  works,  and  like  the  Chal- 
deans, sacrificing  to  our  net,  and  burning  incense  to  our  drag  ?  " 
The  view  of  Paul  respecting  the  relations  of  the  Spirit  and  of 
study  is  not  very  obscure.  We  may  infer  from  his  teachings  that 
the  Spirit  alone  makes  study  fruitful. ^  And  yet  he  says  that  we  are 
workers  together  with  God.^  If  we  work  not,  then  he  must  be 
said  to  work /or  us  rather  than  loith  us.  Elsewhere  he  declares  to 
the  PhilippiansUhat  God  works  in  us  both  to  will  and  to  do  of 
his  good  pleasure.  "  There  are,"  says  Calvin,  "  two  principal  points 
in  acting,  the  will  and  the  power  of  carrying  into  efiect,  both  of 
which  he  affirms  are  entirely  from  God."  .  .  .  .  "  The  will  is  the 
foundation,  the  doing  is  the  completed  edifice."  ....  God  icorlxCth 
in  lis  to  do.  The  pious  affections  with  which  he  inspires  us,  he  car- 
ries forward  to  their  proper  ends,  lest  they  fail  of  their  effect ;  he 
thus  promises  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  "  I  will  cause  them  to  walk 

lEccl.  xii.  8-12;  Prov.  i.  20-33;  ii.  1-9;  Hi.  13-26;  iv.  5-13;  viii.  1-36;  ix. 
1-12. 

2  More  Nevochim,  Pt.  ii ,  chap,  xxxii.  3  1  Tim.  iv.  14, 15. 

4  Tim.  iii.  16-17.  5 1  Cor.  iii.  6-8.  6  2  Cor.  vi.  1. 

7  Phil.  ii.  12,  13.  Beiiisel,  therefore,  was  wrong  when  he  adopted  the  maxim 
that  "grace  begins  where  natural  means  can  go  no  further."  See  his  Life  by 
Burk,  Eng.  ed.,  p.  77. 

6 


72  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION  AS  AFFECTING 

in  my  statutes ;"  fi-om  wliich  we  learn  that  perseverance  also  is  his 
free  gift."  But  then  it  should  not  escape  us  that  the  Divine  Spirit 
operates  on  our  living  -will  and  body,  and  that  in  perfect  obedience 
to  the  laws  of  the  human  constitution.  Hence  the  exhortation, 
"  Work  out  your  salvation  with  fear  and  trembling."  That  is  to  say, 
with  feelings  proper  to  the  servants  of  God,  with  due  reverence  for 
his  commands  and  an  anxious  sense  of  accoimtability  to  him.^ 
There  is  an  outer  obedience,  of  which  Immanuelin  his  condescension 
and  humiliation  is  the  perfect  pattern,^  and  an  inner  obedience 
which  consists  in  the  prompt  and  efficient  action  of  the  human  wit 
in  compliance  with  the  inspired  will  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  These  prin- 
ciples are  applicable  not  only  to  Christian  trusting  and  working  in 
general,  but  to  the  believing  and  studying  of  the  preacher  in  par- 
ticular. The  apostle  Paul  is  a  good  example  for  the  preacher  in 
this  respect ;  for  he  says  to  the  Colossians,  that  as  the  Divine  Spirit 
worked  powerfully  within  him,  so  he  strove  to  the  utmost,  as  one 
who  contends  for  a  crown  in  the  games.^  And  hence  the  safe 
maxim  to  follow  is  that  we  should  study  as  assiduously  as  if  Ave 
hoped  for  no  assistance  from  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  at  the  same  time 
trust  in  the  Holy  Ghost  as  confidently  as  if  we  depended  on  him 
alone  for  matter,  method,  style  and  delivery.  But  m  any  emergency 
to  expect  that  the  Spirit  of  Life  will  remove  the  eifects  of  voluntary 
ignorance  and  habitual  thoughtlessness  were  almost  as  absurd  as  to 
expect  that  a  rising  wind  will  blow  away  the  darkness  of  midnight ; 
whereas,  it  can  at  best  only  disperse  the  clouds  and  show  nocturnal 
lights. 

But  how  does  the  Holy  Spirit  aid  invention  ?  To  answer 
this  very  important  question  adequately,  would  demand  a  review 
of  almost  all  we  have  said  as  to  the  Spirit's  mode  of  operating  on 
the  heart  and  intellect.  A  recurrence  to  the  first  two  chapters  of 
this  System  will  discover  much  matter  that  either  expresses,  implies, 
or  suggests  explanations  of  the  process.  Among  the  more  obvious 
illustrations,  we  find  spiritual  discernment,  and  heavenly  descended 
wisdom.  As  in  thinking  out  a  subject,  one  of  the  chief  difficulties 
to  overcome,  is  in  striking  the  truth  and  disrupting  and  cleansing  it 
from  clinging  and  interfusing  errors,  so  the  gifts  Ave  have  just  men- 
tioned, to  Avhich  unction,  in  the  Scriptural  sense  of  the  term,  may 
be  ad<led,  arc  the  principal  agents  in  selecting  proper  thought. 
The  Divine  Spirit,  in  producing  and  acting  through  those  gifts, 
searches  and  purifies  the  materials  of  invention,  like  fire  :  ''  noAV  if 
any  man  build  upon  this  foundation,  gold,  silver,  precious  stones, 

1  Compare  2  Cor.  vii.  15 ;  Eph.  vi.  5.  2  Phil.  ii.  5-8.  3  Col.  i.  29. 


INVENTION,  STYLE,  AND  DELIVERY.  73 

wood,  hay,  stubble  ;  every  man's  work  shall  be  manifest,  for  the  day 
shall  declare  it,  because  it  shall  be  revealed  by  fire  ;  and  the  fire 
shall  try  every  man's  work  of  what  sort  it  is."^  Then,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  message  itself  which  the  Spirit  inspires  is  sometimes 
termed  a  fire,^  and  as  such  reveals  the  secret  comisels  of  the  heart.p 
No  one  that  has  any  acquaintance  with  the  childish  allegories,  false 
doctrines,  and  lying  legends  which  abounded  in  mediaeval  sermons 
can  deny  that  from  some  cause  large  quantities  of  wood,  hay,  and 
stubble  have,  since  the  Reformation,  been  precluded  from  sermons. 

While  the  Divine  Spirit  require^  and  assists  study  whenever 
study  is  impossible,  there  are,  however,  certain  emergencies  when 
this  is  out  of  the  question.  In  such  unexpected  exigences  the  faith- 
ful preacher  may  believingly  implore  the  Holy  Ghost  to  supjDly 
every  want.  At  such  times  some  men  of  God  have  encouraged 
themselves  Avith  the  assurance  that  they  could  expect  the  fulfillment 
of  the  promise  Jehovah  made  to  Moses,  that  when  he  stood  before 
Pharaoh  and  the  people,  he  would  be  with  his  mouth  and  teach 
him  what  he  ought  to  say.*  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
preacher  cannot  apjDropriate  this  j)romise  to  himself,  because  it  was 
limited  by  the  condition  that  Aaron  Avas  to  be  his  si^okesman  to  the 
people,  was  to  be  to  him  instead  of  a  mouth,  while  Moses  was  to  be 
to  him  instead  of  God,  Other  preachers  repose  on  the  promise  our 
Lord  made  to  his  disciples  when  brought  before  kings  and  govern- 
ors. 5  But  they  do  not  observe  that  the  disciples  were  in  such  cases 
expressly  forbidden  either  to  take  thought  beforehand  or  to  "  pre- 
meditate," clearly  implying  that  they  were  not  to  do  so,  even  when 
they  had  time  to  make  some  preparation  before  they  were  brought 
before  the  tribunals  of  their  jjersecutors.  All  the  support  we  are 
warranted  to  derive  from  such  passages  is  the  persuasion  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  can  give  the  ability  to  speak  powerfully  without  any 
preparation. 

How  far  on  such  occasions  does  this  gracious  assistance  extend  ? 
We  may  hope  that  in^  answer  to  our  prayers,  the  Divine  Spirit 
will  provide  us  with  tbe  matter  of  preaching.  We  are  justified  in 
expecting  this  in  prayer  which,  in  this  form  of  ejaculation  and 
apostrophe  and  thanksgiving,  is  often  made  a  part  of  our  sermons. 
In  prayer  "  the  Spirit  helpeth  our  infirmities ;  for  we  know  not 
what  to  pray  for  as  we  ought,  but  the  Spirit  itself  maketh  inter- 
cession for  us  according  to  the  will  of  God."*^   If  the  SjDirit  takes  the 

J  1  Cor.  iii.  10-15 ;  cf.  ii.  10-16.     We  here  follow  Augustine  and  Calvin. 

2  Jer.  xxiii.  29;  Luke  xii.  49.        3  1  Cor.  iv.  5 ;  xiv.  25.       4  Exod.  iv.  12-16. 

5  Matt.  X.  18-20 ;  Mark  xiii.  11  ;  Luke  xii.  11  ;  xxi.  14,  15.         6  Rom.  viii.  26. 


74  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION  AS  AFFECTING 

tilings  of  Christ  and  shows  them  to  us,  leads  us  into  the  whole  truth 
of  the  Gospel,  and  brings  it  to  our  remembrance,  then  he  may  be 
reasonably  said  to  furnish  us  with  the  matter  of  preaching.  "  Now," 
says  Dr.  Watts,  "  since  the  evil  spirit  is  said  to  '  pluck  the  good 
.seed  of  the  word  of  God  out  of  the  heart,'  why  may  we  not  suppose 
the  good  Spirit  to  put  good  thoughts  into  the  heart."^  "  Since 
many  things,''  says  Augustine,^  "  may  be  said  upon  every  aspect  of 
flxith  and  love,  and  said  in  various  ways  by  those  who  know  them, 
who  but  He  that  searches  all  hearts  understands  clearly  what  it  is 
lijood  for  us  to  utter  or  hear,  on  any  occasion  ?  And  who  can  en- 
able us  to  speak  w^hat  and  as  we  ought,  but  He  in  whose  hands  are 
both  we  and  our  words."^  And  the  same  father  adds,  "  When  we 
have  happened  to  address  the  people  from  this  subject  (that  of  the 
'•  cup  of  cold  w^ater,"  Matt.  x.  42),  and  God  was  present  to  direct  us 
to  fitting  matter ;  did  not  a  kind  of  flame  arise  from  that  cup  of 
cold  water,  which  set  even  cold  hearts  on  fire,  leading  them  to 
works  of  mercy,  and  inspiring  them  with  hopes  of  future  reward  ?  " 

If  the  Divine  Spirit  supplies  us  with  the  materials  of  preaching 
on  occasions  when  we  have  no  time  for  preparation  we  may  fairly 
conclude  that  at  such  times  he  also  decides  the  method  of  preach- 
ing. It  is  important  to  make  a  distinction  here.  Order  difiers 
from  method ;  order  is  the  disposition  of  two  or  more  things  in 
respect  of  precedence ;  method  is  an  arrangement  according  to  any 
order  that  is  supposed  suitably  or  conveniently  to  effect  a  specific 
end.  If  the  Holy  Ghost  inspires  more  than  one  idea  or  thought,  he 
must  needs  inspire  them  in  succession  as  the  human  mind  requires. 
It  may,  according  to  our  judgment,  be  a  logical,  illogical,  rhetorical, 
arbitrary  succession,  but  it  is  necessarily  a  succession  or  order  of 
some  kind.  And  as  the  Divine  Spirit  never  moves  our  hearts  and 
intellects  without  such  an  object  as  seems  good  to  him,  so  he  will 
fix  the  order  of  our  thoughts  in  so  far  as  any  order  can  further  that 
object.  When,  for  example,  he  inspires  such  emotions  or  affections, 
as  desire,  love,  hatred,  hope  or  fear,  he  must  move  them  in  connec- 
tion with  other  acts  of  the  mind  Avhich  go  before  or  come  afler  them. 
All  these  acts  or  states  may,  as  phenomena,  seem  complex,  but 
they  will  ordinarily  take  place  according  to  the  laws  of  psychology ; 
and  hence  in  some  real,  though  to  us  perhaps,  cryptic  order.  And 
this  order  will  ever  be  determined  by  the  Spirit's  method  or  pro- 
cedure towards  the  end  or  ends  he  has  purposed  to  effect. 

The  Holy  Ghost  likewise  inspires  utterance  or  expression  which 

1  Guide  to  Prayer,  chap.  iv.  2  De  Doct.  Christ.,  Lib.  iv.,  cap.  xv. 

8  Wisdom,  vii.  16.;  cf.  Bickersteth  on  Prayer,  chap.  iv. 


INVENTION,  STYLE,  AND  DELIVERY.  75 

may  scripturally  be  said  to  include  both  style  and  delivery.  The 
word  of  God  does  not  often,  indeed,  distinguish  between  style  and 
delivery,  and  while  in  theory  it  may  be  useful  to  regard  them  as 
sej^arate  objects  of  thought  and  study,  we  ought  never  to  neglect 
to  keep  in  mind  their  mental  relations  and  the  dependence  of  both 
on  moral  and  intellectual  gifts  and  acquirements. ^ 

If,  as  Holy  Scripture  abundantly  teaches,  the  Divine  Spirit  assists 
expression,  then  he  must  influence  style,  and  if  he  influences  style, 
then  they  err  who  maintain  that  the  Holy  Ghost  makes  communica- 
tions to  us  in  the  peculiar  style  of  this  or  that  sacred  speaker  or 
orator ;  so  that  the  style  will  vary  according  to  the  individual  char- 
acteristic of  the  person  inspired.  Those  critics  who  presume  to 
describe  the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  style  of  any  one  of  the  sacred 
writers  have  been  more  or  less  guilty  of  dogmatism. 

They  have  not  reflected  that  we  have  no  iminspired  writings 
of  the  holy  men,  treating  the  same  subjects  that  they  handled  while 
under  inspiration;  for  in  order  to  ascertain  any  man's  peculiar  style, 
we  always  compare  two  or  more  of  the  compositions  he  has  writ- 
ten on  the  same  or  similar  subjects,  or  in  similar  departments  of 
literature.  All  men  naturally  and  wisely  treat  difierent  subjects  in 
diflerent  styles.  But  unhappily  for  these  critics,  we  have  no  unm- 
spired  compositions  of  these  holy  men  on  any  subject ;  so  that  we 
have  nothing  whatever  that  enables  us  to  determine  the  distinguish- 
ing features  of  each  or  any  one  of  these  writers'  natural  style. 

Had  the  sacred  writers  been  inspired  to  communicate  tons  difier- 
ent facts  or  truths  from  those  they  did  respectively  communicate, 
we  have  every  reason  to  suppose  that  they  would  have  been  moved 
to  write  in  a  very  difierent  style  from  that  wherein  they  did  write. 
The  style  of  Paul  in  the  epistle  to*  the  Romans  is  not  the  same  as 
the  style  of  the  same  apostle  in  the  epistles  to  the  Corinthians ;  nor 
is  the  style  of  Jolm  in  his  Gospel  like  that  of  the  same  evangelist  in 
the  Book  of  Revelation.  The  styles  of  the  four  evangelists  are 
almost,  if  not  quite,  one  and  the  same  wherever  they  record  the 
same  facts,  while  the  cases  in  which  they  show  the  widest  diversities 
of  style  are  those  in  which  they  were  moved  to  record  those  deeds 


I  Exod  .iv.  12  ;  Isa.  liv.  17  ;  Jer.  i.  6  ;  Joel  ii.  28;  Luke  xxi.  15  ;  Acts  ii.  4;  1 
Cor.  i.  4,  5.;  ii.  13.;  xii.  8  ;  2  Cor.  viii.  5-7;  Eph.  vi.  19  ;  Col.  iv.  3,  4.  Accord- 
ing to  some  commentators,  Prov.  xvi.  I  should  be  translated,  "  The  preparations 
of  the  heart  are  in  man  ;  but  the  answer  of  the  tongue  is  from  the  Lord."  Tliey 
justify  this  rendering  in  part  from  the  9th  verse.  If  this  be  the  correct  version, 
then  both  words  and  gestures  may  be  divinely  prompted  sometimes  in  cases 
where  the  feelings  and  purposes  are  of  merely  human  origin. 


70  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION  AS  AFFECTING 

or  sayings  Ox  Jesus,  which  the  others  were  by  the  S23irit  restrained 
from  making  known'  to  us. 

The  difficulty  of  finding  out  the  natural  peculiarities  of  any  pro- 
phet is  still  further  increased  by  the  fact  that  plenary  inspiration 
acted  through  such  men  of  old  as  are  styled  "  holy."  The  salt  that 
was  to  heal  the  waters  of  Jericho  could  only  be  carried  in  a  neio 
cruse.  This  principle  is  not  contradicted  by  two  or  three  exceptions, 
as  Balaam  and  Caiaphas,  whose  predictions  were  very  brief:  a  day 
may  fairly  be  called  dark,  notwithstanding  occasional  sun-glances. 
The  problem  is  a  deeper  one  than  is  generally  supposed ;  it  involves 
not  merely  the  question  of  the  interpenetration  of  the  divine  and  the 
human,  but  the  operation  of  the  inspiring  Spirit  on  the  natural 
faculties  as  renewed  by  grace,  and  the  style  thence  resulting.  As 
the  new  birth  not  unfrequently  produces  a  very  rapid  and  marked 
change  in  personal  character,  the  moral  qualities  of  language  and 
style  will  of  necessity  be  greatly  transformed  by  such  regeneration. 
The  new  man's  style  often  begins  to  serve  as  a  more  veracious  and 
ready  vehicle  of  his  ideas  than  it  once  was,  but  especially  will  it 
commence  casting  away  the  formality,  equivocalness  and  dissimula- 
tion which  debased  the  communications  of  the  old  man.^  It  is  no 
longer  defiled  by  willing  association  with  impure  thoughts,-  and  such 
as  savour  of  irreverence  and  profanity^  or  lightness  and  frivolity.* 

Besides,  as  the  inspired  speakers  and  writers  grew  in  sanctification 
(and  some  of  them  were  far  advanced  in  personal  holiness  when  they 
made  their  sacred  communications),  they  would  render  our  efforts 
to  ascertain  their  natural  disj^osition,  bent  of  mind,  and  qualities  of 
heart  all  the  more  difficult.  Who  of  us,  in  discussing  the  endow- 
ments of  any  eminently  pious  man  with  whom  we  had  enjoyed  but 
a  brief  acquaintance,  would  have  the  hardihood  to  say  2)ositively, 
''  This  belongs  to  nature ;  that  to  grace  ?  "  We  should  remember, 
too,  that  at  the  time  of  their  full  inspiration,  they,  must  have  pos- 
sessed more  or  less  knowledge  of  the  thoughts  and  words  of  the 
holy  men  who  wrote  and  spoke  before  or  during  their  day.  Another 
thing:  the  speakers  and  Avriters  whose  communications  we  find  m 
the  New  Testament  were,  no  doubt,  indebted  not  a  little  to  the 
Septuagint  which  had  Hebraized  and  proselyted  many  Greek  words 
and  phrases,  thus  making  them  welcome  heralds  of  the  kingdom  of 
Christ.  Neither  should  we  leave  out  of  our  estimate  that  power 
to  quicken  and  glorify  style  which  is  imparted  by  spiritual  and 
eternal  themes.    "  In  the  views  of  the  most  enlightened  statesman," 

1 1  Cor.  ii.  4  ;  Col.  ii.  4  ;  2  Peter  ii.  18.  2  Eph.  iv.  20 ;  Col.  iii.  8. 

3  E.xod.  XX.  7.        4  Eccles.  ii.  2  ;  Titus  ii.  0-8. 


INVENTION,  STYLE,  AND  DELIVERY.  77 

says  Robert  Hall,  "compared  to  those  of  the  Christian  minister, 
there  is  a  littleness  and  limitation  which  is  not  to  be  imputed  in  the 
one  case  to  moral  imperfection,  nor  in  the  other  to  personal  merit ; 
the  differences  arising  pm-ely  from  the  disparity  of  the  subjects  upon 
which  they  respectively  speculate."  But  still  we  should  take  mto 
account,  as  we  have  already  suggested,  the  sunny  effects  of  true 
piety  on  the  growth  and  cultivation  of  the  intellectual  powers.  It 
must  have  served  to  fix  attention,  to  raise  reason  above  the  force  of 
prejudice,  pride,  and  malevolence,  to  dispel  clouds  from  the  memory, 
in  short,  to  give  a  lawful  and  elevated  direction  to  all  the  intellect- 
ual faculties,  and  promote  their  wholesome  exercise. 

It  is  not  for  us  to  say,  however,  that  this  sanctifying  grace,  or  any 
of  its  intellectual  fruits,  influenced,  in  the  least  degree,  the  inspirmg 
Spirit,  or  served  to  dictate  one  jot  or  tittle  of  his  communications. 
Our  purpose  is  less  presumptuous,  and  more  pertinent  to  our  sub- 
ject. Our  intended  meaning  is,  that  these,  and  other  similar  con- 
siderations, show  what  hazards  we  run  in  our  speculations  about  the 
natural  cast  of  mind,  or  temperament,  or  modes  of  thoughts,  or 
qualities  of  style,  that  are  said  to  be  peculiar  to  a  sacred  writer. 
That  the  Scriptures  contain  elements  that  are  thoroughly  Jiunia)}, 
as  well  as  divine,  who  can  deny  ?  Eut  let  not  critics  go  beyond 
this  to  make  round  assertions  as  to  a  sacred  writer's  individuality, 
idiosyncracies,  natural  constitution,  bent  of  mmd,  education,  modes 
of  belief,  native  bias,  and  other  like  things.  Why  should  we  leave 
the  beaten  path  to  search  for  that  which  is  hid  from  us  behind  two 
impassable  walls — inspiration  and  sanctification  ? 

Some  skeptics  have  objected  against  the  claim  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures to  a  divine  origin,  the  remarkable  unifoi-mity  in  the  style  of  the 
many  books  said  to  have  been  composed  by  many  men,  and  in  some 
instances  at  long  intervals  of  time.  They  hence  conclude  that  these 
writings  are  the  forgeries  of  one  or  two  men.  We  conclude,  on 
the  contrary,  that  this  is  an  evidence  that  the  one  Divine  Spirit  is 
their  author,  and  that  we  have  here  the  styles  in  which  he  commu- 
nicates with  men ;  his  mode  of  writing  history,  laws,  psalms  and 
epistles,  and  uttering  prophecies ;  the  style  being  in  each  instance 
perfectly  adapted  to  the  matter  to  be  conveyed  to  us.  "  Which 
things  also  we  speak,"  says  the  apostle  ;i  "  not  in  the  words  which 
man's  Avisdom  teacheth,  but  which  the  Holy  Ghost  teacheth."  This 
and  other  texts  prove  that  the  chief  words  of  Scrijature  were  suggest- 
ed by  the  Divine  Spirit.^ 

11  Cor.  ii.  13. 

2  Matt,  xxviii.  20 ;  John  xiv.  26  ;  comp.  Luke  i.  70  ;  Acts  iii.  18 ;  1  Thes.  ii.  13, 


78  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION  AS  AFFECTING 

If  this  is  not  so,  if  the  Holy  Ghost  in  plenary  inspiration  did  not 
prompt  the  chief  words  and  the  style  of  Scripture,  then  it  will  be  dif- 
ficult to  prove  that  the  Divine  Spirit  does  in  any  case  and  in  any  man- 
ner influence  the  utterance  of  the  preacher.  But  if  we  admit,  as  the 
divine  declarations  compel  us  to  admit,  that  the  Spirit  did  in 
primitive  times  inspire  utterance,  then  w^e  have  here  some  antece- 
dent prohability  that  the  very  words  and  style  of  holy  Scrijiture 
were  ins])ired,  and  that,  mutatis  mutandis^  expression  and  style  may 
still  be  assisted  and  improved  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 

It  may,  indeed,  be  objected  that  the  Sj^irit  gave  this  utterance  to 
the  holy  prophets,  apostles,  and  primitive  disciples,  but  that  he 
has  nowhere  promised  it  to  us,  nor  can  we  claim  as  applicable  to 
ourselves  the  language  that  was  used  as  to  this  matter  in  writing 
to  the  first  Christians.  To  this  we  reply  that  Augustine  would  not 
havQ  allowed  that  such  an  objection  has  any  weight;  for  his  advice 
is  as  follows  :     "  God  teaches  us  both  what  to  speak  and  in  what 

manner  to  speak When  the  hour  of  speaking  comes,  let  the 

preacher,  with  a  good  mind,  avail  himself  of  the  words  of  our  Lord, 
'  Take  no  thought  how,'  etc.  (Matt.  x.  19,  20).  If  then  the  Divine 
Spirit  speak  in  those  who  for  Christ's  sake  are  called  to  face  perse- 
cutors, why  should  he  not  also  speak  in  those  who  preach  Christ  to 
teachable  congregations  ? '"  The  Christian  i:)redecessors  and  teachers 
of  Augustine  appear  to  have  been  of  like  belief  in  respect  of  utter- 
ance. When  he  was  yet  a  young  man,  he  on  one  occasion  expressed 
reluctance  to  preach  before  some  bishops ;  whereupon  they  replied : 
"  If  you  are  in  need  of  words,  remember  the  assurance, '  Ask  and  it 
shall  be  given  unto  you ;'  for  it  is  not  you  that  speak,  but  you  de- 
liver what  is  given  to  you."- 

Other  and  equal  authorities  are  on  the  side  of  this  great  Christian 
father.  No  man  has  done  so  much  for  the  language  of  Christian 
Syria  as  Ephraem,  and  but  few  men  since  his  day  have  reposed 
such  confidence  in  the  inspirations  of  the  Spirit,  or  more  often 
breathed  to  Heaven  ejaculations  for  divine  assistance  in  his  homilies 
and  hymns.  Theodoret  called  him  ''  the  harp  of  tlie  Holy  Spirit, 
and  the  channel  which  had  refreshed  the  Syrians  witli  the  waters 
of  grace."  And  Photius  says  that  there  are  found  in  the  works  of 
Ephraem  such  strains  of  eloquence  as  to  leave  the  reader  at  a  loss 
to  decide  whether  his  discourses  derive  their  chief  power  from  the 
l)eauty  of  his  style,  or  the  sublimity  of  his  thoughts.  Luther  is  an- 
other striking  example  of  the  union  of  faith  in  this  inspiration  of 

IDe  Doct.  Christ.,  Lib.  iv.,  C.  15. 

2  Sermo  de  Tempore  ;  also  Chrysostom,  Horn.  ;  1  Cor.  i.  4,  5. 


INVENTION,  STYLE,  AND  DELIVERY.  79 

the  Spirit  and  power  of  style.  "Upon  his  lips,"  says  Jonas, 
"  preaching  celebrated  its  resurrection."  He  elevated  a  dialect  to 
the  majesty  of  a  national  language,  and  so  became  the  father  of 
German  literature.  German  philologists  regard  his  translation  of 
the  Bible  as  the  standard  of  classical  expression.  Stier  points 
divinity  students  to  it  as  a  pattern  of  the  sacred  style,  as  contrasted 
with  the  profane,  while  Klopstock  and  other  celebrated  writers 
have  formed  their  styles  and  even  their  phraseology  on  the  model 
of  this  version.  Lord  Bacon  says  of  Luther  that  he  "  did  bring  in 
an  affectionate  study  of  eloquence  and  '  copia '  of  speech  which  then 
began  to  flourish."^ 

Regard  Milton  also  from  this  point  of  view.  He  was  not  a  min- 
ister in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word ;  but  it  was  the  fault  of  his 
times  rather  than  of  his  heart  that  he  was  compelled  to  preach  by 
his  pen  and  not  by  his  lips.^  If  he  was  not  in  some  sense  a  speak- 
ing prophet  like  Isaiah,  he  was  at  least  a  writing  prophet  like 
Daniel.  No  man  could  well  have  more  faith  in  the  co-operation  of 
the  Divine  Spirit  than  he.  It  is  most  clearly  and  eloquently  de- 
clared in  several  parts  of  his  prose  writings.  "  Supplication,"  says 
he,  "■  is  that  act  whereby  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  we 
reverently  ask  of  God  things  lawful  either  for  ourselves  or  others 
through  faith  (Zech.  xii.  10  ;  Eom.  vii.  26,  27;  Eph.  vi.  18).  Pray- 
ing always  ...  in  the  Spirit  (Jude  20) ;  praying  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  quickening  and  callmg  into  action  as  much  as  possible  the 
gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  within  us."  Hence  he  regarded  liturgies  as 
superfluous,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  as  a  model  of  supplication  rather 
than  a  form  to  be  repeated.  He  believed  that  having  Christ  for  our 
Master,  and  the  Divine  Spirit  for  our  assistant  in  prayer,  we  can 
have  no  need  of  any  human  aid  either  for  matter  or  words.  His 
prayer  to  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  beginning  of  Paradise  Lost,  and, 
again  in  Book  iii.,  lines  51-54,  was  no  formal  invocation  for  the  sake 
of  mere  poetical  propriety.  When  writing  about  what  he  thinks 
the  necessary  preparation  for  such  a  work,  he  says  :  "  This  is  not  to 
be  attained  but  by  devout  prayer  to  the  Eternal  Spirit  that  can  en- 
rich with  all  utterance  and  knowledge,  and  sends  out  his  seraphim 
with  the  hallowed  fire  of  the  altar  to  touch  and  purify  the  lips  of 
whom  he  pleases." 

These  examples  may  seem  more  than  sufficient;  but  as  the 
student  ought  to  settle  this  question  deep  beyond  all  doubts,  we 
shall  adduce  one  more  instance,  that  of  Dr.  Watts.     According  to 

1  Erasmus  wrote  a  Latin  treatise  on  Copiousness.     See  Opera,  De  Cop.,  Verb. 

2  Masson's  Milton  and  his  Times,  vol.  ii.,  p.  388. 


80  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION  AS  AFFECTING 

Dr.  Johnson,  who  rpcommencls  his  rea<]ers  "  to  imitate  him  in  all 
but  his  non-conformity,  Watts  was  one  of  the  first  authors  that 
taucjht  the  Dissenters  to  covet  the  graces  of  language,  and  to  show 
them  that  zeal  and  purity  might  be  expressed  and  enforced  by 
polished  diction.  He  says  that  as  a  devotional  poet  his  ear  was 
well-tuned  and  his  diction  elegant  and  copious,  and  that  as  a  preach- 
er such  was  his  flow  of  tliought,  and  such  his  promptitude  of  lan- 
guage, that  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  did  not  precompose  his 
cursory  sermons,  but  having  adjusted  the  heads,  and  sketched  out 
some  pai'ticulars,  trusted  for  success  to  his  extemporary  powers." 
Now  Avhat  did  Dr.  "Watts  believe  and  teach  respecting  that  utter- 
ance of  which  he  was  so  eminent  a  master  ?  "  The  Spirit,"  says  he^ 
"  may  be  said  to  give  some  assistance  towards  apt  and  proper  ex- 
pressions in  prayer.  For  he  concurs,  in  an  ordinary  way,  to  the 
exercise  of  our  natural  and  acquired  faculties  of  knowledge,  memory, 
vivacity  of  spirit,  readiness  of  speech,  and  holy  confidence,  whereby 
we  express  those  thoughts  which  he  hath  excited  in  us  in  a  becom- 
ing manner.  And  this  he  doth  also  in  preaching,  and  conferring 
upon  the  things  of  God,  and  this  more  eminently  in  the  work  of 
prayer ;  so  that  hereby  a  believer  is  able,  at  some  times,  to  pour 
out  his  soul  before  God,  with  a  fulness  of  thought,  and  variety  of 
expression,  to  the  great  comfort  of  his  own  soul,  and  the  edification 
of  his  fellow-worshippers.  ...  I  might  add  also,  that  as  the  Holy 
Spirit  frequently,  by  secret  hints,  supplies  us  with  the  matter  of 
prayer,  he  by  that  very  means  assists  us  towards  expression ;  for 
expression  is  but  clothing  our  thoughts  or  ideas  in  proper  words. 
Now  in  this  state,  Avhere  the  soul  and  body  are  so  imited,  the  most 
part  of  the  ideas  and  conceptions  of  our  minds  are  so  joined  to  words, 
that  words  arise,  as  it  were,  mingled  with  those  ideas  or  concep- 
tions, Avhich  the  Holy  Spirit  awakens  in  us.  And  we  may  humbly 
hope,  that  when  he  hath  given  us  some  secret  whispers  '  what  we 
should  pray  for,'  he  will  at  least  so  far  enable  us  to  use  proper  ex- 
pressions as  may  convey  the  same  thoughts  and  matter  to  those 
who  join  with  us  in  worship.  Especially  when  proi)er  materials  of 
prayer  are  brought  to  our  minds  in  Scripture  expressions,  in  some 
sense  these  are  '  words  Avhich  the  Holy  Ghost  teacheth,' — that  Spirit 
which  is  promised  '  to  brmg  to  our  remembrance  the  things  which 
Christ  hath  taught  us.'  " 

Add  that  the  Divine  Spirit  is  also  helpful  to  our  utterance  by 
making  our  partially  inspired  communications  more  veracious,  more 
pure,  more  reverent,  more  grave,  more  devotional,  and  every  way 

1  Guide  to  Prayer,  chap,  iv.;  cf.  Bickersteth  on  Prayer,  chap.  xxix. 


INVENTION,  STYLE,  AND  DELIVERY.  81 

more  consonant  with  the  oracles  of  God.  This  gracious  utterance 
may  not  evince  more  fluency  or  more  copiousness,  but  it  will 
assuredly  partake  more  of  the  savour  of  Christ,  and  be  more  redo- 
lent of  his  perfections.  The  down  that  descends  to  us  on  the  breeze 
off  the  mount  of  God  cannot  help  betraying  the  sweet  odours  it  has 
borrowed  from  the  seeds  of  truth  it  enfolds,  and  caught  from  the 
spice-gardens  of  grace  over  which  it  was  wafted  to  our  hands. 

The  instances  are  almost  innumerable  of  preachers  who  have 
thought  themselves  especially  assisted  by  the  Spirit  on  occasions 
when  they  could  not  avail  themselves  of  premeditated  matter. 
The  famous  Robert  Blair  relates  that  he  received  the  extraordinary 
aids  of  the  Holy  Ghost  one  day  during  the  great  work  of  grace 
which  blessed  Scotland  in  the  year  1630.  The  preacher  for  the  day 
having  failed  to  be  present,  Mr.  Blair  was  persuaded  to  occupy  the 
jDulpit.  "  The  Lord,"  he  says, "  so  carried  on  the  business  that  only 
one  proposition  was  offered  to  me  to  speak  of,  and  no  more  until 
the  closing  of  the  point ;  then  another  edifying  point  was  suggested 
from  the  text,  and  so  various  others  until  the  glass  was  run.  In  all 
this  I  vcas  but  the  voice  of  one  crying.  There  was  a  jirompter  that 
suggested  to  me,  even  he  that  sent  me  to  preach  the  Gospel.  But 
when  the  hour-glass  was  ended,  three  points,  all  weighty,  and  all 
concatenated,  were  presented  to  me,  the  uttering  whereof  was  al- 
most, as  I  suppose,  as  much  as  all  the  rest."  We  cannot  doubt  the 
testimony  of  a  witness  so  trustworthy  in  behalf  of  the  extraordinary 
assistance  of  the  Spirit. 

And  besides  supplying  the  want  of  all  preparation,  the  Divine 
Spirit  may  complete  such  preparation  as  we  have  been  able  to  make, 
by  suggesting  texts  or  themes  or  occasional  thoughts.  Chrysostom, 
in  his  first  homily  to  the  people  of  Antioch,  says :  "  The  things 
about  to  be  spoken  are  not  our  own,  but  such  as  the  grace  of  the 
Divine  Spirit  may  insi^ire."  In  the  next  homily,  preached  seven  days 
later,  he  says  of  the  first,  "  I  do  not  think  that  I  then  spoke  these 
things  of  myself;  but  that  God,  foreseeing  what  was  comhig  "  (/.  e. 
the  sedition  that  resulted  m  casting  down  the  statues)  "  put  these 
words  into  my  mind."  Augustine,  on  one  occasion,  turned  aside 
from  the  theme  he  was  treating,  to  reason  against  the  doctrines  of 
the  Manichees  whom  he  did  not  think  of  when  he  began  his  sermon. 
He  thought  it  was  by  divine  direction  that  he  made  this  digression 
in  order  to  disabuse  of  error  a  secret  Manichee  in  the  audience,  who 
two  days  afterwards  came  to  him  and  confessed  his  heresy.  "  I 
have,"  says  Luther,  "  often  reproached  myself  upon  descending  from 
the  pulpit,  in  this  wise :  Shame  on  you !  How  have  you  been 
preachmg,  you  have  entirely  abandoned  the  plan  you  had  previously 


82  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION  AS  AFFECTING 

formed !  And  these  very  sermons  have  been  most  acceptable  to 
the  people.  A  man  often  preaches  very  differently  after  he  enters 
the  pulpit  ft'om  what  he  had  proposed."  Calvin  was  evidently  of 
the  same  opinion.  Beginning  to  preach  by  explaining  the  Scrip- 
tures in  the  houses  of  his  friends,  and,  for  a  time,  in  a  cave  near 
Poitiers,  he  had  no  need  of  plans  of  discourse.  As  during  his  labours 
at  Geneva,  he  preached  every  day  in  each  alternate  week,  and  read 
three  theological  lectures  every  week,  he  could  have  found  but  little 
time  for  writing  sermons.  In  a  letter  to  the  Protector  Somerset, 
dated  1548,  he  writes :  "  What  I  have  suggested  as  to  the  manner 
of  instruction,  is  only  that  the  people  be  so  taught  as  to  be  touched 
to  the  quick,  and  that  they  may  feel  that  what  the  apostle  says  is 
true  (Heb.  iv.),  that  the  word  of  God  is  a  two-edged  sword,  piercing 
even  through  the  thoughts  and  affections  to  the  very  marrow  of  the 

bones Now  this   j^reaching   ought  not  to   be   lifeless  but 

lively,  to  teach,  to  exhort,  to  reprove,  as  St.  Paul  says,  in  speaking 
thereof,  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iii).  So,  indeed,  that  if  an  unbeliever 
enter,  he  may  be  so  effectually  arrested  and  convinced,  as  to  give 
glory  to  God,  as  Paul  says  in  another  passage  (1  Cor.  14).  You 
are  aware,  my  Lord,  how  he  speaks  of  the  lively  fervour  and  energy 
with  which  they  ought  to  sjoeak,  who  would  approve  themselves  as 
good  and  faithful  ministers  of  God,  who  must  not  make  a  parade  of 
rhetoric  only  to  gain  esteem  for 'themselves  ;^  but  that  the  Spirit  of 
God  ought  to  sound  forth  by  their  voice,  so  as  to  work  with  a 
mighty  energy.  "Whatever  the  amount  of  danger  to  be  feared 
(fi'om  extemporising),  that  ought  not  to  hinder  the  Spirit  of  God 
from  having  liberty  and  free  course  in  those  to  whom  he  has  given 
grace  for  the  edifying  of  the  Church."  Not  essentially  different 
from  his  opinion  Avas  that  of  another  reformer,  Peter  Martyr.-  "  Let 
us  at  that  time  (while  jn-cachiug)  suffer  ourselves  wholly,  wherever 
we  be,  to  be  ordered  by  the  Holy  Ghost."  With  him  holds  Dr. 
Watts,  who  says :  "  If  you  jiray  and  hope  for  the  assistance  of  the 
Spirit  of  God  in  every  part  of  your  work,  do  not  resolve  always  to 
confine  yourself  precisely  to  the  mere  words  and  sentences  which 

you  have  written  doAAni  in  your  private  preparations Why 

may  you  not  hope  for  some  lively  turns  of  thought,  some  new  i)ious 

1  His  motto  -was  "  Sincerely  and  Promptly."  When  he  was  but  twenty-four 
years  of  aj^e,  Beza  says  of  liira  that  he  tauglit  the  truth  "  not  with  aflectod  elo- 
quence, to  which  he  had  always  been  an  enemy,  but  with  such  depth  of  knowl- 
edge and  so  much  solid  gravity  of  style,  that  there  was  not  a  man  to  be  found 
who  could  hear  him  without  being  ravished  with  admiration." 

2  See  bis  Commonplace  Book,  Pt.  iv.,  p.  27. 


INVENTION,  STYLE,  AND  DELIVERY.  83 

sentiments,  which  may  strike  light  and  heat  and  hfe  into  the  under- 
standmgs  and  hearts  of  them  that  hear  you  ?  In  the  zeal  of  your 
ministrations  why  may  you  not  expect  some  brief  and  warm  and 
pathetic  forms  of  argument  and  persuasion  to  oflfer  themselves  to 
our  lijis,  for  the  more  powerful  conviction  of  sinners  and  the  encour- 
agement and  comfort  of  humble  Christians." 

The  love  of  revealed  truth  and  of  the  souls  of  men  which  the 
inspiration  of  the  Spirit  not  seldom  blows  to  a  powerful  flame, 
melts  down  things  beautiful,  sublime,  and  glorious,  into  the  true, 
the  just,  and  the  expedient;  or  else,  by  expanding  the  mind  and 
pm-ging  its  dross,  causes  it  more  fully  and  distinctly  to  mirror  the 
revelations  of  heaven  and  the  thoughts  of  God. 

We  have  said  that  the  apostle  Paul  evidently  included  Deliv- 
ery in  his  ideas  of  Utterance.     Hitherto  orators  have  too  much  in- 
clined to  consider  delivery  less  in  its  relations  to  the  grace  of  God 
than  to  nature  and  art.     Misunderstand  us  not ;  we  freely  concede 
that  the  study  and  practice  of  elocution  are  of  great  importance — 
of  far  greater  importance  than  they  are  commonly  thought  to  be; 
but  have  we  all  duly  considered  to  what  extent,  after  the  best  dis- 
cii^lme  in  elocution,  a  good  pulpit  deUvery  is  a  gift  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  ?     We  think  not.     Take  a  few  examples  :    One  of  the  best 
men  of  his  times  was  Dr.  John  Owen,  and  it  appears  safe  to  say 
that  no   man   among  his   contemporaries   had    such   clear,   deep? 
and    God-given  thoughts  respecting  the  operations  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.     We  need  not  wonder,  therefore,  that  his  elocution  is  de- 
scribed as  eloquent,  and  of  the  first  order  of  excellence,  as  marked 
by  a  voice  strong  but  not  noisy,  sweet  but  exceedingly  manly,  with 
a  certain  sound  of  authority  in  it ;  while  his  gestures,  far  from  thea- 
trical affectation,  were  always  animated,  and  adapted  to  his  subject.  ^ 
Dr.  Isaac  Watts  was  a  man  of  similar  grade  of  spirituality,  and  of 
very  accurate  and  profound  views  of  the  co-operation  of  the  Spirit 
in  preaching.     Hence  it  is  not  strange  that  he  is  said  to  have  sur- 
passed in  the  art  of  emmciation  all   the  other    preachers  of  his 
times.    He  even  distanced  in  this  particular  Dr.  James  Foster ,2  who 
for  more  than  twenty  years  held  entranced  the  genius,  learning- 
rank,  and  fashion,  no  less  than  the  commonality,  of  London.    That 
he  owed  the  chief  excellences  of  his  dehvery  to  the  power  of  the 
Spirit  might  be  negatively  proved ;  and  particularly  from  the  fact 
that  he  never  assisted  his  elocution  by  any  gesticulations.     If  his 

1  Life  in  his  Works,  vol.  i.,  pp.  351-355. 

2  Hawkins'  History  of  Music,  vol.  v.,  325  ;  Johnson's  Life  of  Watts. 


84  PARTIAL  INSPIRATION  AS  AFFECTING 

practice  followed  his  precepts/  liis  delivery  must  have  been  very 
eftective,  for  the  simple  reason  that  both  himself  and  his  hearers  must 
have  been  so  occupied  with  his  subject  as  not  to  have  been  able  to 
make  his  delivery  a  separate  object  of  thought  or  admiration. 

But  still,  we  have  to  bear  perpetually  in  mind  that  the  Holy  Spirit, 
who  is  as  free  as  the  wind,  which  sometimes  blows  in  breezes,  and 
sometimes  in  gusts  and  violent  storms,  does  not  always  inspire  such 
a  style  or  delivery  as  taste  desires  or  art  demands.  As  our  Lord 
once  had  need  of  an  ass  rather  than  a  chariot,  so,  as  the  history  of 
the  apostles  proves,  he  has  at  times  more  need  of  ignorance  than  of 
knowledge.  Does  the  Divine  Sj^irit  uniformly  inspire  order,  pro- 
priety, and  elegance  ?  Believe  it  not.  Alike  in  creation,  provi- 
dence, and  grace,  the  great  Suj^reme  reveals  his  jiower  the  most 
majestically  and  convincingly  in  crises  and  interpositions,  in  things 
abnormal,  unexpected  and  unaccountable ;  nay,  at  the  time,  perhaps, 
very  unwelcome,  and  even  lamented.  Zacharias'  silence,  no  less 
than  his  subsequent  speaking,  was  in  answer  to  the  whole  multitude 
praying  without  at  the-  time  of  incense.  He  who  can  loose  the 
tongue  can  also  tie  it.  Have  there  not  been  seasons,  O  man  of  God, 
when  you  have  been  so  overj^owered  by  the  magnitude  and  mystery 
of  your  thoughts,  that  you  felt  that  the  best  eloquence  was  totally 
inadequate  to  do  them  the  scantiest  justice,  and  you  were  reduced  to 
confusion  of  speech ;  when  your  methodical  discourse,  as  it  sailed 
gallantly  along  over  prospering  seas,  Avas  struck  by  a  tempest  from 
on  high,  overset,  and  driven  upon  flooded  rocks  that  before  were 
landmarks,  and  there  broken  up  and  scattered  along  the  land  by  a 
deluging  tide;  when  the  very  shipwreck  of  your  sermon  preached 
to  you  the  much  forgotten  doctrine  that  the  Spirit  not  only  conde- 
scends to  be  the  servant  of  man,  but  is  really  his  master  as  well  ? 
A  mere  novice,  or  worse,  is  he  who,  in  such  an  event,  observes 
nothing  but  the  si)litting  of  his  craft  or  the  blowing  away  of  her 
paper  sails. 

Our  final  and  most  important  caution  is :  Never  attempt  to  sepa- 
rate style  from  invention,  much  less  from  inspiration.  By  an  almost 
exclusive  attention  to  style  many  si)eakers  have  enfeebled  their 
])owcrs,  and  some  writers  on  rhetoric  have  degraded  it  as  a  science. 
But  all  experience  proves  that  if  a  preacher  have  a  divine  unpulsc 
or  guidance  and  yield  to  it  heartily  and  fully  in  the  preparation  of  his 
subject-matter,  he  can  in  some  cases  safely  forego  all  thought  about 
words.     Few,  indeed,  are  the  feelings  and  thoughts  of  a  i)ractical 

1  Attempt  towards  the  Revival  of  Religion,  sec.  iii.,  p.  -1.  See  also  Book  iv.  on 
De'.ivery. 


INVENTION,  STYLE,  AND  DELIVERY.  35 

mind  that  are  born  without  tongues.  We  have  already  seen  that  a 
true  inspiration  begets  in  the  heart  a  love  of  revealed  truth  and 
benevolence  towards  our  hearers.  Noav  if  we  may  believe  Milton 
(and  he  was,  we  think,  as  well  acquainted  with  the  Scripture  view 
of  insj^iration  as  any  other  writer  of  his  day),  these  two  things, 
when  the  sj^eaker  possesses  them  in  a  high  degree  of  ardour,  ever 
have  in  attendance  copious  and  proj)er  language.  "  True  eloquence," 
as  he  confesses,  "  I  find  to  be  none  but  the  serious  and  hearty  love 
of  truth;  and  that  whose  mind  soever  is  fully  possessed  with  a  fer- 
vent desire  to  know  good  things,  and  with  the  dearest  charity  to 
infuse  the  knowledge  of  them  into  others,  when  such  a  man  would 
speak,  his  words,  like  so  many  nimble  and  airy  servitors,  trip  about 
him  at  command,  and  in  well  ordered  files,  as  he  could  wish,  fall 
aptly  into  their  own  places."  But  beside  this,  we  know  that  inven- 
tion itself,  when  it  does  its  work  thoroughly,  produces  copiousness 
of  diction,  Horace  has  said  that  when  the  matter  is  j^repared 
words  not  unwillingly  follow  it ;  and  how  often  are  we  remmded 
of  Cicero's  maxim,  that  a  rich  provision  of  matter  begets  abundance 
of  language.  All  the  more  highly,  therefore,  ought  we  to  prize  in- 
spiration when  we  consider  how  it  influences  style,  not  only  through 
its  vital  action  upon  the  affections  of  the  heart  but  upon  the  inven- 
tive powers  of  the  intellect  as  well.  For  unless  it  moves  the  cogita- 
tive faculties,  and  so  makes  knowledge  available  to  the  hearers,  or 
unless  it  produces  something  better  than  the  agitation  of  the  feel- 
ings of  an  empty  and  unthinking  mind,  the  result  at  best  can  be  but 
the  solitariness  of  a  dead  faith,  or  the  solemn  charm  that  overpow- 
ers such  as  listen  to  the  moaning  of  the  wind  through  a  ruined  and 
moonlit  temple. 


86  CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTAXCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT  IX  rREACIIIXG. 

The  difficulty  of  ascertaining  the  presence  or  absence  of  minis- 
terial grace  would  be  less,  if  the  Evil  Spirit  were  not  in  manifold  ways 
ever  fighting  against  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  that  never  more  success- 
fully than  when  he  causes  his  own  counterfeits  to  pass  for  the  gen- 
uine coinage  of  heaven.  Thus,  no  fact  is  more  clearly  demonstrated 
in  the  experience  of  good  ministers  than  this,  that  they  have  almost 
always  had  the  greatest  co-operation  of  that  Spirit  whose  mission  it 
is  to  glorify  Christ,  while  they  were  preaching  on  "  the  doctrmes 
of  grace  ;•'  and  yet  they  are  equally  free  to  avow  that  at  such  times 
they  suffered  more  from  the  assaults  of  Satan  than  on  any  other  oc- 
casions. "While,  therefore,  the  inward  strife  is  going  forward,  and 
the  Divine  Spirit  is  crossing  swords  with  some  messenger  of  Satan, 
peace  of  mind  is  certainly  not  one  of  the  tokens  of  the  helping  pres- 
ence of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Nor  is  uncommon  fluency  while  we  are 
preaching  Christ  always  to  be  received  as  decisive  evidence  of  the 
aid  of  the  Divine  Spirit.  FeeUng  such  as  overpowers  utterance  is 
often  far  stronger  proof  of  a  true  inspiration  than  an  unfeeling 
and  unthinking  volubility.  "  A  cloud,"  says  Jonathan  Edwards, 
"  though  to  appearance  very  pregnant  and  full  of  rain,  if  it  brings 
with  it  over  much  wind,  seldom  aftbrds  much  rain  to  tlie  dry  and 
thirsty  earth ;  which  very  thing  the  Holy  Ghost  is  j^leased  several 
times  to  make  use  of  to  represent  a  great  show  of  religion  with  the 
mouth,  without  answei'able  fruit  in  the  life."^  And  it  is  observable 
that  those  of  whom  the  Spirit  thus  testifies  were  for  the  most  part 
false  apostles  and  pretended  preachers  of  the  Gospel. 

The  presence  of  a  large  audience  has  such  an  effect  on  some 
preachers  that  they  are  liable  to  mistake  it  for  the  special  assistance 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Even  Chrysostom,  one  of  the  wisest  of  the 
Christian  fathers,  seems  to  have  sometimes  erred  in  this  matter.  On 
one  occasion,  when  he  had  a  large  audience,  he  said,  "  It  is  the 
nature  of  spiritual  things  tliat  when  they  are  distributed  to  many, 
they  increase  the  more.    Since,  therefore,  I  see  the  table  surrounded 

1  Religious  Affections,  Pt.  i.,  sec.  8.;  Cobbett  on  Prayer,  Pt.  iii.,  chap,  vi.,  vii. 


CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  87 

with  guests,  I  expect  the  grace  of  the  Spirit  to  sound  aloud  in  my 
mind.  When  he  sees  many  present  then,  he  is  wont  to  place  before 
them  a  more  plentiful  repast,  not  because  he  disdains  the  few,  but 
because  he  desires  to  save  the  many."i  The  eloqueut  preacher  did 
not  bear  in  mind  these  words  of  Cicero :  "  Such  is  the  power  of  a 
large,  popular  assembly  that  an  orator  can  no  more  be  eloquent 
without  a  listening  multitude  than  a  piper  can  play  without  his 
pipes."^  If,  while  we  are  addressing  a  small  audience  of  plain  peo- 
j^le,  we  are  carried  beyond  and  above  ourselves,  we  have  a  better 
reason  to  conclude  that  we  have  gracious  assistance  than  while  we 
are  speaking  to  an  audience  of  the  opposite  description. 

Not  a  few  men  are  most  fluent  and  animated  while  they  are  speak- 
ing under  the  stimulus  of  some  merely  human  passion  or  feeling,  or 
are  exercising  their  reasoning  powers  in  answering  a  real  or  sup- 
posed adversary,  in  carrying  a  point  by  argument,  or  discussing 
some  philosophical,  or  ethical,  or  political  question  that  is  occupy- 
ing the  public  mind.  At  such  times  the  preacher  is  in  the  utmost 
danger  of  being^moved  by  wrong  motives,  because  the  chances  are 
that,  as  he  has  begun  by  turning  aside  from  his  proper  work,  so  he 
has,  for  the  time  at  least,  shut  out  the  assistance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. 

We  may,  again,  imagine  that  we  are  inspired  by  the  Comforter, 
because  our  sermon  grows  more  animated  and  jubilant  as  we  ap- 
proach its  conclusion.  We  ought  in  such  cases  to  remember  that 
this  is  a  natural  rather  than  a  gracious  phenomenon  ;3  whereas  true 
inspiration  may  sometimes  make  our  discourse  seem  to  ourselves 
more  and  more  lifeless  as  we  advance,  and  cause  us  to  cut  it  short 
with  heavy  sorrow,  or  to  finish  it  with  lamentations.  The  mind  is 
naturally  warmed  by  dwelling  on  any  subject  in  which  it  has  an 
interest ;  and  this  increasing  glow  is,  we  fear,  sometimes  mistaken 
for  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  And  there  has  been  the 
same  misapprehension  as  to  prayer.  "  This  liberty,"  says  Guthrie,^ 
"  which  we  call  freedom  or  free  speaking  with  God  in  prayer  is 
sometimes  much  removed  from  any  great  confidence  in  the  time  of 
prayer,  at  least  until  it  draws  towards  the  close  of  it."  Our  libility 
to  err  here  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  we  are  apt  to  regard  with 


1  Horn,  i.,  ^1.     De  Verbis  Apostoli.,  tome  iii.  2  Ds  Orat.,  Lib.  ii.,  c.  83. 

3  The  speaker  is  often  stirred,  not  only  by  his  thoughts,  but  also  by  the  sound 
of  his  voice. 

4 The  Christian's  Great  Interest,  Pt.  i.,  chap.  vi.  ;  cf.  Cobbetton  Prayer,  Pt.  iif., 
chaps,  vii.,  viii.,  and  ix. 

7 


88  CAUTIONS  AS  TO  TUE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

complacency  whatever  ends  well,  however  bad  may  have  been  its 
beginning. 

Some  pray  to  God  for  texts  on  Avhich  to  preach,  and  confidently 
expect  from  divine  inspiration,  both  the  text  and  such  other  Scrip- 
tures as  they  may  need  for  their  sermon.  They  have,  as  they  be- 
lieve, received  very  many  texts  from  the  suggestion  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  can  relate  in  what  an  extraordinary  manner,  and  with 
what  regenerating,  sanctifying  and  comforting  effects  such  texts  have 
been  breathed  into  their  minds.  Very  far  be  it  from  us  to  deny 
that  in  any  of  these  cases  the  texts  were  suggested  or  otherwise 
inspired  by  the  Divine  Spirit.  Only  let  us  remember  that  it  is  very 
possible  for  us  to  deceive  ourselves  respecting  this  thing.  Jonathan 
Edwards  has  proved  that  texts  of  Scripture  may  thus  arise  in  the 
mind,  not  only  in  a  sudden  and  unusual  manner,  but  even  occasio7i 
elevated  and  joyful  affections,  of  which  not  the  use  but  the  abuse 
of  those  texts  is  the  cause ;  that  affections  may  arise  from  the 
right  use  of  the  texts  and  from  some  influence  of  the  Spirit  accom- 
panying the  word  of  God,  and  yet  have  nothing  (jf  the  nature  of 
true  religion  in  them ;  and  that  Satan  and  his  emissaries,  false 
teachers,  have  in  these  ways  perverted  every  part  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures  to  remove  salutary  doubts,  to  confirm  false  joy  and  con- 
fidence, and  so  effect  the  eternal  ruin  of  poor  deluded  souls.  To 
this  we  may  add  that  so  far  from  texts  being  always  suggested  by 
the  Holy  Ghost,  in  some  cases  they  may  come  from  habits  of  inat- 
tention or  a  wandering  fancy,  or  "  the  law  of  casual  association,"  as 
Isaac  Taylor  terms  it,  according  to  which  the  succession  of  ideas  is 
accidental,  or  loosely  connected  by  trival  points  of  resemblance, 
or  a  mere  juxtaposition  in  time  or  place. 

There  are  those  who  go  farther  than  this.  They  do  not  indeed 
claim  that  their  thoughts  or  experiences  were  suggested  by  any 
part  of  Holy  Scripture,  but  they  have  an  undoubting  assurance  that 
they  are  inspired  by  the  Paraclete,  founded  on  the  fact  that 
their  minds  are  moved  by  some  unaccountable  power,  out  of  and 
superior  to  themselves — a  power  uninvited  and  departing  unbidden 
by  themselves — a  power  wholly  beyond  their  own  control,  Avorking 
energetically  in  them,  and  carrying  them  far  above  the  reach  of 
their  natural  capabilities.  Some  such  notion  of  inspiration  may  be 
traced  to  a  very  remote  antiquity  and  to  nations  that  had  forsaken 
the  worship  of  the  true  God.  Bacchus,  Pan,  Apollo,  and  ^Eseula- 
pius  were  believed  by  the  Greeks  and  other  pagans  to  be  the 
inspirers  of  ethnic  prophets,  priests,  priestesses,  and  poets.  A  per- 
son under  the  influence  of  an  afflatus  from  a  god  might,  it  was  be- 


CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  89 

lievecl,  become  an  inventor  of  some  useful  or  fine  art,  or  do  super- 
human deeds,  or  dream  dreams  and  see  visions,  or  know  and  tell 
future  events.  They  believed  that  the  person  so  inspired  might 
likewise  be  so  overpowered  by  the  god  as  to  lose  all  self-command, 
all  sense  of  propriety,  and  all  reason,  and  be  driven  onward  to  com- 
mit all  acts  of  folly  and  madness.^ 

Now  we  cannot  deny  that  this  was  a  kind  of  inspiration.  The 
origin  of  the  word,  to  say  nothing  of  the  amount  and  character  of 
the  evidence,  renders  it  vain  to  question  the  existence  of  something 
of  the  kind.  But  still  we  must  affirm  that  it  was  in  general  a 
diabolical  inspiration.  Satan  is  as  much  a  mocker  as  strong  drink, 
and  he  can  imitate  the  Holy  Ghost  so  closely  as  to  "  deceive,  if  it 
were  possible,  the  very  elect."  Admitting  that  it  is  possible  that 
some  of  the  pagan  prophets  were  on  rare  occasions  moved  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  we  can  scarcely  believe  that  the  pagan  orators  ever 
spoke  under  the  inspiration  of  the  Divine  Spirit.  "  It  often  hap- 
pens," says  Quintilian,  "  that  when  ardor  and  animation  carry  th^ 
speaker  along,  no  study  can  equal  the  success  of  his  extemporane- 
ous efibrts.  When  such  a  flow  of  language  occurred,  the  old 
orators,  as  Cicero  observes,  used  to  say  that  some  god  had  inspired 
the  orator."2  The  Scriptures  clearly  teach  us  that  false  prophets  were 
inspired  by  evil  sjDirits,  such  as  were  invoked  in  the  ethnic  divina- 
tions.^ The  early  fathers  accordingly  taught  that  the  pagan 
prophets  and  priests  and  priestesses  were  inspired  by  daemons. 
Origen  says  that  the  Pythian  god  was  akin  to  those  daemons  which 
Christians  are  wont  to  drive  out  by  prayers  and  adjurations.^ 
Chrysostom  says  that  the  soothsayers  were  possessed  with  an 
unclean  spirit,  and  that  the  distraction,  madness,  and  great  darkness 
of  their  minds  was  the  proper  work  of  a  daemon.^  Not  only  the 
Greek  but  the  Latin  fathers  are  rmanimous  on  this  question.^  "We 
see  no  good  reason  why  we  should  not  as  soon  admit  the  fact  of 
Satanic  inspiration  as  that  of  Satanic  miracle  working,  both  of 
which  are  with  equal  clearness  acknowledged  and  recorded  in  Holy 
Scripture.    Satan  sometimes  speaks  like  the  Holy  Ghost  in  order,  it 

1  Nagelsbach,  Homer.  Theologie.,  p.  14.  sq. 

2  Inst.,  L.  X.,  C.  vii.,  sec.  14.  The  critics  find  not  this  passage  in  Cicero's 
works  ;  Quintilian  may  have  possibly  had  in  mind  the  words  :  Pajtani  .  .  .  quasi 
divine  quodam  spiritu  inflari,  Pro.  Arch.,  ^8. 

3  1  Kings  xxii.  21-23 ;  Jer.  ii.  8 ;  xiv.  14  ;  xxiii.  13-27 ;  Ezek.  xiii.  6,  7-23  ;  Zech. 
xiii.  26  ;  1  John  iv.  6. 

4  Contra  Cels.,  Lib,  vii.,  cap.  iv.  5  Horn,  xxix  ;  1  Cor.  xii.  1-3. 
6  Tertul.  Apoh  i.,  cap.  xxii.,  Aug.  Confes.  L.  x.,  cap.  xiii. 


90  CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

would  seem,  to  gain  a  more  ready  access  to  minds  tliat  could  not 
be  entered  without  some  plausible  show  of  moral  excellence.^  This 
may  account  for  the  fact  that  sucli  men  as  Shakespeare,  Burns, 
Byron,  and  Moore,  have,  in  imitating  religious  and  even  devotional 
poetry,  gone  quite  beyond  the  force  of  their  natural  genius  and 
risen  superior  to  their  ordinary  moral  level. 

Thus  much  we  may  affirm  respecting  that  kind  of  inspiration  which 
is  doubtful  and  mysterious  in  its  origin  and  effects  (we  say  origin 
and  effects,  for  these  are  far  more  important  subjects  of  examina- 
tion than  that  of  its  mode  or  process) ;  we  may  affirm  of  this,  that 
commonly  it  sounds  through  no  good  instrument  and  is  productive 
of  no  beneficial  effects;  for  the  origin  and  effects  of  plenary  inspira- 
tion of  the  Divine  Spirit  were  often  immistakably  good.  And  as  to 
partial  inspiration  we  may  be  assured  that  there  are  almost  always 
some  means  of  detecting  it ;  for  this  reason  among  others  that  its 
oj^erations  are  for  the  most  part  uniform.  "  The  influence  of  the 
*Holy  Ghost,"  as  Howe-  says,  "  is  a  regular  and  ordinate  influence. 
I  put  these  together,  because  they  have  an  affinity,  though  they 
may  imjiort  somewhat  diverse  notions.  The  Spirit  works  accord- 
ing to  rule  or  agreeably  unto  the  word  in  what  it  does  for  the  main- 
taining of  the  Christian  life.  '  My  Spirit  which  is  upon  thee,  and 
my  words  which  I  have  put  into  thy  mouth  shall  not  depart,'  etc. 
(Isa.  lix.  21).  The  word  and  the  Spirit  go  together  among  all  this 
race.  And  so  it  is  the  influence  of  ordinate,  not  of  absolute  power. 
The  latter  works  so  as  that  there  is  no  proportion  between  its  in- 
struments and  its  effects.  The  former  works  by  suitable  means, 
and  aj^plics  and  directs  our  spirits  luito  such  objects  as  carry  in 
them  a  suitable  aliment  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Christian  life." 

There  were  in  the  churches  of  the  apostolic  age  those  who 
were  divinely  endowed  with  the  power  of  discerning  spirits  or  su- 
perintending the  utterances  of  the  prophets.  By  this  g-ft  Peter 
detected  the  true  character  of  Ananias  and  his  wife,  and  Simon 
Magus ;  by  it  Paul  also  saw  through  the  devices  of  Elymas  the  sor- 
cerer.^ There  had  been  long  before,  even  among  tlie  heathen,  a 
race  of  men  called  prophets,  who  were  required  by  tlie  laws  to  pre- 
side as  judges  over  sacred  divinations  and  interpret  their  oracular 
words.     The  word  prophet  in  the  classic  Greek  often  signifies  inter- 

1  Calvin's  Inst.,  B.  i.,  cap.  xiv.;  Edward's  Aflfections,  Pt.  i.,  sec.  4. 

2  The  Work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  icforonce  to  Particular  Persons,  Sermon  x. 
Cf.  Cobbett  on  Prayer,  Pt.  iii.,  chap,  iii.,  and  Wesley's  Notes  on  N.  T.,  1  Cor.  xv,  32. 

3  1  Cor.  xii.  10.;  xiv.  20 ;  1  Thes.  v.  19-21  ;  1  John  iv.  1  ;  Acts  v.  1.;  viii.  20, 
■}S.\  xiii.  8-11. 


CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  91 

preter  as  distinguished  from  the  insane  or  sleeping  mantis  or  di- 
viner, who  is  inspired  by  some  god.  Plato  in  his  Timgeus  (§71,72) 
makes  this  distinction  in  the  following  instructive  passage :  "  Those 
who  made  us  ....  so  constituted  the  evil  part  of  our  nature 
that  it  might  he  connected  with  truth  by  placing  m  this  part  the 
power  of  divination.  And  there  is  sufficient  proof  that  the  Deity 
has  assigned  divination  to  human  madness ;  for  no  man  in  his  sober 
senses  is  gifted  with  a  sacred  and  true  divination.  But  this  takes 
place  only  when  the  reasoning  faculty  is  bound  by  sleep  or  dis- 
turbed by  disease  or  enthusiasm.  It  requires,  on  the  other  hand, 
some  wisdom  to  understand  the  recorded  utterances  of  a  divining 
and  enthusiastic  nature,  whether  sleeping  or  waking,  and  so  to  dis- 
tinguish all  the  appearances  as  to  be  able  to  explain  in  what  way 
and  to  whom  they  reveal  any  good  or  evil,  whether  future,  past,  or 
present.  But  it  is  by  no  means  the  office  of  one  who  either  has 
been  or  still  is  insane  to  judge  respecting  things  seen  or  spoken  by 
himself  And  it  has  been  well  observed  of  the  ancients  that  to 
transact  and  know  one's  own  business  and  himself  is  alone  the  pro- 
vince of  a  prudent  man.  For  this  reason  the  law  directs  that  the 
race  {(jenos)  of  proj^hets  shall  preside  as  judges  over  the  sacred  div- 
inations— judges  whom  some,  indeed,  call  diviners,  through  igno- 
rance of  the  fact  that  they  are  only  the  interpreters  {hyjjocriti)  of 
enigmas  and  visions.  On  this  account  they  should  not  be  called 
diviners,  but  rather  prophets  "  (/.  e.,  interpreters)  "  of  divinations." 
Here  the  prophet  is  at  once  a  judge,  an  interj)reter,  and  a  representer 
of  the  revelations  of  the  gods.  The  hypocriti  were,  it  seems,  after- 
wards mere  actors  who  represented  theatrically  the  tragedies  and 
comedies  composed  by  others.  In  his  Charniides  (§46)  Plato 
speaks  of  the  mantis  as  intemperate  or  wanting  in  abstinence  and 
self-control.  "  We  grant,  if  you  will,  that  divination  is  the  knowl- 
edge of  what  is  to  be,  and  that  moderation  presiding  over  it,  turns 
away  the  boastful  diviners  {manteis),  and  appoints  over  us  the  true 
prophets  (jJroj^hetas)  of  things  to  come."^ 

Once  Plato  speaks  of  the  mad  diviner  as  different  from  the  sober 
prognosticator  (Phoedra  §4:8),  thus  preserving  the  idea  of  the  uncon- 
sciousness of  the  mantis.  Sometimes  the  prophet  is  an  exegetes,  an 
interpreter  in  the  more  modern  sense,  or  an  expounder  of  the 
oracles  and  omens.-  And  yet  the  two  offices  of  mantis  and  exegetes 
were  occasionally  combined. 3 

1  See  also  Plutarch's  Solon,  ^12. 

2  Herod.,  B.  i.,  cap.  Ixxviii.,  B.  vii.,  cap.  iii.;  Plutarch,  Theseus,  xxiv. 

3  Euripides,  Phoenissas;  Plutarch's  Life  of  Nuuia,  chap.  Ix.;  cf.  Book  ii.,sec.  1. 


92  CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

Now,  while  "we  are  not  authorized  to  say  that  we  have  at  present 
any  inspired  judges  or  discerners,  or  interpreters  in  either  the 
ethnic  or  the  apostoUc  sense  of  these  tenns,  we  have  what  is  nearly 
equivalent,  namely,  the  standard  of  sacred  Scripture,  by  which  we 
may  test  the  quality  of  all  religious  teachers  and  teachings.  To 
this  standard  we  should  bring  all  our  subjective  experiences,  and 
then  will  we  at  length  come  to  learn  the  difference  between  such 
as  are  natural  and  such  as  are  supernatural.  To  a  certain  degree, 
however,  this  semi-inspiration,  like  the  plenary,  is  self-evidencing, 
and  he  who  has  felt  it  once  is  not  very  liable  to  mistake  its  nature 
and  origin.  We  say  to  a  ccrtnhi  dcr/ree;  for  we  are  not  to  imagine 
that  this  evidence,  though  self-evidence,  is  as  clear  and  convincing 
as  was  that  of  the  sacred  speakers  and  writers;  if  it  were,  we  could 
speak  quite  independently  of  Holy  Writ,  and  would  have  no  fiu-ther 
need  of  searching  it  either  for  the  proofs  of  our  insj>iration,  or  the 
truth  and  timeliness  of  our  teachings.  Though  a  preacher  might  on 
good  groimds  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  he  was,  on  a  particular 
occasion,  under  the  power  of  semi-inspiration,  he  could  not  warrant- 
ably  say  that  a  certain  i)art  of  his  i>rayer,  or  his  sermon,  was  certainly 
inspired  in  any  such  sense  as  to  be  without  any  admixture  of  sin  or 
error.  The  Divine  Spirit,  in  such  cases,  leaves  us  in  some  salutary 
do|ibts  in  order,  it  would  seem,  that  we  may  still  be  kept  studying 
our  own  hearts  in  the  light  of  Holy  Scripture.  And  here  we  may 
be  cautioned  against  setting  more  value  on  the  strength  of  immediate 
impressions,  such  as  high  transports  and  ecstatic  delights,  than  on 
the  fruits  of  the  Spirit,  Avhich  under  a  true  semi-inspiration  must 
needs  grow  and  strengthen.  If,  for  instance,  the  ajfiatas  leave  us 
proud  and  vain  rather  than  humble  and  self-forgetful,  we  may  well 
question  whether  it  came  from  the  Holy  Ghost.  Herein  feelings 
are  to  be  tested  by  their  qual'tfi/,  not  their  quantlti/. 

We  are  not  to  be  too  ready  to  conclude  that  semi-inspiration  is 
an  infallible  proof  that  its  subject  is  a  regenerate  person.  It  is  clear 
that  those  who  were  anciently  moved  by  plenary  mspiration  were 
ahnost  exclusively  regenerate  men,  and  yet  lialaam.  a  soothsayer 
and  an  enchanter,^  was  on  one  occasion  under  a  full  divine  inspira- 
tion. He  hated  not  sin  as  sin,  but  only  as  it  was  dangerous  to  him- 
self, and  therefore  at  first  he  refused  Balak's  gold  and  silver  while 
he  yet  loved  the  sin  of  cursing  Israel  and  the  rewards  of  divination 
which  the  messengers  of  Balak  carried  in  their  hands.  This  false 
prophet  sought  gain,  and  yet  he  could  not  then  bring  himself  to 
utter  falsehood  in  order  to  gratify  \\\^  covetousness.     His  veracity 

1  Josh.  xiij.  22 ;  Num.  xxii.  7  ;  xxiii.  12;  xxiv.  1 ;  2  Peter  ii.  14-17. 


CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  93 

was  well  calculated  to  deceive  both  himself  and  the  Moabites. 
Caiaphas  was,  if  possible,  a  worse  man  than  Balaam,  but  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  pleased  to  move  himto  utter  even  a  Messianic  prediction. 
These  facts  do  not,  however,  lessen  the  value  of  our  Lord's  maxim, 
"  By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them."  It  is  not  Christ's,  but  Virgil's 
millennium  wherein, 

"Each  common  bush  shall  Syrian  roses  wear." 
On  the  other  hand,  a  preacher  who  is  really  regenerate,  may  be 
so  imperfectly  sanctified  as  to  be  betrayed  into  a  departure  from 
verity,  as  the  old  prophet  of  BetheP  was,  and  while  speaking  m 
the  name  of  God,  find  some  plea  with  which  to  justify  himself 
before  his  conscience  in  leading  his  hearers  away  from  the  truth  of 
God.  He  may  be  inspired  ninety-nine  times,  and  yet  wittmgly  or 
unwittingly  speak  without  inspiration  the  hundredth  time.-  As 
truth  and  error  sometimes  go  abreast  and  often  follow  each  other  in 
quick  succession,  we  are  m  danger  of  allowing  error  to  run  ahead 
of  truth  and  take  its  place. 

We  may  even  copy  the  acts  of  ancient  men  of  God  without  bemg 
moved  by  the  Divine  Spirit  who  inspired  those  men,  and  so  deceive 
ourselves  and  others  as  to  the  motives  and  passions  that  actuate  us. 
James  and  John  would  call  down  fire  from  heaven  upon  their  ene- 
mies in  outward  imitation  of  Elijah,^  and  many  others  have  uttered 
imprecations  against  their  personal  enemies  in  the  language  of  the 
prophet-kmg  of  Israel,  without  any  evidence  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
was  speaking  by  their  mouth  as  he  was  by  the  mouths  of  those  holy 
men.  We  ought  to  know  what  spirit  we  are  of  before  we  presume 
to  copy  a  just  God  wliile  he  is  executmg  his  judgments  through  his 
inspired  servants. 

We  may  exercise  the  imaginative  faculty  in  an  intense  and  exalted 
degree,  as  the  holy  prophets  did,  and  yet  lack  even  a  partial  inspira- 
tion. Some  are  naturally  gifted  with  more  of  this  power  than 
others,  and  abundant  facts  prove  that  Satan  and  his  angels  can  and 
do  represent  in  the  mind  images  and  appearances  in  the  most  mys- 
terious and  supernatural  manner.  Turretin,  Burgess,  and  others  are 
of  the  opinion  that  the  wicked  one  cannot  gain  immediate  access  to 
the  soul  except  through  the  imagination.  Agreeably  to  this  \dew, 
Edwards  remarks  that  when  strong  afi"ections  arise  from  lively  im- 


1 1  Kings  xiii. 

2  Even  Nathan,  the  prophet,  in  one  instance  took  a  human  impulse  for  an  in- 
spiration of  God.  (2  Sam.  vii.  1-17.) 

3  Luke  is.  55. 


9-4  CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

ages  and  visions,  they  are  worthless  and  vain  as  marks  of  a  state  of 
grace,  but  that  lively  images  or  visions  arising  from  strong  affec- 
tions may  come  from  the  Holy  Ghost.  Hence  the  father  of  lies 
frequently  apes  ''the  inspiration  of  elevation,"  because  in  that  lofty 
mood  of  the  imagination  which  it  produces,  the  mind  is  most 
])lausibly  tempted  to  despise  the  plain  narratives  of  Scripture  and 
all  exa(;t  statements  of  Christian  doctrine.  But  notwithstandin<4 
the  weight  of  these  authorities,  we  incline  to  receive  this  notion  of 
theirs  with  a  counterpoising  doubt  whether  Satan  gains  admittance 
to  the  mind  through  the  imagination  alone.  Why  should  he  not, 
like  the  Holy  Spirit,  whom  he  studies  to  pass  for,  sometimes  act  as 
the  prhnmn  mobile  of  the  human  will?  While  there  is  much  that 
is  mysterious  in  the  mode  of  Satan's  working,  sobriety  and  vigilance 
Avill  give  us  some  knowledge  of  his  devices. 

Again,  we  may  fall  into  the  habit  of  thinking  that  a  punctual, 
formal,  and  self  denying  use  of  what  are  called  ''  the  means  of  grace," 
"  divine  services,"  and  such  like,  somehow  entitles  us  to  a  semi- 
inspiration.  We  thus  persuade  ourselves  that  the  Christian  graces 
wliicli  such  worship)  exercises  are  thereby  prejiared  to  mvite  the 
assistance  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  But  we  may  at  the  same  time  forget 
that  the  best  means  of  grace  by  being  perverted  sometimes  produce 
the  worst  feelings,  as  presumption,  for  example,  and  so  actually 
resist  rather  than  welcome  the  Holy  Spirit.^  x\nd  this  temptation 
to  presumption  is  much  strengthened  when  we  reflect  that  to  the 
diligent  use  •  of  the  means  of  grace  we  have  added  extraordinary 
exertions  of  the  intellect.  Let  us  keep  perpetually  in  mind  the 
sovereignty  of  God,  and  then  we  shall  never  forget  that — 

"  The  coarsest  reed  that  trembles  on  tho  marsh, 
If  Heaven  select  it  for  its  instrument, 
May  shed  celestial  music  on  the  breeze 
As  clearly  as  tho  pipe  whose  virgin  gold 
Beflls  the  lips  of  Phoebus  !"— /.  A'.  Talfourd. 

A  coarse  reed  that  nevertheless  felt  how  empty  it  was  .and  was  will- 
ing to  go  forth  at  midnight  and  beg,  saying :  "  A  friend  of  mine  is 
come  to  me,  and  I  have  nothing  to  set  before  him."  Every  truly 
regenerate  ])erson  has  a  certain  spiritual  discernment,  "  an  unction 
from  the  Holy  One,"  by  which  he  perceives  the  difference  between 
the  works  of  grace  and  all  their  counterfeits.  We  must  be  regen- 
erate before  we  have  the  first  qtialiticatioii  for  examining  the  marks 
of  any  operation* of  the  Sj)irit.  The  natural  man  caimot  know  the 
things  of  the  Spirit,  because  they  are  spiritually  discerned.     The 

1  Jer.  xl.  11 ;  xv.  1 ;  Hos.  v.  6  ;  Isa.  Iviii.  4  j  Acts  vii.  51. 


CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  95 

spiritual  man  is  judged  by  no  natural  man.  The  sjDirits  of  the  pro- 
phets are  subject  only  to  such  as  are  themselves  prophets.  Nay, 
more  than  this ;  a  regenerate  soul  may  have  such  experiences  of 
grace  as  are  themselves  incommunicable  evidences  of  their  divine 
origin.  "  For  what  man  knoweth  the  things  of  a  man,  save  the 
spirit  of  man  which  is  in  him  ?  Even  so  the  things  of  God  knoweth 
no  man  but  the  Spirit  of  God.''^ 

And  yet  the  rectitude  of  our  judgments  in  these  matters  is,  as  far 
as  possible,  to  be  tested  by  Holy  Scri2:)ture.  "We  ought,  as  far  as 
we  can,  to  resort  to  the  inspired  word  with  the  aid  of  the  inspiring 
Spirit,  in  order  to  determine  the  quality  of  our  very  inspiration. 
Herein  we  may  proceed  much  in  the  same  way  that  we  do  in  ascer- 
taining our  adoption.  "  The  oj^eration  of  the  witness  of  the  Spirit," 
says  the  acute  William  Guthrie,^  "  is  best  imderstood  if  we  produce 
any  syllogism  by  which  our  spirit  doth  witness  our  sonship ;  as  for 
example  :  whosoever  loveth  the  brethren  is  passed  from  death  to 
life,  and  consequently  is  in  Christ ;  but  I  love  the  brethren ;  there- 
fore I  am  passed  from  death  to  life.  Hence  there  are  three  opera- 
tions of  the  Spirit.  The  first  is  a  beam  of  divine  light  upon  the 
first  proposition  convincing  of  the  divine  authority  of  it  as  the  word 
of  God.  The  second  operation  is  a  glorious  beam  of  light  from  the 
Spirit,  shining  ujDon  the  second  proposition,  and  so  upon  his  own 
graces  in  the  soul,  discovering  them  to  be  the  true  graces,  and-  such 
as  the  ScrijDtnre  calls  so.  Thus  we  are  said  to  know  by  the  Spirit  the 
things  that  are  freely  given  us  of  God.  The  third  operation  is  connect- 
ed with  the  third  proposition  or  conclusion,  and  this  I  conceive  to  be 
nothing  else  but  an  influence  upon  faith,  strengthening  it  to  draw  a 
conclusion  of  full  assurance  upon  the  foresaid  premises."  Guthrie 
thinks  that  the  second  operation  of  the  Spirit  upon  the  second 
proposition  to  be  in  the  witness  of  the  Spirit.  Now,  forasmuch  as 
we  need,  in  some  cases,  the  Divine  Spirit  r.s  an  interpreter  of  the 
texts  we  employ  as  tests  of  our  sjDiritual  state,  we  must  j^erhaps  add 
a  fourth  operation  of  the  Spirit,  showing  us  what  we  are  to  imdei-- 
stand  by  the  phrase,  loving  the  brethren.  This  wull  come  in  the 
order  of  time  next  after  Guthrie's  first  operation.  It  will,  of  course, 
be  objected  by  some,  that  we  move  in  an  illogical  circle  when  we 
judge  whether  Ave  are  inspired  by  the  Paraclete  or  not,  by  con- 
sulting the  Scriptures,  and  yet  say  that  we  cannot  without  his  inter- 
j)retations  imderstand  those  Scriptures.  We  reply  that  we  have 
just  now  to  do  with  revealed  precepts  and  promises,  and  not  merely 
with  logical  processes.     There  is  here  only  one  instance  out  of  sev- 

1  1  Cor.  ii.  11.  2  The  Christian's  Great  Interest,  Pt.  i.,  chap.  vi. 


96  CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

eral  in  which  is  manifested  the  circular  motion  of  grace  from  God 
to  man  and  then  from  man  back  to  God.  Except  in  tlie  way  of 
ilhistration,  logic  has  nothing  more  to  do  with  the  matter  than  it 
had  Avith  the  circular  marchings  of  Joshua  and  his  army,  when  they 
compassed  the  walls  of  Jericho.  In  faith  they  obeyed  the  divine 
directions ;  in  faith  Ave  do  likewise. 

Next  to  our  oAvn  gracious  experiences,  as  compared  Avith  and 
tested  by  the  Scriptures,  comes  Providential  guidance  as  another 
evidence  of  the  co-operation  of  the  Comforter.  All  three  must  indeed 
often  be  taken  into  consideration,  in  order  to  determine,  Avith  any 
degree  of  accuracy,  the  question  of  the  Spirit's  assistance.  No  wise 
preacher  Avill  close  his  eyes  on  the  concurrence  of  circumstances 
which  may  on  any  occasion  seem  to  demand  a  change  of  themes,  or 
an  alteration  of  his  method,  or  the  addition  or  omission  of  thoughts. 
He  Avill  observe  the  mutation  of  the  public  mind,  the  impressions 
made  by  catastrophes,  accidents,  defeats,  victories  and  revolutions ; 
nor  will  he  despise  the  effects  produced  by  the  seasons  and  the 
weather,  or  the  number  and  character  of  his  congregation.  All  the 
Avheels  of  Providence  move  in  unison  with  the  Divine  Spirit ;  and 
occurrences  which  seem  to  us  A-ery  trivial  are  often  emj Joyed  by 
him  for  the  furtherance  of  his  regenerating  and  sanctifying  Avork, 
But  while  we  are  to  watch  narrowly  every  instance  of  particular 
providence,  Ave  are  never  to  lose  sight  of  general  providence  which 
is,  according  to  Edwards,  "  a  mighty  Avheel  whose  circumference  is 
so  high  that  it  is  dreadful  with  the  glory  of  the  God  of  Israel  upon 
it.  In  the  revolutions  of  this  wheel,  events  come  from  God  and 
return  to  God.  They  are  guided  by  the  Spirit  of  God ;  where  the 
Spirit  goes  they  go."^  Judgment  folloAvs  mercy  and  mercy  judg- 
ment. In  the  harvest  of  the  world  Christ  first  reaps  the  golden 
Avheat,  or  his  saints,  and  then  his  angel  goes  forth  out  of  the  temple 
to  gather  the  grapes,  or  sinners.2  Great  Avorks  of  grace  have  ever 
gone  before  national  judgments.  If  Ave  are  truly  Avise  therefore  we 
Avill  study  all  the  operations  of  the  Spirit  in  connection  with  the 
CA'ents  of  Providence.  It  is  indeed  one  evidence  that  Ave  have  not  the 
Divine  Spirit  Avhen  Ave  are  imablc  to  discern  the  signs  of  the  times 
in  Avhich  Ave  live.^  We  are  not,  on  the  other  hand,  to  spend  the 
season  which  calls  for  out-door  Avork  in  the  observation  of  the  lesser 
current  events  of  Providence."* 

The  relation  of  Providence  to  temptation  Ave  have  elscAvhcre  sug- 
gested.^ 

1  Ezek.  i  ,  iii.,  x.,  xi.  2  Rev.  xiv  14-20.  3  Matt.  xvi.  1-3. 

4  Eccl.  xi.  4.  5  Chap,  v.,  sec.  1. 


CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  97 

There  are,  as  we  have  already  hinted,  some  thmgs  relating  to  the 
assistance  of  the  Spirit  in  preaching  which  must  be  referred  to  the 
Divine  Sovereignty.  But  in  respect  of  this  matter  we  should  never 
forget  that  the  Lord  Jesus  is  head  over  all  thmgs  to  the  Church,  and 
that  as  he  sends  to  every  true  believer  the  Spirit  from  the  Father 
to  abide  with  him,  to  be  the  bond  of  union  between  him  and  Christ, 
so  the  Divine  Sj)irit  is  always  present  in  his  heart  as  a  principle  of 
sancatifiction ;  and  hence  the  preacher,  in  common  with  all  the  faith- 
ful, may  expect  that  the  Lord  will  evince  his  sovereignty  in  contin- 
ually bestowing  upon  him  renewing  and  transforming  grace,  what- 
ever else  he  may  be  pleased  to  withhold  or  withdraw  from  him.^ 
Even  when  the  arm  cannot  perform  its  office,  it  is  an  unspeakable 
comfort  for  it  to  reflect  that  it  is  still  vitally  united  to  and  sustained 
by  the  head,  and  is  in  fellowship  with  all  the  other  members  of  the 
body.  The  preacher  may,  moreover,  remember  that  it  is  as  the 
"  Spirit  of  Truth,"  and  not  as  a  spirit  of  utterance,  that  the  inhabita- 
tion of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  promised  to  Christian  prophets. ^  Con- 
tinually ought  he  to  be  learning  of  Christ,  but  it  is  nowhere  made 
his  duly  to  be  preaching  him  continually.  John  Tauler  was  not 
without  the  inhabitation  of  the  Spii*it  during  that  year  in  which  he 
observed  an  unbroken  silence.  But  may  not  the  true  preacher  so 
"  grieve "  the  Spirit  that  he  will  depart  ?  No,  for,  as  Witsius 
acutely  observes,  the  Spirit  is  sometimes  grieved  by  the  sins  of 
Christians,  but  then  he  also  grieves  them  in  turn,  that  having 
brought  them  to  a  salutary  repentance  he  may  continue  to  seal 
them.  Do  you  then  affirm  that  there  is  an  indwelling  of  the  Spirit 
which  is  independent  of  the  use  of  "  the  means  of  grace  ?  "  It  appears 
very  probable  ;  for  do  we  not  need  this  inhabitation  in  order  to  a 
right  choice  and  use  of  such  means  ?  Before  we  draw  this  water, 
must  we  not  first  have  drank. (P)^ 

Nor  is  there  anything  irreconcilable  between  the  ideas  of  the 
Spirit's  sovereignty  and  his  inhabitation."*  The  latter  does  not  in- 
deed necessarily  include  a  state  of  uninterrujjted  comfort  and  joy ; 
for  our  Lord  in  his  discourse  to  the  Eleven  at  the  close  of  the  last 
supper,  assures  them  that  the  Helper  or  the  Spirit  of  Truth  already 
dwells  in  them,^  although  they  are  to  wait  until  after  his  ascension 
for  his  joy-giving  presence.  Neither  does  it  pledge  constant  ability 
to  preach  or  immediate  and  continual  success  in  the  work  of  preach- 

1  John  iv.  14  ;  vii.  38  ;  viii.  12  ;    1  Cor.  xii.  12-27. 

2  John  xiv.  17  ;  xv.  26  ;  xvi.  13.  3  2  Tim.  ii.  6. 

4  Psa.  li.  12  ;  Isa.  xl.  13 ;  liv.  10 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  11.  5  John  xiv.  17. 


98  CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

ing.i  For  different  persons  who  have  nearly  equal  abilities  and 
laitli,  and  have  used  the  same  diligence,  are  nevertheless  found  not 
to  have  been  blessed  "svith  the  same  measure  of  success.  And  the 
same  persons  have  observed  that  the  faithful  use  of  means  is  ap- 
parently not  so  effectual  on  some  occasions  as  on  others.  As  in 
these  matters  the  Free  and  Sovereign  Spirit  has  not  laid  himself 
under  any  obligations  to  i;s,  so  he  has  made  us  accountable  neither 
for  inward  comfort  nor  visible  success,  but  for  faithfulness  only. 

The  sovereignty  of  God  is  no  where  more  manifest  than  in  the 
applications  of  sermons,  where  the  Spirit  sometimes,  all  uncon- 
sciously to  us,  may  cross  our  hands  so  that  we  bless  the  hearers  we 
intended  to  curse,  and  the  contrary.  What  we  meant  for  refutation 
the  Spirit  will  perhaps  apply  as  exhortation  while  he  transforms 
our  reproofs  into  consolations. 

The  sovereignty  of  the  Spirit  is  further  shown  in  the  choice  and 
treatment  of  themes.  Those  preachers  who  are  led  by  the  Spirit 
fear  to  discourse  on  subjects  which  the  worldly-wise  suggest  to 
them.  We  say  the  worldly-wise,  not  the  spiritually-wise  ;  from  the 
latter  they  receive  gratefully  both  texts  and  subjects ;  for  they 
count  such  the  ministrants  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Their  dependence 
on  the  Divine  Spirit  is  so  nearly  exclusive  that  they  are  forced  to 
will  and  think  and  speak  in  almost  entire  independence  of  their 
imbelieving  fellow  men.  They  would  receive  from  God  that  which 
they  address  to  man,  and  not  from  man  that  which  they  communi- 
cate to  man.  Herein  the  true  prophet  has  ever  differed  from  the 
false ;  the  former  rising  superior  to  mundane  motives,  was  moved 
in  conscience  by  the  Spirit  of  Truth  to  declare  what  was  often 
equally  painful  to  himself  and  to  his  hearers ;  but  what  was  never- 
theless of  supreme  concern  to  both  and  to  all;  the  latter  like  a 
soothsayer  waited  to  be  consulted  and  bribed  by  some  individual 
in  order  to  pour  forth,  as  from  God,  what  related  chieriy  to  private 
and  temporal  interests.  The  true  "  prophecy  came  not  in  old  time 
by  the  will  of  man,''^  neither  has  emperor  or  pope  or  bishop  any 
authority  to  dictate  to  any  man  of  (4od  the  theme  of  his  discourse, 
nor  has  any  human  power  a  right  to  com])lain  if  the  theme  he  has 
recommended  be  quite  neglected  or  ignored. 

As  tliere  are  certain  extraordinary  effects  of  the  Spirit's  influence 
which  are  experienced  in  connection  witli  semi-insj)iration.  strictly 
so-called, — effects  which  sometimes  make  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  them — we  ought  to  refer  these  also  to  the  sovereignty  ol 

1  Isa.  xlix.  5;  Ezck.  xx.wii.  3;  1  Cor.  iii.  7.  2  2  Tetcr  i.  21  ;  Gal.  i.  0-12. 


CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  99 

the  Holy  Ghost. ^  In  times  of  revival  the  preacher  may  have  a  flow 
of  sacred  eloquence  to  which  he  was  before  a  stranger ;  he  may  have 
such  a  divine  illumination  as  enables  him  to  reach  men's  hearts,  to 
discover  the  true  nature  of  their  various  experiences,  and  to  undei*- 
stand  and  apply  the  Scriptures  as  no  mere  study  could  enable  him 
to  imderstand  and  apply  them ;  may  so  prevail  m  intercession  in 
behalf  of  individuals  or  in  importunity  for  particular  blessings  that 
he  may  receive  more  than  he  asked  of  the  Lord  ;  may  experience 
that  special  influence  of  the  Spirit,  which  imparts  a  happy  assurance 
of  the  divine  favor,  and  the  seal  whose  motto  is  Adoption,  and  all 
attendant  peace,  joy  and  triumph — the  preacher  may  occasionally 
be  blessed  with  these  and  other  gracious  efiects  of  the  Spirit's 
presence,  and  yet  in  his  ordmary  ministrations  from  year  to  year  be 
without  such  evidence  as  is  satisfactory  to  himself,  that  he  has  the 
constant  assistance  of  the  Holy  Ghost  which  is  promised  to  all  true 
preachers  of  the  Gospel.  And  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that 
many  preachers  are  more  desirous  of  experiencing  those  rare  and 
extraordinary  effects  of  the  Spirit  than  to  obtain  indubitable  proofs 
of  that  continual  semi-inspiration  on  which  the  genuineness  and 
efiiciency  of  their  preaching  so  much  depend ;  and  of  that  regular 
and  principled  growth  in  sanctification  which  prepares  for  all  duties 
here  and  all  felicities  hereafter ;  not  considering  that  these  transports 
of  divine  love,  these  precious  seasons  of  peace,  and  these  gracious 
impulses  of  the  Spirit  are  bestowed  on  us  in  a  sovereign  way  and 
according  to  the  secret  counsels  of  the  all- wise  God,  and  that  while 
we  may  lawfully  seek  them,  and  the  Spirit  is  free  to  give  or  deny 
them,  the  promises  are  not  conditioned  upon  them  but  upon  that 
faith  which  mcites  to  daily  obedience.  To  behold  the  high  tide 
rolling  up  the  long  beach  from  the  outer  ocean  may  be  more 
sublime,  but  it  is  not  of  such  general  interest  as  to  see  it  filling  the 
little  inlets  and  creeks. 

Let  us  not,  however,  in  the  endeavour  to  fix  the  true  relative 
value  of  these  higher  experiences,  allow  ourselves  to  depreciate 
them  below  their  just  worth.  If  these  visits  of  the  Spirit  are  rare 
and  seemingly  arbitrary,  they  are  undoubtedly  quite  indispensable 
to  some  sorts  of  Christians,  and  even  to  many  Christians  in  times 
of  great  doubt,  temptation,  persecution,  or  other  affliction.  "  We 
may  say,"  holds  Guthrie,^  "  that  the  special  operations  of  God's  Spirit 

1  John  Wesley  (see  his  Journal,  May  31st,  1771)  mentioned  that  at  peculiar 
seasons  he  spoke  with  a  "  closeness  and  pungency  which  are  the  gift  of  God  and 
not  to  b^  attained  by  all  the  efforts  of  nature  and  art  united." 

2  The  Christian's  Great  Interest,  Pt.  i.,  chap.  vi. 


100         CAUTIONS  AS  TO  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

in  any  high  degree,  are  usually  communicated  to  people,  after  much 
brokenncss  of  spirit,  after  singular  pains  in  religious  duty,  or  a  time 
of  much  suffering  for  righteousness.  Or,  if  they  break  in  as  the 
rain  that  waiteth  not  for  man,  tlien  they  do  humble  and  abase  a 
person,  and  there  are  found  so  many  evidences  of  grace  in  the  man. 
Or,  these  things  do  provoke  unto  holiness  and  to  have  everything 
answerable  and  conformalde  to  these  manifestations  of  God.  The 
l^erson  under  them  doth  loathe  all  things  besides  God's  friendship 
and  fellowship ;  and  these  things  carry  in  them  so  much  authority 
and  divine  sui:»erscription  whilst  they  are  in  the  soul,  that  afterwards 
they  do  appear  sufficiently  to  be  sijecial  communications  of  God  and 
singular  gracious  operations  of  his  Spirit."'  Semi-inspiration,  even 
more  than  the  plenary,  perhaps,  works  connatural ly,  or  in  subjec- 
tion to  the  constitution  and  laws  of  the  human  mind ;  so  that  we 
cannot  usually  distinguish  its  operations  from  those  of  our  own 
mental  fliculties.  Hence  were  not  these  higher  experiences  occa- 
sionally given  to  us,  we  might  not  always  bear  in  mind  as  we  ought, 
the  awful  fact  that  we  are  co-working  with  God,  and  that  however 
wisely  or  energetically  we  preach,  or  however  absorbed  in  the 
human  and  outward  aspects  of  our  utterances,  still  we  more  or  less 
"  strive  according  to  the  Spirit's  working,  which  works  in  us  mightily." 

Ajid  it  is  well  for  us  and  our  congregations  that  these  more  ele- 
vated and  ecstatic  experiences  do  not  often  possess  us  while  we  are 
in  the  act  of  preaching ;  if  they  did,  they  would  seriously  interrupt 
and  mar  our  public  services.  The  most  remarkable  instances  on 
record,  as  those  of  Howe,  Flavel,  Edwards,  Tennant,  and  Payson, 
did  not  occur  during  public  prayer  or  preachhig,  though,  in  some 
of  these  cases,  the  raptures  and  ecstacies  served  afterwards  to 
impart  new  confidence  and  solemnity  to  their  souls  and  their  sermons. 

Preachers,  therefore,  of  long  and  varied  experience  have  too  pro- 
found a  reverence  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  Divme  Spirit  to  advise 
a  young  man  very  confidently  to  expect  invariable  and  immediate 
success.  They  know  that  an  archer  may,  in  calm  weather,  or  while 
a  breeze  is  blowing  steadily  from  one  point,  almost  always  hit  his 
mark,  but  that  when  the  gusts  aiid  whirls  of  a  tempest  are  at  large, 
although  he  point  and  plume  his  shaft  with  all  skill,  and  draw  his 
bow  with  the  utmost  force  and  precision,  yet  it  depends  entirely  on 
the  will  of  the  wind  whether  his  arrow  shall  transfix  the  mark  or  be 
tossed  high  in  the  air,  only  to  descend  and  be  broken  upon  ragged 
rocks.  This  sovereignty  of  the  Sj)irit  it  is  that  now  humbles  the 
pride  of  the  preacher,  or  else  enables  him  bdievingly  and  grate- 
fully to  say,  "  Yet  not  I,  but  the  grace  of  God  which  was  wi^h  me." 


THE  MEANS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  INSPIRATION.  IQ^ 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  MEA.\S  km  CONDITIOiXS  OF  mSPIRATIOiN. 
Most  writers  on  homiletics  have  thought  it  sufficient  to  take  for 
granted  hat  the  young  preacher  is  regenerated  ;  and  yet  if  Ave  may 
believe  (and  who  can  doubt?)  the  testimon^  of  some  EnS 
bishops,  the  bhnd  fondness  and  ambition  of  paints  are  contu  y 
crowdmg  mto  the  ranks  of  the  clergy,  young  men  who  give  very 
dubious  proofs  of  their  conversion  ;  many  of  whom,  on  the  contrary 
afterwards  gn-e  the  clearest  evidence  that  they  are  content  to  dweK 
m  the  city  of  Destruction  while  they  are  avowedly  teaching  others 
how  to  escape  from  t  men,  consequently,  whose  preaching^luring 
a  long  mmistry  is  of  less  moral  value  than  the  escaping  Pil™'! 
one   plain,   honest,   earnest   cry,  "Life,   life,    eternal   lif^ . "   1     i 

which,  while  It  IS  pre-emmently  the  work  of  the  Spirit  is  at  the 
same  t.n.e,  the  best  of  all  possible  qualifications  for'the'mlni  tfy 
Neithe,  genius,  nor  earnmg,  nor  labor,  nor  wealth,  nor  rank,  no^: 
all  of  these  combmed,  can  purchase  any  substitute  for  it  •  nor  ve 

excellence,  it  is  like  the  legendary  aureola  that  shone  around  the 

tliZT/'"':  "^n'  t^^' '''''  ^"  '^^^'  -^--  - ' 

ffsTk^ess  1  '^,f  "'^""^^  f , '  '^^'-Seon,  and  the  curtained  chamber 
could tt  be  ^"^^^%™--fl^  brightness  of  the  lambent  diadem 
Tplces  the  d'"  f"  -allest  degree  by  the  gorgeousness 
cathedral         ^     '^       ^^-^^ersities,  or  the  manifold  splendours  of 

Many  parts  of  Holy  Scripture  show  us  how  near  and  influential 
:s  the  i-dation  of  the  assistance  of  the  Spirit  to  the  experiencera;::! 
tiuits  of  regeneration.  Thus  in  regeneration  the  Divine  Spirit 
creates  a  thirst  which  he  alone  can  slake,  and  a  hunger  which  he 
alone  can  appease.i  They  that  are  unregenerate  do  not  mind  the 
things  of  the  Spirit,  nor  walk  in  the  Spirit,2  but  his  grace  in  the 
new  birth  causes  us  to  mmd  spiritual  things,  and  makes  us  willino- 

& 

1  Matt.  V.  6;  John  iv.  13-15;  Rev.  xxi.  6;  xxii.  17;  Isa.  \v.  1. 
2  Rom,  viii.  4,  5. 


302  THE  MEANS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  INSPIRATION. 

to  be  led  by  the  Spirit.  He  must  inspire  in  us  true  faith,  and  yet 
it  is  only  through  faith  in  Christ  Jesus  that  -we  can  receive  the 
blessinn-  of  Abraham,  the  promise  of  the  Spirit. ^  This  circular 
motion  of  divine  grace  is  equally  manifest  in  respect  of  humility 
and  teachableness.  Pride  lifts  itself  up  like  a  fortress  agamst  the 
knowledge  of  God,2  while  humility  is  a  breach  in  the  wall  through 
which  grace  enters  the  soul  and  brings  eveiy  thouglit  captive  into 
the  kingdom  of  Christ.  This  humility  is  ever  attended  with  that 
felt  poverty  of  spirit,  which  according  to  the  Great  Prophet  secures 
the  kingdom  of  heaven — a  kingdom  which  is  righteousness  and 
peace  and  joy  Ln  the  Holy  Ghost. ^  The  Divine  Spirit  may  visit 
the  proud,  but  he  dicells  with  none  but  the  lowly.'*  There  again 
regenerating  grace  must  inspire  that  Christian  virtue  whose  exer- 
cise is  necessary  to  the  inhabitation  of  the  Spirit. 

The  means  and  conditions  of  obtaining  and  keeping  inspiration 
will  now  be  considered.^ 

Section  I. — Temptation,  Humility  axd  Self-Dexial,  as 
Prepahatioxs  fob  the  Spirit. 

Luther  mentions  Temptation  among  the  three  things  that  make 
a  good  })reacher.  By  this  he  probably  intended  the  successful  trial 
to  which  the  man  of  God  may  be  subjected  alike  by  adversity  and 
prosperity ;  we  say,  successful,  for  the  ordeal  through  which  Balaam 
passed  in  the  court  of  Balak,  did  not  leave  him  as  laitliful  to  Jeho- 
vah as  did  that  to  which  Amos  was  exposed  at  the  chapel  of  Jero- 
boam. INIoses  after  forty  days  of  direct  communion  with  the  God 
of  Israel  on  the  top  of  Sinai,  descends  to  break  the  two  tables  of 
the  law  indignantly  against  the  rocks,  while  Jonali  after  three  days 
in  the  whale,  with  weeds  Avrappcd  about  his  head  and  going  down 
to  the  bottoms  of  the  mountains,  is  cast  forth  to  walk  in  the  path 
of  imquestioning  duty.  Peter  could  fish  all  night  on  the  lake  of 
Gcnnesaret,  but  Avhen  he  was  called  to  observe  a  vigil  on  the  ]\Iount 
of  Transfiguration  he  soon  became  heavy  with  sleep.  Nor  should 
it  be  forgotten  that,  among  good  men,  those  who  are  the  most 
deeply  afflicted  are  not  necessarily  the  most  inspired.  Job  stands 
forth  in  Scrijiture  history  as  a  typical  example  of  suflfering;  and  yet 


1  Gal.  iii.  14.        2  2  Cor.  x.  5.       8  Matt.  v.  3 ;  Rom.  xlv.  17.       4  Isa.  Ivii.  14 
6  Christian  Palmer  appears  to  set  a  small  value  on  these  means  ;  he  character- 
ises the  assi.stance  of  the  Spirit  as  a  sign  of  God  which  cannot  be  obtained  bv  a 
honiiletical  prescription.     (Homilet.,  5th  ed.,  p.  13.) 


THE  MEANS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  INSPIRATION.  103 

his  young  prophet  Elihu,  who  is  perhaps  a  stranger  to  grief  speaks 
under  an  inspiration  as  complete  as  his.  »      ,    1   a^t. 

But  still,  admit  we  must,  that  almost  all  the  inspired  men  of  the 
Hebrew  economy  were  great  sufferers,  and  appear  to  have  been 
prepared  by  sorrow  for  the  performance  of  their  divine  work  as 
messengers  of  the  Most  High.  Our  space  forbids  us  to  say  much 
on  this  large  subject,  but  less  we  cannot  consent  to  do  than  mention 
the  case  of  Jeremiah,  because  we  may  reasonably  conjecture  that 
his  afflictions  moved  hun  to  study  and  obey  the  word  of  God  with 
such  good  success  that  his  prophetic  addresses  are  perfumed  with 
tlie  Pentateuch  and  especially  with  Deuteronomy.  If  the  119th 
Psalm  was  composed  by  him,  as  we  are  convinced  it  was,  it  serves 

by  his  afflictions  did  not  prepare  him  for  inspiration,  it  did  at  anv 
rate,  provide  most  precious  materials  for  the  Spirit's  burden-  it 
covered  the  moimtam  with  ripe  spice  plants,  so  that  when  the  sum- 
mer breeze  swept  over  them,  it  wafted  into  the  valleys  'the  smeU 
of  a  field  which  the  Lord  had  blessed.' 

Of  nearly  all  the  great  Christian  leaders  it  may  likewise  be  said 
that  affliction  helped  to  discipline  them  to  be  the  JZyLZt 
ments  of  the  Spirit  they  eventually  became.     John  Knox  Irthat" 
rouble  and  fear  are  the  very  spurs  of  prayer."  When  Ezekiel  toss 
eel  perhaps  on  the  Mediterranean  in  some  staunch  sh^  of   Ty    " 
watched  the  mast  as  it  leaned  stiffly  away  from  the  T  ev/.f.? I 
might  have  felt  certain  that  it  could  L  be's^abedfit  1  L; 
when  he  remembered  that  it  was  on  the  sides  of  Lebanon  that 
winter  had  taught  its  gnarled  roots  stoutly  to  grasp  the  era es  it 
branches  to  struggle  triumphantly  with  the  whirrwind,^nd  ts  1;^ 
to  lean  permanently  away,  much  as  he  saw  it  now,  fiw   h     S 
whence  the  wmter  annually  returned.    God  has  some  imes  g  v L  to 
the  churches  men  toughened  and  hardened  by  a  similar  disc7phne 
and  particularly  whenever  their  cry  to  him^has  been     "Let^t^^^^ 
hand  be  upon  the  man  of  thy  right  hand,  upon  the  son  of  man  whon^ 
thou  madest  strong  for  thyself." 

But  inviting  to  the  Divine  Spirit  as  adversities  often  are,  we  are 
not  theuce.to  conclude  that  they  always  are  so;  when  freqrnt  or 

grace  make  a  man  proud,  contentious,  jealous,  and  morose.     mI 

ancholy  ,s  not  attractive  to  the  Holy  Spirit.     Luther,  who  knew 

too  well  whereof  he  affirmed,  stigmatized  it  as  the  '•  ba  h  of  SaW' 

Prosperity,  too,  has  its  temptations;  but  these  arc  not°L  kthe 


1  Psalm  cxis.,  67,  71. 

8 


104  THE  MEANS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  INSPIRATION. 

case  of  adversity,  counterpoised  by  many  advantages.  That  com- 
petence and  honour  arc  apt  to  grieve  the  Spirit  and  foster  material- 
ism might  be  shown  from  tbe  history  of  Divinity  schools;  begin- 
ning with  the  school  of  the  prophets  wliich  having,  it  would  seem, 
reached  a  state  of  peace  and  plenty  during  the  closing  years  of 
Elijah's  rectorship,  no  sooner  had  he  ascended  to  heaven  than  they 
must  needs  send  a  committee  of  muscular  men  to  search  through 
valley  and  mountain  for  his  body  lying  somewhere  here  below, 
scathed,  sunk  together,  perhaps  dead;  his  charioteering,  like  that 
of  Phicthon,  necessarily  ending  in  a  down-hill  road !  The  trials 
incident  to  prosperity  may  be  met  by  the  preacher,  -who  diligently 
uses  the  means  and  conditions  of  inspiration  we  here  consider. 

We  have,  just  two  pages  back,  mentioned  humility  as  a  condition 
favourable  to  the  presence  of  the  Spirit.  If  therefore  we  would  ])e 
inspired  we  have  to  Avage  continual  war  against  pride.  We  speak 
advisedly  when  we  say  continual  war ;  for  when  pride  is  driven 
from  one  fortress,  it  retires  to  another,  and  as  a  last  resort  it  some- 
times entrenches  itself  in  the  assurance  of  the  co-oj^eration  of  the 
Divine  Spirit.  How  soon  will  the  Paraclete  leave  us  if  we  make 
his  gracious  presence  an  occasion  of  nourishing  pride.  For  what 
can  be  more  hurtful  to  us  than  the  grace  which  we  exercise  only 
foi:  the  puffing  up  of  this  Satanic  enemy  of  grace.  It  is  thjs  vice 
that,  more  than  any  other,  grieves  the  Spirit;  for  as  by  pride 
Cometh  contention,^  so  the  irascible  passions  which  pride  begets  and 
fosters  are  a  grief  to  the  living  Spirit  of  all  grace.  The  injunction 
not  to  grieve  the  Spirit  is  immediately  followed  by  another,  to  put 
away  these  malignant  and  vindictive  passions. 2  To  the  humble,  on 
the  contrary,  the  Holy  Spirit  gives  more  and  more  grace  because 
they  alone  can  use  it  without  abusing  it. 3  Even  the  pagan  Greeks 
had  some  notion  of  this  matter;  for  they  believed  that  it  was  on 
account  of  his  boasting  that  their  prophet  Tiresias  was  smitten  with 
blindness. 

The  inspiration  of  the  Spirit  is  also  invited  by  the  exercise  of 
self-denial  and  self-mortification.'*  By  this  we  do  not  mean  self- 
inflicted  pain,  but  the  exercise  of  moderation  in  matters  of  lawful 
indulgence.  "  It  is  surprising,"  says  John  Owen,  "  how  a  little 
necessary  diversion  will  unfit  the  mind  for  the  work  of  the  ministry.'' 
For  this  reason  preachers  and  students  for  the  ministry  have  to 
defend  themselves  against  levity  and  frivolousness.^  These  are 
among  the  things  tljat  grieve  the  Holy  Spirit.^  ^ 

I  Prov.  xiii.  10.  2  Eph.  iv.  30,  31.  3  Jas.  iv.  5-10. 

4  Rom.  V.  13;  viii.  5-13;  Col.  iii.  6;  Gal.  v.  '2i;  Titus  ii.  11-14. 
6  Eph.  iv.  29,  30 ;  v.  4. 


THE  MEANS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  INSPIRATION.  105 

We  may  indeed  observe  days  of  secret  fasting  as  a  matter  of 
high  moral  expediency;^  but  the  most  difficult  and  necessary  work 
is  to  practise  habitual  self-control  and  to  abstain  daily  from  what- 
ever tends  to  provoke  the  j^assions,  darken  the  mind,  or  subject  the 
soul  to  the  body.  This  duty  includes  not  only  the  subjugation  of 
the  appetites  and  abstinence  from  luxurious  self-indulgence  and 
excess,  but  a  putting  away  of  pride,  vanity,  discontent,  fretfulness, 
avarice,  rancour,  uneharitableness,  and  all  other  sinful  habits  and 
passions.  That  such  was  the  notion  of  fasting  entertained  by  the 
early  churches  appears  from  the  following  extract  of  a  letter  from 
Paulinus  of  Nola  to  Celantia,  a  Roman  lady  of  rank  and  piety. 
"  Beware,"  writes  he,  "  lest  when  you  have  begun  to  j^ractise  fasting 
or  abstinence,  you  imagine  you  are  already  holy ;  for  this  observ- 
ance is  but  the  instrument,  not  the  completion  of  holiness.  But, 
above  all  things,  take  care  that  in  learning  to  despise  things  that  are 
allowed,  you  do  not  foster  a  presumptuous  security  as  to  things 
which  are  positively  forbidden.  Whatever  we  may  offer  to  God 
beyond  what  duty  requires,  should  not  hinder  but  further  the 
doing  of  the  duties  God  has  enjoined.  What  can  it  avail  us  to 
attenuate  the  body  by  abstinence,  if  at  the  same  time  we  suffer  the 
soul  to  be  puffed  up  with  pride  ?  What  praise  shall  we  deserve  by 
making  ourselves  pale  with  fasting,  if  at  the  same  time  we  become 
livid  through  envy  ?  What  virtue  is  there  in  abstaining  from  wine, 
if  we  suffer  ourselves  to  be  intoxicated  with  anger  or  hatred  ? 
Then  and  then  only  is  abstinence  excellent,  then  only  is  the  chas- 
tisement of  the  body  beautiful  and  admirable,  when  the  soul  is 
made  to  keep  the  fast  by  renouncing  all  its  sins." 

But  let  us  never  forget  that  sin  is  best  vanquished  not  by  the 
attack  up  the  hill  from  our  mere  human  forces,  but  down  the  hill, 
from  our  divine  allies ;  and  that  far  better  than  occasional  seasons 
of  fasting  (though  these  are  useful  when  strictly  and  wisely  ob- 
served) is  the  cultivation  of  a  habit  of  promptly  and  regularly  obey- 
ing the  impulses  of  the  Spirit  in  all  things.  It  is  not  enough  for  us 
now  and  then  to  kneel  or  stand  and  speak  in  the  Spiint.  The  apos- 
tle says :  "  Walk  in  the  Spirit  and  ye  shall  not  fulfil  the  lust  of  the 
flesh."2 

Partial  or  ministerial  insi^iration  is  likewise  invited  by  a  timely 
excitation  and  constant  exercise  of  our  gifts.  The  inspirations  of 
the  Spirit,  like  the  dictates  of  conscience,  must  be  obeyed,  otherwise 
they  will  at  length  cease  to  move  us.     David  encouraged  himself  in 

1  Dan.  ix.  3 ;  x.  2,  3,  12,  21 ;  Ezra  viii.  21 ;  Neh.  i.  4 ;  Luke  ii.  37. 
2  Gal.  V.  16-25. 


lOG  THE  MEANS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  INSPIRATION. 

the  Lord.i  He  said  to  his  son  Solomon,  "  Arise  and  be  doing,  and 
the  Lord  shall  be  with  thee."^  And  Solomon  himself  was  moved 
by  the  Divine  Spirit  to  say  :  "  The  soul  of  the  sluggard  flesireth 
and  hath  not,  but  the  soul  of  the  diligent  shall  be  made  fat."^  At  a 
time  when  Judah  had  apostatised  the  prophet  Isaiah  said  to  the 
Lord  :  "  Thou  meetcst  him  that  rejoieeth  and  worketh  righteous- 
ness," but  at  the  same  time  he  had  to  lament,  "  There  is  none  that 
stireth  up  himself  to  take  hold  on  thee."*  God  commanded  Ezekiel 
to  exert  his  natural  powers  when  he  said  to  him :  "  Son  of  man 
stand  ujion  thy  feet,"  yet  the  prophet  adds,  "  the  Spirit  entered  into 
me  when  he  spake  unto  me,  and  set  me  upon  my  feet."^  Timothy  was 
set  apart  for  his  work  by  clear  prophetic  indications ;  but  this  did 
not  prevent  Paul  from  exhorting  him  to  give  attendance  to  reading, 
to  exhortation,  and  to  teaching,  and  so  "  not  neglect  the  gift  that 
was  in  him."^  On  another  occasion,  when  the  young  man  was 
tempted  to  take  counsel  of  his  fears  and  refrain  from  preaching,  the 
ajiostle  again  wrote  to  him,  saying :  "  Stir  up  the  gift  of  God  which 
is  in  thee,  .  .  .  for  God  hath  not  given  us  the  spirit  of  fear,  but  of 
jjower,  and  of  love,  and  of  a  sound  mind."^  The  word,  stir  icj),  in 
the  original,  sometimes  signifies  bloio  into  a  flame.  Once  more 
does  the  apostle  exhort  him  in  the  words  following :  '*  Thou,  there- 
fore, my  son,  be  strong  in  the  grace  that  is  in  Christ  Jesus."*  To 
advise  one  to  be  strong  is,  among  other  things,  to  advise  him  to 
take  such  exercise  as  is  necessary  to  an  increase  of  vigour. 

And  accordingly  we  read  that  a  contempt  and  consequent  neglect 
of  pro])hesyings  is  called  a  quenching  (or  extinguishing  the  flame) 
of  the  Spirit :  "  Quench  not  the  Spirit.  Despise  not  pf-ophesyings."^ 
It  .was  through  the  preaching  of  Enoch,  Noah,  and  other  prophets, 
that  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  strove  with  mankind  before  the  flood.^'^ 
As,  therefore,  in  case  we  refuse  to  preach  or  to  hear  preaching  when 
we  ought,  we  quench  the  sacred  flame  of  zeal  which  the  Spirit  kin- 
dles in  the  preacher,  so  when  with  tlie  aid  of  the  Spirit  we  exhort 
men  to  repentance,  the  Paraclete  within  us  may  properly  be  said 
to  strive  with  them,  while  we  instrumentally  strive  with  them,  and 
by  striving  grow  active,  stout,  and  skilful  preachers.  Jesus  won- 
derfully assists  those  who  preach  salvation  through  his  atoning 
blood.     Bunyan  testifies  that  it  was  while  he  was  preaching  justifi- 

1  1  Sam.  XXX.  C  ;  Psa.  xlii.  5.;  Ivii.  8.  2  1  Chror>.  xxii  16. 

3  Prov.  xiii.  4.  4  isa.  Ixiv.  5-7.  5  Ezek.  ii.  1,  2. 

6  1  Tim.  iv.  13,  14.  7  2  Tim.  i.  7.  8  2  Tim.  ii.  1. 

9  1  Thes.  V.  19,  20.  10  Geu.  iv.  20 ;  vi.  3 ;  Psa.  xcix.  6. 


THE  MEANS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  INSPIRATION.  107 

cation  by  faith  tliat  it  was  as  if  an  angel  of  God  stood  at  his  back 
to  encourage  him.^ 

The  relations  of  intellectual  discipline  and  the  assistance  of  the 
Spirit  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  define ;  for  while  it  is  clear  that 
divine  grace  is  friendly  to  the  cultivation  of  the  intellect,  it  is  not 
so  manifest  that  intellectual  cultivation,  when  carried  beyond  cer- 
tain limits,  and  pursued  for  certain  ends,  is  promotive  of  true  piety. 
The  student  may  indeed  be  told  that  by  enlarging  his  intellectual 
capacities  he  is  spreading  wider  sails  before  the  breath  of  Heaven. 
But  he  should  rather  be  told  that  infinitely  more  important  than 
the  question  of  the  extent  of  sail,  is  that  of  the  haven  he  has  de- 
termined to  make,  and  that  of  the  chart  he  has  chosen  wherewith 
to  regulate  his  voyage.  Here,  as  everywhere  else,  we  ought  to 
seek  first  the  kingdom  ol  heaven.  "  The  natural  man,"  though  he 
be  thoroughly  disciplined  and  profoundly  learned  as  to  mere  intel- 
lect, "  receiveth  not  the  things  of  the  Spirit  of  God :  for  they  are 
foolishness  unto  him  :  neither  can  he  know  them,  because  they  are 
spiritually  discerned."  There  is  a  spiritual  perception  which  no 
intellectual  training  can  either  plant  or  cultivate.  We  do  not  say 
that  it  cannot  be  cultivated.  No,  we  do  not  say  this.  Only  it 
must  be  cultivated  directly,  and  not  indirectly.  The  education  of 
the  astronomer  by  which  he  is  enabled  to  discover  the  golden 
treasures  that  are  hid  in  the  fields  of  immensity,  is  not  more  differ- 
ent fi'om  that  of  the  poet  or  painter,  by  which  he  is  enabled  to  dis- 
cover the  beauties  and  sublimities  of  the  terraqueous  globe,  than 
the  education  of  either  of  these  is  different  from  that  of  the  Christ- 
ian as  such.  The  sources,  rules  and  means  of  spiritual  culture  are, 
for  the  most  part,  quite  distinct  from,  though  not  antagonistic  to, 
those  of  intellectual  culture.  Hence  it  is  only  when  the  intellect  is 
disciplined  and  stored,  as  a  matter  of  secondary  importance,  and  for 
benevolent  and  other  Christian  uses,  that  it  can  be  said  to  be  pro- 
motive of  piety  or  friendly  to  the  inspirations  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

None  are  less  frequently  visited  by  the  Spirit  of  all  grace  than 
those  who  neglect  great  intellectual  gifts  and  attainments.  The 
man  that  has  but  one  talent  is  the  most  liable  to  bury  it ;  but  if  the 
man  that  has  ten  buries  them  all,  his  guilt  is  greater  because  his 
temptation  is  less.  There  is  a  deep  and  lurid  meaning  in  the  orien- 
tal belief  that  vij^ers  brood  over  buried  treasures. 

1  Grace  Abounding,  ^282. 


108  THE  STUDY  OF  SCRIPTURE  AND  MEDITATION 

Section  II. — The  Study  of  Scripture  and  Meditation"  as 
Aids  to  Inspiration. 

Another  means  of  obtaining  this  assistance  of  the  Spirit  is  the 
study  of  the  Scrijitures  with  a  vie^v  to  our  own  improvement  as 
C/iristicois,  and  not  as  preachers.  They  err  who  say  that  the  Para- 
clete operates  o?ifi/  through  the  inspired  Word  of  God,  and  yet  it 
is  safe  to  say  that  tlie  diligent  study  of  Holy  Writ  for  our  own  edi- 
fication is  likely  to  keep  the  Spirit  with  us  as  an  interpreter  of  his 
own  compositions.  As  it  Avas,  perhaps,  tlirough  the  sacred  word 
that  he  first  came  to  us,  so  we  may  hope  that  through  the  same 
word  he  will  continue  to  visit  us.  And  with  what  consistency  or 
confidence  can  they,  who  neglect  the  study  of  the  Spu-it's  composi- 
tions i)ray  for  his  illumhiations ;  if  they  despise  the  light  he  has 
already  granted  them,  how  can  they  have  the  presumption  to  im- 
portune him  for  additional  light !  The  souls  to  whom  the  Comfor- 
ter has  given  a  new  buth,  naturally  turn  to  the  breast  of  their 
mother :  '  as  new-born  babes,  they  desire  the  pure  milk  of  the  word, 
that  they  may  grow  thereby.'  Kor  can  there  be  any  ministerial 
growth  and  enduring  usefulness  without  such  study  and  self-applica- 
tion. Truly  blessed  is  that  preacher  whose  delight  is  in  the  law 
of  the  Lord ;  and  in  his  law  doth  meditate  day  and  night.  "  He 
shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  rivers  of  water,  that  brhigeth  forth 
his  fruit  in  his  season;  his  leaf  also  shall  not  wither;  and  whatso- 
ever he  doeth  shall  prosper."  His  mind  shall  be  supplied  with  truth 
from  a  perennial  source.  A  prevailing  spiritual  drought  shall  not 
cause  his  sermons  to  lose  their  freshness.  And  though  they  be  not 
immediately  and  always,  yet  they  shall  be  seasonably  and  ulti- 
mately, fruitful  and  prosperous. 

II.  To  the  experimental  study  of  the  Scriptures  we  ought  to  add 
deep  meditation  according  to  the  exami)le  of  David  in  the  Psalm 
last  quoted,  and  of  Jeremiah  in  the  119th  Psalm.  Ezekiel  was 
commanded  to  eat  the  prophetic  roll  before  he  went  to  speak  to  the 
house  of  Israel. 1  Tlie  busy  j>reachcr  is  continually  exposed  to  the 
temptation  of  allowing  the  most  momentous  and  affectmg  truths  to 
pass  directly  from  his  intellect  to  his  tongue  without  first  baptizing 
them  in  the  heart.  He  needs  a  certain  amomit  of  Scrijiture  matter 
to  convey  to  his  hearers  every  week,  or  perhaps  eveiy  day  for  a 
season,  and  he  therefore  has  hardly  finished  the  composition  of  one 
sermon  before  he  has  commenced  another.  Ilis  reading  and  study 
have  crowded  his  mind  with  a  multitude  of  striking  ideas,  from 

1  Ezek.  iii.  1-3. 


AS  AIDS  TO  INSPIRATION.  109 

which  he  is  anxious  to  make  a  judicious  selection  and  to  arrange  in 
due  order.  Thus  fully  occupied  in  receiving  and  forwarding  new 
ideas,  he  is  forming  habits  which  are  hostile  to  those  of  meditation. 
He  is  ready,  fluent,  various  and  exhaustless,  but  not  weighty,  not  in 
sober  earnest,  not  profoundly  stirred  by  his  theme.  Nor  is  this  all; 
after  studying  and  preaching  in  this  hasty  and  superficial  way  for  a 
considerable  period,  the  style  and  delivery  become  incapable  of 
conveying  in  a  tender,  solemn,  and  moving  manner,  the  more 
important  thoughts  which  God  has  communicated  to  us  in  the 
sacred  books.  But  by  the  opposite  practice,  that  of  deeply  iDonder- 
ing  the  Scriptures,  digesting  their  truths,  nourishing  our  own  hearts 
with  them,  and  so  making  them,  in  some  sense,  our  own,  we  pre- 
serve that  honesty  of  style  and  delivery  which  will  do  something 
like  common  justice  to  divine  thoughts.  The  inspired  advice  of 
Solomon  is,  "  Hear  the  words  of  the  wise  and  apply  thine  heart 
unto  my  knowledge.  For  it  is  a  pleasant  thing,  if  thou  keep  them 
within  thee ;  they  shall  withal  be  fitted  in  thy  lips."i  Yes,  "  they 
shall  withal  be  fitted  in  thy  lips."  These  divine  thoughts  shall  be 
fitted  to  thy  words,  as  apples  of  gold  are  fitted  to  their  net  works 
of  silver  which  are  next  to  them  in  place  and  in  value,  and  so  sldl- 
fully  inlaid  as  to  apj^ear  to  have  grown  out  of  them.  Luther  was 
more  a  man  of  meditation  than  of  action.  Medltatio  was  one  leaf 
in  that  trefoil  which,  as  he  believed,  constituted  the  character  of  the 
true  preacher,  and  "  suggests  more,  much  more,  than  all  our  com- 
mentators united."  It  was  this  meditation  which  by  gradually 
filling  the  mind  of  the  great  Reformer  with  a  holy  electricity,  gave 
occasion  for  Melancthon  to  write,  "  O,  Luther,  all  thy  words  are 
thunderbolts  ! "  Of  Jonathan  Edwards,  another  man  given  to  habits 
of  meditation,  it  is  said  that  when  he  preached  "  his  words  were  full 
of  ideas  and  betrayed  a  great  degree  of  inward  fervor."  William 
Bridge,^  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Puritan  preachers,  and  whose 
sermons,  lately  rei^ublished,  are  still  models  of  Scriptural  richness, 
vivacity,  and  popular  illustration,  says  of  meditation  that  it  is  the 
fruit  of  Christ's  grace,  a  great  help  to  knowledge,  a  great  friend  to 
the  memory,  holy  conference,  and  growth  in  grace,  the  sister  of 
reading,  and  the  mother  of  prayer,  keeping  the  heart  from  sinful 
thoughts  and  tuning  it  for  every  duty. 

But,  after  all,  what  avails  meditation  unless  it  warms  our  hearts, 
and  we  can  say  with  the  Psalmist,  "  While  I  was  musing,  the  fire 
burned."     Thomas  Aquinas^  distinguishes  meditation  from  contem- 

1  Prov,  xxii.  18,  19.  2  Works  in  5  vols.  8vo.,  Tegg,  London,  1845. 

3  Summa  ii.  2,  qu.  180,  Art.  1  and  4. 


110  THE  STUDY  OF  SCRIPTURE  AND  MEDITATION. 

plation ;  tlie  former  according  to  the  "  Angelical  Doctor,"  is  such 
an  attentive  consideration  of  a  truth,  and  such  an  examination  of 
its  various  parts  and  reasonings  uj»on  tliem  as  to  excite  wonder  ;  the 
latter  adds  to  the  act  of  the  intellect  required  in  meditation  an  act 
of  the  "will,  that  is  to  say,  an  act  of  love  or  affection.  Let  us  not 
fall  short  of  contemplation  in  the  old  scholastic  sense  of  the  word. 
Let  us  hold  up  before  our  minds  the  beauties,  the  glories,  and  all 
the  divine  excellences  of  Scrijjture  personages  and  doctrines,  imtil 
we  admire  and  love  them,  imtil  we  desire  to  declare  their  praises, 
and  to  bring  all  men  to  share  our  complacency  and  reverence. 
Especially  will  such  contemplation,  if  directed  to  the  Holy  Spirit, 
enable  us  to  set  that  high  value  on  his  inspirations  which,  as  Robert 
Hall  thought,  is  the  very  first  means  of  obtaining  them.  He  admits, 
mdeed,  tbat  the  first  inspiration  of  grace  must  procede  this  sense  of 
its  value;  "  for,"  he  adds,  "  it  can  only  be  possessed  in  any  adequate 
degree  by  those  Avho  have  tasted  that  the  Lord  is  gracious.  '  I  am 
found  of  them  that  sought  me  not ;'  but  in  subsequent  donations, 
the  Lord  seems  very  much  to  regulate  his  conduct  by  a  rule  of 
bestowing  his  richest  favours  Avhere  he  knows  they  are  most  cov- 
eted and  will  be  most  prized." 

But  then  comes  the  thought  that  this  is  but  the  divine  side  of 
contemplation.  From  thus  basking  in  the  eternal  sunshine,  we  do 
well  if  we  timefully  arise  and  go  down  into  the  valleys  where  rests 
the  darkness,  or  at  best  the  broken  daylight,  of  guilt  or  sickness, 
poverty  or  sorrow,  or  death.  We  dd  not  say  that  such  objects  of 
thought  are  absolutely  best  for  us;  no,  to  learn  of  the  Master  is  a 
better  and  more  enduring  part  than  to  serve  him  and  his;  but  no- 
tably that  humanity  which  is  most  considerate  and  exertional  is 
ever  coming  from  the  presence  of  the  great  Teacher,  and  going 
back  to  him  again.  He  Avho  loves  the  Son  of  God  most,  Avill  most 
love  man,  and  "the  love  of  the  Spirit"  will  most  frequently  and 
largely  inspire  those  who  serve  as  internuncioes  between  the  two. 

It  is  another  good  preparative  to  regard  admiringly  the  works  of 

Creation. 

"  Earth's  cramniod  with  heaven, 

And  every  common  bush  afire  with  God ; 

But  only  he  who  sees,  takes  olT  his  slioes; 

Tlio  rest  sit  round  it  and  i)luck  blackberries.'' — Jfrs.  Brmcning. 

And  therefore  we  may  profitably  follow  Closes  and  Elijah  when 
driven  to  Mount  Iloreb,  or  Amos  dwelling  among  the  herdmen  of 
Tekoa,  and  John  the  Baptist  among  the  rocks  and  trees  of  Judea,  or 
even  David  and  Jeremiah  while  they  could  only  sigh  aloud  for  re- 
fuse in  the  wilderness. 

For  the  rest,  we   shall   liml    that  musings  on   the  I'rovidence  of 


•    PRAYER  AS  ASKING  THE  HELP  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  HI 

God  will  be  of  foremost  service  in  piling  together  and  kindling 
that  incense  of  prayer  which  we  are  now  to  consider. 

SECTioisr  III. — Prayer  as  Asking  the  Help  of  the  Spirit. 

Over  and  over  again  are  we  told  in  Scripture  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  dwells  in  believers ;  and  yet,  truth  to  tell,  he  may  abide  in 
some  believers,  much  as  the  Greenland  missionary  lives  when 
driven  into  winter  quarters,  where  the  windows  of  his  hut  are 
darkened  by  frost-work  and  icicles,  and  his  door  blocked  up  by 
snow.  Though  we  cannot  pray  aright  without  the  assistance  of  the 
Paraclete  while  praying,  yet  hiay  we  warrantably  ask  that  assist- 
ance both  in  praying  and  in  preaching.  For  when  we  have  his 
gracious  presence  we  may,  at  the  same  time,  be  deeply  sensible 
that  we  have  not  that  presence  as  intimately,  as  effectually,  and  as 
abidingly,  as  it  is  our  duty  and  our  privilege  to  possess  it.  Hence 
prayer  for  these  objects  is  always  timely  and  reasonable. 

Of  the  advantages  of  such  prayer  the  examples  are  abundant.  As 
our  Lord  was  always  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  needed  not  to  pray 
for  his  inspirations,  and  yet  his  teachings  prove  that  our  Heavenly 
Father  has  ever  an  affectionate  readiness  to  grant  the  Comforter  to 
our  filial  requests,  and  that  in  this  one  gift  is  enfolded  all  other  bene- 
fits ;i  agreeably  to  the  words  of  the  apocryphal  tradition  ascribed 
to  our  Divine  Master,  "  Ask  the  great  things  and  the  small  things 
shall  be  added  unto  you ;  ask  heavenly  things  and  earthly  things 
shall  be  added  unto  you."  We  have  not  an  example  of  a  j^rophet 
asking  the  Divine  Spirit  for  himself  It  is,  however,  well  deserving 
of  note  that  it  was  during  or  after  prayer  that  certain  revelations 
were  made  to  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  Daniel  and  Micah,  Zechariah, 
Peter  and  Paul.^  As  true  prophecy  "  came  not  by  the  will  of  man," 
so  it  was  not  jDroper  for  ancient  men  of  God  to  desire  plenary 
inspiration  for  its  own  sake,  nor  invoke  it  at  their  own  pleasure. 
But  some  Scriptures  express  and  many  imply  that  these  men  jjrayed 
often  and  fervently  for  the  fruits  of  the  sanctifying  Spirit  to  prepare 
them  to  act,  to  suffer,  and  to  preach. 

The  greatest  of  the  Christian  fathers  were  in  the  habit  of  pray- 
ing for  the  Holy  Spirit  to  enable  them  to  preach.  Chrysostom,^  in 
the  introduction  of  one  of  his  homilies,  says  that  prayer  should 
come  before  preaching,  and  quotes  the  example  of  Paul  invoking 

1  Cf.  Matt.  vii.  7-11  ;  Luke  xi.  9-13. 

2Isa.  xxxvii.  4,  14;  Jer.  xxxii.  16-25,  26-35;  Dan.  ix.;  Mich.  vii.  14-17; 
Zecb.  iv.  4;  vi.  4,  etc.;  2  Cor.  xii.  8,9;  Acts  x.  9-16;  xxvii.  21-26;  xxii. 
17,  18.       3  Horn.  De  Incomprehensibile  Dei  Natura. 


112  PRAYER  AS  ASKING  THE  HELP  OF  THE  SPIRIT.    ■ 

God  in  the  beginning  of  liis  epistles.  Gregory  Nazlanzen  prayed, 
saying,  "  Lord,  I  am  an  instrument  for  thee  to  play  upon."  And 
Augustine  advises  the  minister  before  moving  his  tongue  to  raise 
his  thirsty  soul  to  God,  that  havhig  himself  drank,  he  may  possess 
a  supply  for  others,  and  be  able  to  pour  forth  to  them  from  the  ful- 
ness he  has  himself  received.^  The  same  father  often  invokes  the 
Spirit  in  his  homilies.  In  one  of  them  he  says :  "  Being  thus  em- 
barrassed, whither  can  I  go  but  to  the  footstool  of  divine  grace. 
There  I  now  offer  my  prayer  that  the  Holy  Ghost  wouhl  give  me 
something  to  speak  worthy  of  himself — something  by  which  I  may 
both  do  my  duty  and  supply  your  wants."^  It  was  a  very  common 
thing  for  the  fathers,  at  the  beginning  of  their  sermons,  to  offer 
short  prayers,  or  "  invocations,"  for  the  assistance  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
in  behalf  of  preacher  and  hearer. 

The  Keformers  were  not  ignorant  of  this  great  secret  of  success 
in  preaching.  Almost  too  familiar  to  quote  are  those  words  of 
Luther,  "  Bene  orasse  est  bene  studuissey  He  exhorted  Spalatin  to 
begin  his  studies  with  earnest  prayer :  "  for,"  added  he, "  there  is  no 
interpreter  of  the  divine  word  but  its  own  author."  "  Very  ii-e- 
quently,"  said  he,  "  in  venturing  upon  something,  by  beginning  the 
matter  with  fervent  prayer,  I  have  advanced  beyond  the  usual 
limits ;  by  using  them  as  a  bridge,  and  by  the  special  help  of  God 
I  have  prospered  and  obtained  a  happy  issue."  "While  he  was  shut 
up  in  the  castle  at  Coburg,  having  more  time  for  devotion  than  his 
public  duties  had  usually  allowed  him,  he  daily  spent  in  prayer  the 
three  hours  that  were  the  most  convenient  for  study.'  "  If,"  said 
he,  "  I  should  neglect  prayer  for  a  single  day,  I  should  lose  a  great 
deal  of  the  fire  of  faith."  John  Knox  was  as  frequent  as  he  was 
mighty  in  prayer.  John  "Welch,  his  son-in-law,  considered  no  day 
well  improved  in  which  he  did  not  spend  seven  or  eight  hours  in 
prayer.  He  Avould  at  times  retire  to  the  church  of  Ayr,  which  was 
some  distance  from  the  town,  and  there  pass  Avhole  nights  m  com- 
mmiion  with  God — a  custom  that  made  his  enemies  call  him  a 
wizard.  He  would  sometimes  express  wonder  that  any  Christian 
could  lie  abed  all  night  and  not  rise  to  pray.  While  pastor  of  a 
cliureh  in  a  French  village,  where  he  was  living  in  exile,  a  friar,  who 
lodged  two  nights  at  his  house,  Avas  converted  to  the  Protestant 
faith  by  overhearing  him  as  he  whispered  his  midnight  prayers. 
And  this  holy  man's  ministerial  success  was  proportional  to  his 
prayerfulness.      Many   years   after   his   death,   the   famous   David 

1  De  Doct.  Cliiist  ,  L.  iv.,  c.  15.  2  Horn.  De  Tempore. 

3  Melcb.  Adam,  iu  vita  Lutheris,  pp.  138-112. 


PRAYER  AS  ASKING  THE  HELP  OF  THE  SPIRLT.  II3 

Dickson,  who  was  enabled  to  convert  great  numbers  at  Irvine,  and 
in  adjacent  towns,  was  often  heard  to  say :  "  The  grape  gleanings  at 
Ayr,  in  Mr.  Welch's  time,  were  far  above  the  vintage  at  Irvine  in 
my  own  day."  Rev.  Robert  Boyd,i  who  knew  him  well,  says,  "  He 
was  a  man  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost." 

Another  celebrated  Scottish  minister,  Robert  Bruce,  was  in  the 
habit  of  praying  most  earnestly  before  preaching.  We  are  told 
that  his  chief  preparation  was  lifting  up  his  mind  into  a  holy  and 
reverential  mood,  and  pouring  out  his  heart  before  God  in  wrestling 
prayer.  The  renowned  John  Livingstone  says  that  of  all  the  ser- 
mons he  ever  heard  and  read  he  was  the  most  profited  by  those  of 
the  three  preachers  last  mentioned. 

Of  his  own  preaching  Livingstone  says :  "  I  never  preached  a  ser- 
mon which  I  would  be  earnest  to  see  again  in  print  but  two ;  the 
one  was  on  Monday  after  the  commimion  of  Shotts,  and  the  other 
on  Monday  after  the  communion  at  Holywood,  and  both  these 
times  I  had  spent  the  whole  night  before  in  conference  and  prayer 
with  some  Christians,  without  any  more  than  ordinary  preparation. 
About  five  hundred  were  awakened  by  the  sermon  preached  at  the 
kirk  of  Shotts." 

Among  the  other  illustrious  names  that  united  much  prayer  with 
study,  we  may  mention  John  Bradford,  the  martyr,  and  the  most 
eloquent  perhaps  of  all  the  preachers  of  his  day ;  Joseph  Alleine, 
whose  prophetic  fire  enlightens  and  sanctifies  his  imperishable 
writings ;  Whitefield,  who  studied  his  Bible  on  his  knees,  praying 
as  he  read  and  pondered  the  sacred  page ;  Charles  Simeon,  who  not 
unfrequently  spent  whole  nights  in  importunity  and  intercession, 
and  Edward  Payson,  who,  eminent  as  he  had  been  as  a  man  of 
prayer,  yet  in  his  last  days  was  heard  to  declare  that  if  he  had  to 
live  his  life  over  again,  he  should  choose  to  spend  half  of  it  in 
prayer.     Prayer  brings,  among  other  gifts,  the  needed  illumination. 2 

On  some  mysterious  themes  the  preacher  should  refuse  to  speak 
imtil  he  has  made  them  subjects  of  prayer  for  many  days.  He  may 
have  to  pray  the  seventh  time  before  the  cloud  rise  out  of  the  sea 
like  a  man's  hand,  and  seventy  times  seven  before  the  sky  be  black 
with  clouds  and  a  great  rain  set  in.  "Is  there,"  says  John  Wesley, 
"  a  doubt  concerning  the  meaning  of  what  I  read  ?  Does  any  thing 
appear  dark  or  intricate  ?  I  lift  up  my  heart  to  the  Father  of 
Lights.  Lord,  is  it  not  thy  word,  '  If  any  man  lack  wisdom,  let 
him  ask  of  God?'  'Thou  givest  liberally  and  upbraidest  not.' 
Thou  hast  said, '  If  any  man  be  wilhng  to  do  thy  will,  he  shall  know.' 

1  Life  of  Boyd,  by  Wodrow,  p.  263.  2  Prov.  xxviii.  6. 


114  PRAYER  AS  ASKING  THE  HELP  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

I  am  willing  to  do,  let  me  know  thy  will.' "  "  Study  yourself  dead 
and  pray  yourself  alive  again,"  was  Adam  Clarke's  reply  to  a 
student  who  asked,  "  How  shall  I  prepare  my  sermons  ?  " 

In  examining  such  examples  as  these  (and  they  might  be  greatly 
multiplied),  some  cautions  will  not  be  useless.  It  is  not  impossible 
that  hundreds  of  obscure  but  very  useful  preachers  have  surpassed 
any  of  those  mentioned,  in  the  fervency,  the  length,  the  frequency, 
and  the  timeliness  of  their  secret  jirayers ;  but  they  were  so  for- 
tunate as  to  keejD  them  strictly  secret,  and  so  prudent  as  not  to  tell 
their  friends  how  much  time  they  spent  in  such  pious  exercises. 
Nor  from  the  fact  that  a  preacher  is  distinguished  for  his  [/Ifts  in 
public  prayer,  should  we  too  confidently  infer  that  he  necessarily 
exercises  his  graces  in  frequent  and  long-continued  secret  j^rayer. 
Some  of  the  Pharisees  must  have  possessed  very  popular  gifts  in 
public  prayer,  otherwise  they  would  not  have  been  so  ready  and 
anxious  to  display  them  in  j^laces  of  concourse. 

Another  thing  :  in  his  anxiety  to  secure  divine  assistance  for  Jibn- 
self  the  preacher  should  not  forget  that  little  success,  beyond  the 
applause  of  the  people,  is  to  be  achieved  unless  the  Divine  Spirit 
is  not  only  in  his  heart  but  in  the  hearts  of  the  auditors  as  well. 
Preaching  wins  its  greatest  victories  when  the  Holy  Spirit  broods 
equally  over  the  speaker  and  the  congregation.  As  the  Divine 
Spirit  is  very  God,  he  is  essentialhj  present  alike  in  all,  while  he  is 
graciously  present  in  those  only  whom  he  enlightens,  or  regene- 
rates, or  sanctifies,  or  in  some  manner  blesses.  It  is  with  the  latter 
that  we  here  have  to  do. 

He  may  sometimes  vouchsafe  his  gracious  assistance  to  the 
preacher,  while  he  may  justly  withdraw  it  from  his  hearers.  Enoch, 
Noah,  and  perhaps  other  faithful  prophets,  preached  righteousness 
to  the  antediluvians,  who  strove  with,  and  successfully  resisted  the 
Paraclete,  to  their  destruction.  And  some  of  the  later  prophets 
preached  in  vain,  because  the  people  would  not  hear,  or  if  they 
heard,  would  not  obey  the  truth.  EzekieU  had  admiring  auditors 
who  listened  to  his  sermons  as  they  would  to  very  lovely  songs  "  of 
one  that  hath  a  pleasant  voice  and  can  ])lay  avcU  on  an  instrunient." 
They  heard  his  words  but  did  not  heed  and  apply  them.  Their  hearts 
went  after  their  covetousness.  And  according  to  the  vision  of  the 
Dry  Bones,-  it  was  one  thing  for  Jehovah  to  move  Ezekiel  to  prophesy 
to  the  dry  bones,  so  that  they  shook,  and  came  together,  and  took 
upon  them  flesh;  and  another  thmg,  while  as  yet  there  was  no 
breath  in  them,  for  the  prophet  to  say  to  the  wind,  "  Thus  saith  the 

1  Chap,  xxxiii.  31,  32.  2  Chap,  xxxvii.  1-14. 


PRAYER  AS  ASKING  THE  HELP  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  115 

Lord  God  :  Come  from  the  fom-  winds,  O  breath,"  etc.  And  the 
prophet  Micah,  being  called  to  rebuke  the  people  for  covetousness, 
injustice,  oppression,  and  idolatry,  appeals  to  them  thus :  "  O  thou 
that  art  named  the  house  of  Jacob,  is  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  strait- 
ened ?  Are  these  his  doings  ?  Do  not  my  words  do  good  to  him 
that  -walketh  uprightly  ?^  The  only  rational  cause  we  can  assign 
for  the  comparatively  small  immediate  success  of  our  Divine  Mas- 
ter's preaching  was,  that  while  he  was  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  him- 
self, the  people  in  general  were  devoid  of  grace.  His  warning  at 
the  close  of  his  Sermon  on  the  Mount  proves  that  it  was  possible 
for  some  of  his  hearers  to  find  in  his  sayings  nothing  but  founda- 
tions of  sand  upon  which  to  build  false  hopes.  Stephen  was  cer- 
tainly filled  with  the  Divine  Spirit  while  his  murderers  were  in- 
spired with  hatred.  The  apostle  Paul  contrasts  his  spiritual  state 
with  that  of  the  Church  at  Corinth.2  Then  again  some,  but  not  all, 
may  be  willing  to  receive  the  grace  of  the  Spirit,  as  on  the  occa- 
sions when  Lydia,  Dionysius,  and  Damaris  were  converted. 

In  other  cases,  on  the  contrary,  the  congregation,  but  not  the 
preacher,  has  the  gracious  presence  of  the  Spirit.  When  the  pastor 
is  graceless,  we  may  reasonably  infer  that  the  generality  of  his  flock 
are  in  the  same  state  of  spiritual  destitution ;  otherwise  how  are 
Ave  to  account  for  the  fact  of  their  having  called,  or  for  their  con- 
tinuing to  hear  such  a  preacher  ?^  This  is  the  more  probable,  be- 
cause in  choosing  such  a  pastor  they  have  virtually,  if  not  actually, 
rejected  the  ministrations  of  some  true  man  of  God.  But  this  is 
not  (the  Lord  be  praised  for  it)  always  the  case ;  and  we  may  well 
believe  that  some  pastors  have  been  converted  in  answer  to  the 
prayers  of  one  or  two  of  their  believing  people,  while  others  were 
indebted  to  the  secret  intercessions  of  such  for  all  their  efiiciency 
and  success. 

A  third  moral  condition  has  already  been  intimated,  namely,  that 
w^herem  the  Comforter  assists  neither  preacher  nor  people.  The  Holy 
Spirit,  in  ancient  days,  spoke  through  more  than  one  of  the  false 
projAets,  and  in  all  ages  there  may  have  been  mcUviduals  who  re- 
ceived occasionally  what  might  be  termed  ministerial  grace,  and 
notliing  better.  Howbeit,  in  general  must  it  be  affirmed  that  the 
Spirit  is  promised  to  such  assemblies  only  as  meet  in  the  name  of 
Jesus ;  nor  can  his  gracious  presence  be  granted  to  other  meetmgs 
except  in  the  way  of  uncovenanted  mercy — meetings  that,  from  in- 
difference to  the  name  of  Jesus,  may  be  denied  all  the  blessings, 

1  Micah  ii.  7  ;  2  2  Cor.  vi.  12,  13 ;  xii.  15. 

3  Hosea  iv.  6-9;  Micah,  ii.  11 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  3,  4. 


IIG  PRAYER  AS  ASKING  THE  HELP  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

of  which  their  minister,  however  godly,  might  otherwise  have  been 
the  channel.  Some  of  the  holy  proj)hets  were  left  without  divine 
communications  on  accoimt  of  the  sins  of  the  people.^  Every  true 
preacher  is  more  inchned  to  attribute  the  want  of  the  insf)iring 
presence  of  the  Spirit  to  his  o^\ti  faults  than  to  the  faults  of  his 
congregation ;  and  yet  to  the  latter  must  sometimes  be  referred  the 
discouragements  arising  from  a  want  of  liberty  while  conducting 
divine  services. 

Let  not  the  preacher,  then,  imagine  that  he  alone  needs  the  Para- 
clete, or  that,  though  he  may  cxj^ect  ministerial  grace,  he  can  mon- 
opolise divine  assistance.  And  while  the  ministry  have  the  i^romise 
of  that  peculiar  aid  which  their  holy  service  demands,  yet  they  can- 
not claim  even  this  assistance  as  a  permanent  helji,  secured  to  them 
by  virtue  of  their  office,  and  independently  of  the  faithful  discharge 
of  their  duties.  The  preacher  who  entertains  the  delusion  that  the 
Spirit  resides  chiefly  with  himself,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  greater 
l^art  of  his  lay  brethren,  puiFs  himself  up  with  a  guilty  and  danger- 
ous self-conceit.  How  ineffectual  will  be  his  best  labours  unless 
the  Divine  Spirit  direct  not  only  his  preaching,  but  the  people's 
hearing.  Let  the  preacher,  therefore,  pray  for  his  hearers.^  The 
apostle  Paul  prayed  not  only  for  himself,  but  for  his  converts  and 
brethren  as  well,  and  begs  them  to  pray  that  he  may  have  gracious 
aid  in  his  ministrations.  For  a  pastor  not  to  abound  in  prayer  for 
the  Divine  Spu-it's  co-operation  in  the  hearts  of  his  flock  were  a 
great  omission  and  delmquency.  If  he  is  a  man  of  faith  he  will 
sooner  resign  his  charge  than  cease  to  intercede  for  it ;  because  he 
knows  that  the  feeblest  intercessions  are  frequently  of  as  much 
benefit  as  the  most  eloquent  preaching.  He  remembers  that  when 
a  just  God  visited  Judah  with  various  judgments  for  her  sins,  one 
of  these  judgments  was  the  withdrawal  of  the  intercessions  of  Jere- 
miah.^ J'ather  Augustine  counsels  the  preacher  to  pray  not  only 
for  himself,  but  for  those  whom  he  is  about  to  address,  and  says 
that  if  he  is  heard  understandingly,  willingly,  and  obediently,  he  is 
indebted  for  this  more  to  his  pious  ])rnyers  than  his  oratorical 
powers.'*  He  begins  one  of  his  homilies  with  this  invocation :  "  May 
the  Lord  assist  me  by  your  prayers  to  speak  what  I  ought  to  speak 
and  what  you  ought  to  hear."     In  another  homily  he  requests  the 

1  1  Sam.  xxviii.  C;   P.sa.  l.\xiv.  9;  Lain.  ii.  0;   Kzok.  vii.  '26. 

2  "  The  minister's  immediate  worlc  may  be  divided  into  two  jiarfs  :  first,  dealin!? 
Willi  tlie  people  on  God's  belialf ;  secondly,  with  God  on  behalf  of  the  people." 
(William  Ames,  Medulla  Theologica,  L.  !.,  c.  xxxv.,  sec.  10.) 

3  Jer.  vii.  16  ;  ix.  14;  xiv.  11.  4De  Doct.  Christ ,  Lib.  iv..  chap.  xv. 


PRAYER  AS  ASKING  THE  KELP  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  117 

people  to  assist  him  with  their  prayers,  not  only  for  his  sake,  but  for 
their  own.  And  Melancthon,  in  his  sermon  on  the  death  of  Lvither, 
testifies  concerning  the  great  Reformer :  "  I  have  ofteij  happened  to 
drop  in  when  he  ofiered  his  prayers  for  the  whole  Church  with 
tears."  And  well  may  every  man  of  God  make  intercession  for  his 
flock  with  tears  when  he  considers  how  many  good  sermons  have 
been  seemingly  lost  because  they  were  not  mixed  with  faith  in  them 
that  heard  them;  how  few  honest  and  good  hearts  there  are  in  the 
largest  and  best  of  congregations,  and 

'■'  With  what  cracked  pitchers  go  we  to  deep  wells 
In  this  world." 

A  prayerless  Church  must,  in  spite  of  our  preaching  to  the  con- 
trary, gradually  learn  to  entertain  low  views  of  Christ ;  but  a  pray- 
ing Church  will  exalt  him  more  and  more  :  while  Jacob  was  wrest- 
ling in  the  night,  he  thought  it  was  a  mere  man  he  was  trying  to 
master,  but  when  the  sun  rose  on  th6  supplicant,  he  said,  "  I  have 
seen  God  face  to  face." 

As  to  the  advantages  of  such  prayers  we  will  advance  only  a 
few  thoughts  and  those  principally  in  an  indirect  way.  As  prayer 
brings  inspiration,  so  the  neglect  of  prayer  leaves  the  preacher 
without  inspiration,  and  consequently  a  jirey  to  unprofitableness. 
Mind,  culture,  genius,  study,  eloquence,  all  go  for  nothing,  or  some- 
thmg  worse,  without  a  gracious  inspiration.  A  legend,^  often  repeat- 
ed, teaches  much  the  same  lesson  respecting  unction.  "A  cele- 
brated preacher  was  expected  to  hold  forth  at  a  certain  priory 
church,  but  fell  sick.  The  prior  being  unprepared,  was  in  great 
distress ;  but  at  the  moment  the  time  of  service  arrived,  there  came 
to  the  door  of  the  priory  a  stranger  in  the  garb  of  the  order,  and 
said  to  him, '  I  hope  that  God  by  me  will  supply  your  want.  Let 
me  go  into  your  library  a  few  minutes.'  Walking  in,  he  turned 
over  the  Summa  of  St.  Thoniasiics  and  the  works  of  Alhcrtus 
3Iar/nus ;  and  in  a  few  minutes  he  was  ready.  He  came  out,  and 
ascending  the  pulpit,  he  talked  marvellously  well  on  the  joys  of 
paradise,  the  pains  of  hell,  etc. ;  insomuch  that  he  melted  all  to 
tears  by  his  eloquence.  But  there  was  present  a  holy  man  who 
recognized  him,  and  while  he  wondered  at  his  audacity,  he  waited 
to  mark  the  result.  After  the  sermon  he  went  forward  and  spoke 
to  Frater  Dlabolus,  saying,  '  O,  thou  accursed  one,  thou  vile 
dreamer,  how  couldst  thou  take  this  upon  thee?'  He  replied, 
'  Think  you  that  my  discourse  woidd  prevent  a  single  soul  from 
seekmg  eternal  damnation.      No,  never.     The   most  finished  elo- 


1  Found  in  the  Magnum  Speculum,  but  borrowed  from  St.  Antonius  of  Florence. 


118  PRAYER  AS  ASKINC  THE  HELP  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

quence  and  the  most  profound  learning  are  wortlilcss  in  eomi:)arison 
of  a  single  drop  of  unction.  In  my  sermon  unction  tliere  Avas 
none.'"  AVe  suspect  that  for  once  the  "lioly  man"  Avas  much 
mistaken  •  for  so  modest  an  estimate  of  the  sermon  and  so  lumi- 
nous an  opinion  were  less  suitable  to  the  prince  of  darkness  than 
to  some  good  preacher  and  justly  distinguished.  At  any  rate,  the 
moral  of  this  legend  deserves  to  be  frequently  brought  to  mind. 

One  or  two  things  more :  prayer  serves  to  counteract  the  ten- 
dency of  the  studious  preacher  to  form  notions  of  revealed  truth 
that  are  merely  intellectual,  theoretical,  and  lifeless.  A  busy  thinker 
may  fill  many  of  his  sermons  with  apprehensions  of  Scripture  that 
are  beautiful,  grand,  wonderfid,  and  glorious ;  but,  if  at  the  same 
time,  he  expresses  little  or  no  relish  for  the  moral  perfections,  graces, 
and  virtues  which  Holy  Writ  exhibits,  what  is  he  better  than  a  skele- 
ton holding  forth  a  sword  curiously  damaskeened,  sharp,  and  won- 
derfully efastic ;  but  cold,  simulated,  misplaced,  and  useless.  He 
says,  perhaps,  <'  I  must  provide  beaten  oil  for  the  lamps  of  the  sanc- 
tuary," and  says  only  this,  forgettmg  the  incense  demanded  by  the 
Levitical  law,  and  that  prayer  is  an  incense,  and  as  such  is  not  only 
acceptable  to  the  Lord  Jesus  but  diffusive  of  a  holy  redolence  over 
all  the  preparations  and  public  services  of  the  minister.  He  forgets 
that  the  high  priest  was  commanded  to  burn  incense  on  the  altar  in 
the  morning  when  he  dressed  the  sacred  lamps,  and  at  evenmg 
when  he  lighted  them.i  Why  was  he  required  to  do  this  at  these 
hours,  unless  it  was  for  the  purpose  of  deodorizing  the  oil,  the  wicks 
and  the  smoke.  Be  this  as  it  may,  certain  it  is  that  the  mcense  of 
prayer  removes  all  fetor  from  the  intellectual  lamp,  both  when  it  is 
trimmed  in  the  study  and  when  it  is  lighted  in  the  pulpit. 

And  this  suggests  our  final  thought  that  not  a  few  preachers  are 
tempted  to  neglect  the  duty  of  timeliness  in  their  secret  prayers; 
in  other  and  more  explicit  words,  to  go  on  shortening  their  time 
for  prayer  and  lengthening  their  time  for  study  as  the  hour  for 
preaching  draws  nigh.  And  yet  prayer  is  really  more  needful  then 
than  at  any  other  season,  as  the  incense  was  more  agreeable  at  evening 
than  in  the  morning ;  at  the  morning  service,  the  perfume  rising 
from  opening  flowers  would  many  a  time  have  somewhat  compen- 
sated for  the  want  of  it,  but  after  the  evening  sacrifice,  while  flowers 
were  closing,  the  dew  descending,  and  smoke  mounting  in  clouds 
from  the  wicks,  the  lioly  incense  was  indispensable  to  the  sweetness 
of  the  worship.  Go  therefore  into  the  pulpit  not  from  study  but 
from  ])rnyer. 

1  Exod.  XXX.  7,  8 ;  Psa.  cxli.  2 ;  Luke  i.  10 ;  Rev.  viii.  3,  4. 


PRAISE  AS  WATTING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  119 

Section  IV. — Praise  as  Waitij^g  for  the  Aid  of  the  Spirit. 

The  j5rst  office  of  the  preacher  is,  according  to  Luther,  to  show 
forth  the  praises  of  God.  This  is  one  of  the  weapons  which  in  his 
controversy  with  the  Papists  about  their  pretensions  to  an  external 
priesthood,  the  great  Reformer  drew  forth  and  wielded  with  his 
usual  power.  But  unhappily  the  passage  (1  Peter  ii.  9)  whence  he 
drew  this  weapon,  does  not  warrant  the  inference  he  educed  from 
it,  that  all  believers  are  priests  in  such  a  sense  that  all  are  thereby 
authorized  publicly  to  teach  the  Scriptures  ;i  much  less  the  infer- 
ence of  some  of  his  disciples  that  a  congregation  is  thereby  guar- 
anteed the  right,  as  si:)iritual  priests,  to  call  men  to  the  work  of  the 
ministry.  The  spiritual  priesthood  of  the  Gospel  preacher  also  in- 
cludes the  act  of  presenting  his  converts  as  a  living  sacrifice  to  God. 
(Rom.  XV.  16.) 

The  true  doctrine  concerning  the  spiritual  and  universal  priest- 
hood is,  as  it  appears  to  us,  that  all  men  ought  to  perform  the 
sacerdotal  duty  of  oiFering  themselves  as  living  sacrifices  to  God, 
and  have  a  right  to  join  in  the  public  praises  of  God.  They  are 
permitted,  as  the  Levitical  choirs  were,  to  ofier  spiritual  sacrifices, 
that  is  to  say,  sacrifices  of  holy  joy,  adoration,  and  thanksgiving.^ 
In  this  spiritual  sense  all  believers  are  prophets  also ;  for  praise  was 
one  of  the  duties  of  the  prophet  no  less  than  of  the  priest.  So 
fully  was  this  recognized  that  singing  divine  praise  was  sometimes 
called  prophesying,  and  female  singers  were  called  prophetesses.^ 
In  this  sense  was  fulfilled,  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when  holy 
women  joined  in  praising  the  wonderful  works  of  God,  the  prophecy 
of  Joel,  "  Your  sons  and  your  daughters  shall  prophesy."  Teaching 
was  a  work  commc*i  to  priest  and  prophet  with  this  difierence,  that 
the  priest  taught  the  Law  of  Moses  didactically  and  theoretically,^ 

1  Opera,  "Walch  ed.,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  2791.  concerning  Councils  and  Churches ;  also 
letter  to  the  Burgomaster  Council  and  Church  of  Prague.  Id.,  vol.  x.  p.  1858, 
and  his  Commentary  on  1  Peter  ii.  9 ;   0pp.,  vol.  li.,  p.  400. 

2  Psa.  cvii.  22  ;  Hos.  xiv.  2 ;  Rev.  i.  5,  6 ;  v.  9,  10 ;  xx.  6. 

3  Exod.  XV.  20  ;  Judges  iv.  4 ;  Luke  ii.  36. 

4  Lev.  X.  10 ;  Malachi  ii.  7.  8.  It  has  been  overlooked  that  the  Hebrew 
priests  had  to  instruct  their  younger  fellows  in  the  observance  of  the  Levitcal  rites. 
As  many  a  time,  in  a  formative  state  of  society,  the  prophet  would  likewise 
serve  as  priest,  it  is  likely  enough  that  sacredotal  duties  engaged  some  attention 
in  the  "  Schools  of  the  Prophets."  The  Vestal  virgins  of  Rome  had  their  lives 
divided  into  three  parts  :  in  the  first,  they  learned  the  ceremonies  of  religion  ;  in 
the  second,  they  performed  them ;  in  the  third,  they  taught  the  younger  Vestals 
{Plutarch,  An  Seni  Gerenda  Repub.,  p.  795,  ed.  Reiskii).  Were  a  like  method  now 
pursued  by  clergyman  it  would  promote  Christian  knowledge  very  considerably. 

9 


120         PRAISE  AS  WAITING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

■while  the  in-ophet  taught  that  Law  not  only  didactically  and  theo- 
retically, hut  experimentally  and  practically.  That  the  public 
teaching  of  Scripture  is  not  the  duty  of  all  who  belong  to  the 
spiritual  and  universal  priesthood  and  prophetry,  may  be  fairly  con- 
cluded from  the  fact  that  holy  women  are  expressly  forbidden  to 
serve  the  primitive  churches  as  public  teachers  of  religion. i  Indeed 
Luther  himself/  in  his  later  years,  came  round  to  much  the  same 
position  that  we  here  maintain. 

These  being  the  spiritual  sacrifices  which  the  royal  priesthood,  as 
such,  have  the  privilege  of  offering  to  God,  let  us  not  hold  in  low 
esteem  this  part  of  divine  service.  Dr.  G.  Eberle,^  in  Avriting  on 
this  declaration  of  Luther,  says :  "  However  grating  this  may  sound 
to  many  ears,  it  is  nevertheless  unquestionably  true..  It  is  in  har- 
mony with  the  first  petition  of  the  Lord's  prayer,  and  with  the 
seventeenth  chapter  of  John's  Gospel :  for  as  God  is  infinitely  exalt- 
ed above  all  creatures,  so,  also,  must  his  honour  and  praise  stand 
high  above  even  the  salvation  of  the  individual  man."  These  words 
of  Eberle  are  in  the  main  just  and  important ;  only  he  has  no  war- 
rant to  bring  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  into  competition  with  the 
proclamation  of  God's  praise.  Each  is  equally  important  in  its 
time  and  place.  The  blessed  John  Livingstone^  is  nearer  th.e  truth 
when  he  says,  "  Alas  !  for  the  capital  crime  of  the  Lord's  people — 
barrenness  of  praises.  O,  how  fully  am  I  persuaded  that  a  line  of 
j)raises  is  worth  a  leaf  of  prayer,  and  an  hour  of  praises  is  worth  a 
day  of  fasting  and  mourning!  Yet  there  is  room  enough  for 
both.  But  O  !  what  a  massy  piece  of  glory  on  earth  is  it  to  have 
praises  looking,  as  it  were,  out  at  the  eyes,  praises  written  upon  the 
fore-brow ;  to  have  the  very  breath  smelling  of  praises,  to  have 
praises  engraven  on  the  palms  of  the  hands,  and  the  impression  of 
praises  on  every  footstep  of  the  walk."  Of  the  saintly  and  very 
influential  Josei)h  Allcine  we  are  told  that  the  greater  part  of  his 
public  devotions  consisted  of  thanksgiving. 

It  is  therefore  as  a  spiritual  priest  and  as  a  member  of  a  universal 
priesthood,  that  the  iiroachor  is  to  make  it  his  first  duty  to  proclaim 
the  praises  of  the  Lord.     And  though  it  is  not  his  exclusive  ofticial 

1  1  Tim.  ii.  12. 

2  Rev.  Dr.  A.  W.  Dieklioff  has  recently  proved  tliis  from  liis  later  writings, 
Evangelical  Quarterly,  Gettysburg,  1870,  vol.  xxi.,  i)p.  182-190.  Palmer  (Homi- 
letik,  5th  ed.,  p.  2)  still  adheres  to  young  Luther. 

3  In  Leonhardi  and  Zimmerman's  Law  and  Testimony. 

4  In  a  Letter  to  a  Friend,  Select  Biographies,  printed  for  the  Wodrow  Society, 
vol.  1.,  p.  267. 


PRAISE  AS  WAITING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  121 

work,  yet  it  is  all  the  more  demanded  on  this  accoimt ;  for  it  is  less 
blamable  to  fail  in  the  attempt  to  perform  some  of  those  official 
duties  for  which  no  mortal  is  fully  equal,  than  to  neglect  those  com- 
mon duties  and  privileges  to  which  all  the  saints  are  summoned. 

But  the  work  of  praise  can,  for  other  and  more  weighty  reasons, 
be  proved  to  be  the  first  duty  of  the  preacher.  It  would  seem  that 
from  a  very  early  time  the  inspiration  of  the  Spirit  was  believed  to 
be  intimately  connected  with  holy  praise.  Saul  was  told  by  Samuel 
that  when  he  should  come  to  the  hill  of  God  at  Bethel,  he  would, 
as  a  sign,  meet  a  comj^any  of  prophets  coming  down  from  the  high 
place  with  a  psaltery,  and  a  tabret,  and  a  pipe,  and  a  harp  before 
them ;  and  said  Samuel,  "  They  shall  prophesy,  and  the  Spirit  of  the 
Lord  will  come  uj^on  thee,  and  thou  shalt  prophesy  with  them,  and 
shall  be  turned  into  another  man."^  In  this  and  another  instance  in 
the  history  of  Saul,^  the  praise  of  God,  accomjoanied  by  sacred 
music,  seems  to  have  preceded  and  attended  the  bestowal  of  prophet- 
ic inspiration.  That  the  gracious  presence  of  the  Lord  dwelt  among, 
or  sat  enthroned  upon  the  united  songs  of  his  worshippers,  is  taught 
by  these  words  of  the  22d  Psalm:  "But  thou  art  holy,  O,  thou 
that  inhabitest  the  praises  of  Israel."  Jehovah  thus  abode  in  this 
volume  of  praise  as  in  an  invisible  Shekinah.  So,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  dedication  of  Solomon's  temj)le,  the  Shekinah,  the  symbol  of 
Jehovah's  gracious  presence,  descended  and  filled  the  house  of 
the  Lord  during  the  very  time  that  the  Levitical  choir  were  engaged 
in  the  service  of  praise,^  and  before  Solomon  offered  his  prayer  of 
dedication.  Here  Jehovah  signified  his  especial  approbation  of  the 
adoration  of  his  goodness  and  mercy  by  making  the  vocal  and  in- 
strumental service  the  occasion,  if  not  the  channel,  of  the  descent 
of  his  glory.  Such  a  manifestation  of  his  power  would  not  fail  to 
to  be  remembered,  particularly  by  the  prophets,  who  were  alike  the 
preachers,  the  psalmists,  and  the  chroniclers  of  their  people.  Thence- 
forth, if  not  before,  psalmody,  accompanied  by  the  harp  or  other 
instruments  of  music,  would  be  associated  with  the  legitimate  means 
of  obtaining  the  imj)ulses  of  divine  inspiration.  And  accordingly, 
when  Jehoram  consulted  Elisha  respecting  a  supply  of  water  and  an 
impending  battle  with  the  army  of  Moab,  the  proj^het  desired  a 
mmistrel,  more  pro2:)erly  a  harper,  to  be  brought  to  him,  "  and  it  came 
to  pass  when  the  ministrel  played,  that  the  hand  of  the  Lord  came 

1  1  Sam.  X.  5,  6,  10,  12. 

2  Id.  xix.  20-24  ;  cf.  1  Chron.  xxv.  1 ;  Judges  iv.  4  and  chap,  v  ;  Exod.  xv.  20, 
21  ;  Luke  ii.  36-38  ;  Acts  xxi.  9 ;  1  Cor.  xi.  5 ;  xiv.  26. 

3  2  Chron.  v.  13. 


122         PRAISE  AS  WAITING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

upon  him.'' 1  This  harper  accompanied  Elisha  Avhile  he  pang  a  psalm 
in  praise  of  that  God  before  whom  the  allied  kings  of  Judah,  Israel, 
and  Edom,  and  tlieir  armies,  were  as  the  small  dust  of  the  balance ; 
at  least  so  it  would  appear,  if  we  remember  that  the  prophets  sang 
psalms,  either  before  or  after  their  prose  prophesyings,  as  in  the 
first  and  second  chapters  of  Amos,  and  the  last  chapter  of  Habak- 
kuk;  also  in  the  beginning  of  Nahum,  and  the  end  of  Malachi. 
Much  of  the  Psalter  appears  to  have  been  composed  by  prophets 
to  be  sung  with  the  accompaniment  of  mstruraental  music  before 
the  utterance  of  their  communications  from  God  to  men.  Thus  was 
psalmody  an  acknowledged  part  of  prophecy,  while  the  sacred 
musician,  more  strictly  so-called,  might  at  the  same  time  be  a  pro- 
phet, as  David  was,  or  only  a  member  of  the  Levitical  choir.  These 
Levites  assisted  the  prophets  in  theh*  ministrations  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Samuel,-  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  young  David  was 
in  like  manner  employed  by  Saul  to  accompany  him  on  the  harp  while 
"  he  prophesied  in  the  midst  of  the  house  "  under  the  inspiration  of 
an  evil  spirit  from  God.^  In  this  case,  however,  the  harpings  did 
not  perhaps  prelude,  but  rather  interrupted  the  phrenzied  utterances 
of  Saul,  with  a  view  to  silence  them  and  exorcise  the  maddening 
dajmon.  Analagous  is  Rabbi  Solomon's  interpretation  of  1  Chron. 
XXV.  1-3.  "  When,"  says  he,  "  they  played  on  their  musical  instru- 
ments, they  prophesied  after  the  manner  of  Elisha,  w^ho  said,  '  bring 
me  a  minstrel.'  ...  As  they  sounded  upon  the  harj)  the  psalms 
of  praise  and  hallelujahs,  Jeduthim,  their  father,  prophesied."^  We 
agree,  therefore,  with  Procopius  of  Gaza^  in  the  opinion  that  the 
minstrel,  or  rather  harper,  whom  Elisha  called  for  Avas  one  of  the 
Levites.  The  conjecture  that  he  was  a  mere  secular  musician,  or  a 
semi-religious  minstrel,  like  those  of  the  mediajval  Church,  would 
not  be  in  keeping  either  with  the  character  of  Elisha  or  the  purpose 
for  which  he  summoned  him,  namely,  to  assist  in  the  praises  of  God. 
Equally  inconsistent  Avith  the  simplicity  of  the  prophet's  piety, 
and  the  object  of  true  worsliip  in  all  ages  is  the  psychological 
theory  advanced  by  some  of  the  liabbins,  by  Josephus,  iNIichaelis, 
Herder,  Hengstenberg,  Keil,  and  others,*'  who  think  that  the  object 

1  2  Kings  iii.  15.  2 1  Sam.  x.  6-12.  3  id.  xviii.  10. 

"1  Valuable  as  this  passage  is,  as  showing  this  ancient  rabbi's  opinion  concerning 
Elisha's  minstrel,  it  does  not  give  us  the  import  of  the  text  in  which,  and  in  some 
other  texts,  the  word  prophesy  signifies  to  praise  God.  Cf.  Joel  ii.  28  ;  Acts  ii.  11, 
17,  47  ;  xxi.  9,  and  Num.  xi.  29 ;  1  Sam.  xix.  20 ;  cf.  Exod.  xv.  20 ;  Judges  iv.  4. 

5  Comment,  on  Sam.,  Kings,  and  Chron.,  Greek  and  Latin,  Lugd.,  Balav.,  1620, 
4to. 

6  Cornelius  a  Lapidc   hastily  concludes  from  the  fact  that   Ezekiel  was  in- 


i 


PRAISE  AS  WAITING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  123 

of  the  music  was  either  to  soothe  the  grief  of  Elisha  for  the  death 
of  Elijah,  or  to  apj^ease  his  anger  against  the  Israelites,  or  to  raise 
his  sensibilities  to  a  pitch  that  would  invite  sacred  ecstacy,  and  so 
prepare  his  mind  for  prophetic  inspiration ;  or,  according  to  Keil,  to 
gather  in  his  thoughts  by  the  soft  tones  of  music  from  the  impres- 
sion of  the  outer  world,  and  by  repressing  the  life  of  self  and  of  the 
world,  to  be  transferred  into  the  state  of  internal  vision  by  which 
his  spirit  would  be  prepared  to  receive  the  Divine  revelation. 
These  theories  of  music,  like  some  psychological  theories  as  to 
prayer,  ignore  the  Divine  Spirit,  whose  inspiration  is  at  once  the 
cause  and  the  effect  of  true  praise — an  inspiration  whose  holy 
tributes  to  God  and  wondrous  gifts  to  man  ought  not  for  a  moment 
to  be  confounded  with  the  comparatively  weak  and  evanescent  in- 
fluence of  musical  sounds.  Nor  ought  we  ever  to  confound  these 
sounds  with  the  revealed  truths  and  divine  sentiments  which  they 
expressed.  The  history  of  music  demonstrates  the  fact  that  the 
early  music  of  the  Hebrews  and  the  Greeks  was  never  divorced 
from  psalms,  "liymns  and  songs.  Melody  and  harmony  were  then 
more  thoroughly  subordmated  than  now  to  the  distinct  and  suitable 
expression  of  the  ideas  of  the  prophet  or  lyrist ;  the  soul  shared 
more  largely  and  the  senses  far  less  in  divine  worship.  The  plain 
and  honest  purpose  of  the  Hebrew  saints  was  by  voice  and  instru- 
ment to  pour  out  their  hearts  before  God.  It  was  reserved  for  a 
rationalising  Ivnobel  to  hazard  the  opinion  that  the  object  of  the 
prophet  in  calling  for  the  harper,  was  that  he  might  "  deliver  his 
admonitory  address  in  a  proper  strain." 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Hebrew  worship  was  in  its  pro- 
phetic parts  quite  of  a  piece  with  the  foregoing  instances.  While 
the  holy  people  were  coming  from  afar  to  attend  the  great  festivals, 
they  sang  psalms  accompanied  with  sounds  of  cymbals,  trumj)ets, 
and  pipes.  There  is  an  allusion  to  this  in  the  following  words  of 
Isaiah,  "  Ye  shall  have  a  song  as  in  the  night  when  a  holy  solemnity 
is  kept ;  and  gladness  of  heart,  as  when  one  goeth  with  a  pipe  to 
come  mto  the  mountain  of  the  Lord,  to  the  mighty  One  of  Israel."! 
At  the  festivals,  the  Hallels  (113-118  Psalms  inclusive)  were  sung  in 
the  morning  during  the  slaying  and  offering  of  the  sacrifices.  The 
first  thing  Ezra  did  after  opening  the  book  of  the  law  in  the  sight 


spired  while  he  was  on  the  banks  of  the  Chebar  (i.  3)  that  "  the  prophets  took 
their  station  by  the  side  of  a  river,  that  in  tlie  stillness  and  delightful  scenery 
around  them  they  might,  through  the  soft  pleasing  murmur  of  the  waters,  be 
refreshed,  enlivened  and  prepared  for  the  divine  ecstacies!  " 
1  Isa.  XXX.  29 ;  Ezek.  xxx.  38. 


124         PRAISE  AS  WAITING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

of  all  the  people,  was  to  "  bless  the  Lord  the  great  God,"  while  all 
the  people  stood  up  and  answered,  Amen,  Amen.^ 

Such  was  the  relation  of  divine  inspiration  and  the  praises  of  God 
in  the  Hebrew  dispensation.  Turning  now  to  the  Christian  dispen- 
sation, we  find  that  the  descent  of  the  Comforter  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  was  preceded  by  and  attended  with  holy  and  jubilant 
adorations.  We  are  told  that  immediately  after  our  Lord's  ascension 
the  disciples  returned  to  Jerusalem  with  great  joy  ;  and  were  con 
tinually  in  the  temple,  praising  and  blessing  God.^  And  whatever 
may  have  been  the  use  of  the  gift  of  tongues  subsequently  to  the 
day  of  Pentecost,  certain  it  is  that  it  was  first  and  often  exercised 
in  the  prophetic  work  of  praise  and  thanksgiving.^  These  joyful 
expressions  of  reverence  and  gratitude  began  before  the  multitude 
assembled  and  before  Peter  preached  to  them.-*  And  we  learn  from 
the  correspondence  between  Pliny  and  Trajan,  that  in  their  time 
(beginnmg  of  the  second  century)  the  Christians. had  a  custom  of 
meeting  together  before  daylight  and  singing  a  hymn  to  Christ  as 
a  god.  In  consonance  with  these  first  impulses  of  the  Paraclete  in 
the  primitive  disciples  are  the  benedictions  and  thanksgivings  which 
introduce  the  apostolic  epistles  with  scarcely  an  excejjtion ;  for  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews  omits  the  usual  ascription,  only  to  substitute 
an  exultant  argument  Avhich  is  designed  to  prove  the  superangelic 
dignity  of  the  Son  of  God.  It  is  also  wanting  in  the  epistle  of 
James,  which  like  that  to  the  Hebrews,  reveals  internal  evidences 
of  its  having  been  originally  delivered  orally  as  a  sermon  to  a 
Christian  assembly.  We  may  add  that  the  apostle  in  the  epistle  to 
the  Hebrews^  S2)eaks  of  praise  as  a  sacrifice.  Now  as  the  Levitical 
sacrifices  were  means  of  securing  the  riches  of  divine  grace  when 
they  were  offered  in  sincerity  and  faith,  so  the  praises  of  God,  when 
they  are  ottered  in  like  sincerity  and  faith,  are  means  of  preparing 
us  for  and  of  obtaining  for  us  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

In  some  respects  praise  is  to  be  preferred  to  precatory  devotion. 
True  adoration  and  thanksgiving  are  the  highest  parts  of  worship, 
because  they  are  not  and  ha\e  not  tlie  ai)pcarance  of  being  the  lan- 
guage of  selfishness.^  Almost  all  men,  even  the  most  abject,  will 
play  the  beggar  before  God  when  they  are  pinched  Avitli  extreme 
want  or  are  tortured  with  severe  pain.     But  Job,  while  he  was  yet 


1  Nell.  viii.  4-C  2  Luke  xxiv.  50-53. 

3  Acts  ii.  11-17  ;   x.  46  ;  xix.  6  ;    1  Cor.  xiv.  U-18  ;   cf.  vers.  C,  26;   Psa.  Ixxi. 
19;  Lukei.  49. 

4  Acts  ii.  4-6.  5  Reb.  xiii.  15. 

6  Thomas  Cobbett.'s  Discourse  of  Prayer,  Pt.  ii.,  cbap.  vi.,  ^7. 


PRAISE  AS  AVAITING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  125 

ignorant  of  the  divine  purpose  in  permitting  him  to  be  overwhelmed 
with  calamities,  wanted  not  the  grace  to  fall  down  and  gratefully 
exclaim,  "  Blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord ! "  The  men  of  this 
world,  on  the  other  hand,  though  they  can  cry  to  God  amidst  their 
bodily  j^erils  and  agonies  in  order  that  they  may  win  from  his 
mercy  speedy  and  effectual  help,  have  no  heart  to  acknowledge  such 
instances  of  divine  compassion.  When  David  heard  men  crying  to 
the  Lord,  and  that  successfully,  from  their  various  scenes  of  trouble  ; 
in  the  pathless  and  unwatered  wilderness,  in  the  folds,  pastures, 
vineyards,  and  olive  orchards  which  drought  had  desolated ;  in  the 
tabernacle  of  sickness  and  the  j)ass  of  the  valley  of  the  shadow 
of  death ;  in  the  uplifted  hands  of  staggering  and  shouting  seas — 
w^hat  time  the  Psalmist  heard  all  these  cryings  of  the  miserable,  he 
too  was  moved  to  cry  to  the  Lord.  And  for  what  ?  For  this,  that 
these  highly  favored  but  ungrateful  creatures  might  learn  to  crown 
their  importunities  with  the  sacrifices  cf  thanksgiving.  Four  times 
in  one  psalm  does  his  sounding  soul  repeat  the  refrain,  "  O  that  men 
would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness  and  for  his  wonderful  works 
to  the  children  of  men."  And  such  sacrifices  of  praise  must  be  all 
the  more  acceptable  to  the  God  of  all  grace  because  they  declare 
his  glory  in  the  world ;  and  exhibit  the  power  of  his  Spirit  to  raise 
the  human  heart  above  all  self-love  and  even  superior  to  the  most 
dreaded  of  all  mortal  woes.  The  thoughtless  and  the  unbelieving- 
can  hardly  deny  the  divine  origin  of  an  inspiration  whose  first  still 
small  breathings  can  make  those  sing  who  are  expected  to  do  noth- 
ing but  sigh  and  groan.  They  think  it  not  strange  when  they  hear 
a  group  of  the  prosperous  regaling  themselves  with  music  in  a  cool 
and  peaceful  summer  evening ;  but  they  are  compelled  to  own  to 
themselves  that  there  is  something  heavenly  and  God-given  in 
melodies  which  float  to  their  ears  from  the  lips  of  lonely,  unbe- 
friended  and  forgotten  ones  through  a  mid-winter's  night  that  is 
moonless  and  starless  and  roaring  with  the  storm. 

And  though  we  are  not  to  allow  the  consideration  of  the  psy- 
chological effects  of  sacred  praise  to  occupy  the  foremost  place  in 
the  discussion  of  this  subject,  yet  we  may  not  ignore  them  alto- 
gether; for  an  apostle  has  appointed  the  singing  of  psalms  as  a 
remedy'against  the  temptation  to  levity.^  Luther  spent  much  time 
in  singing  hymns  not  only  as  a  simple  act  of  worship,  but  as  an 
incitement  to  prayer  and  preaching.  He  believed  that  Satan  is  a 
great  enemy  to  sacred  music  because  it  is  an  antidote  against  evil 
thoughts,  charms  away  that  melancholy  which  he  called  Satan's 

1  James  v.  13. 


126  PRAISE  AS  WAITING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

bath,  and  quickens  and  refreshes  the  lieart.  On  one  occasion  when 
the  l*assion  was  sung  he  listened  attentively,  and  said :  ''  Music  is 
a  delightful  and  lovely  gift  of  God ;  it  has  often  excited  and  moved 
me  to  such  a  degree  that  it  has  stirred  me  up  to  preach."  .... 
"  Music,''  said  he,  "  is  a  fair  gift  of  God.  Next  to  theology,  I  give 
the  highest  place  and  honour  to  music.  We  should  not  ordain 
young  men  to  the  office  of  preaching  unless  they  have  previously 
been  well  exercised  and  practised  in  the  school  of  music.^  The 
two  exercises  and  diversions  I  like  l)est  are  music  and  gymnastics ; 
the  former  dispels  all  mental  care  and  melancholy  thoughts ;  while 
the  latter  produces  elasticity  of  body  and  preserves  health."  He 
sometimes  recommended  good  music  l)y  contrasting  it  Avith  bad. 
"  Your  wretched  fiddlers,"  said  he,  "  and  gut-scrapers  serve  the 
purpose  of  showing  us  what  a  fine  and  noble  art  music  is  •  for  white 
is  more  brilliant  when  set  over  against  black."  For  the  same  reason 
he  censured  the  heartless  intonations  of  the  papal  singers  who, 
said  he,  "  stand  turning  over  the  leaves  and  howling  in  the  choir 
like  wolves."^  "  The  Psalms,"  he  adds,  "  are  appointed  to  be  sung 
and  read  daily  among  Christians  in  order  that  the  words  heard  or 
repeated  may  raise  our  devotional  feelings  to  speak  or  sigh  in 
prayer.  Besides  we  have  not  a  few  examples  of  these  outward 
incitements  in  Scripture;  as  that  of  the  prophet  Elisha  whose  cus- 
tom it  was,  Avhen  he  found  that  he  was  not  sufficiently  devout, 
ready  and  animated,  to  call  for  a  minstrel,  at  the  sound  of  whose 
harp  he  was  revived  and  roused  to  prophesy.  And  King  David  for 
this  cause  commanded  that  the  Levites  should  daily  sing  and  play 
in  the  temple  in  order  that  the  people  might  be  moved  and  cheered 
onward  to  the  service  of  pr.ayer." 

Milton  was  also  an  enthusiastic  psalmist.  To  trace  with  adequate 
detail  the  influence  of  his  practice  of  sacred  music  in  the  mspiration 
under  which  he  wrote,  both  his  verse  and  his  prose,  would  carry  us 
far  beyond  our  measured  space.  His  father  being  a  distinguished 
composer  of  devotional  tunes,  taught  him  in  early  youth  to  sing 
and  play  the  solemn  songs  with  which  so  many  Puritan  homes  were 
every  morning  vocal.  He  grew  up  in  a  psalm-singing  age  and 
])assed  the  most  of  his  days  in  a  jtsahn-siuging  city;  for  a  contem- 
porary writer  has  borne  witness  that  in  walking  the  streets  of 
London  during  the  early  hours  of  the  day,  he  would  licar  family 

1  Colloquia  Mensalia. 

2  Snmmtlichc  fl'crhc  in  G7  vols.,  by  J.  G.  Plochmann,  and  J.  K.  Iniiisclier. 
Frankfort  on  the  Main  and  Erlaiigen,  1826-18j7  ;  Excgetische  Schri/len,  vol.  xviii., 
p   IGl  ;    Hum.  on  John  xvii. 


PRAISE  AS  WAITING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  127 

l^raise  warbling  all  around.  His  earliest  verses  are  a  paraphrase 
of  the  114th  and  a  translation  of  the  13Cth  Psalms,  both  composed 
when  he  was  only  in  his  sixteenth  year.  In  many  of  his  productions 
we  find  allusions  to  the  enlivening  power  of  music ;  but  no  where 
does  he  describe  it  better  than  in  one  of  his  early  odes,  which  con- 
tains these  lines : 

"  Sphere-born  harmonious  sisters,  Voice  and  Verse, 

Dead  tilings  with  inibreath'd  sense  able  to  pierce." 

His  daily  custom  was  to  play  on  the  organ  and  sing.  In  his  trea- 
tise on  Reformation  there  is  a  prayer  which,  in  intimating  his 
purpose  to  write  a  political  poem,  hints  at  his  love  of  sacred  song, 
as  well  as  to  the  rite  of  congregational  singing  which  was  so 
commonly  observed  in  his  day  :  "  Then  amidst  the  hymns  and 
hallelujahs  of  saints,  some  one  may  perhaps  be  heard  offering  at  high 
strains,  in  new  and  lofty  measures,  to  sing  and  celebrate  thy  divine 
mercies  and  marvellous  judgments  in  this  land  throughout  all  ages." 
But  the  reader  can  continue  this  inquiry  for  himself  George  Her- 
bert is  another  instance  of  the  influence  of  psalmody  on  the  heart 
and  intellect.  Of  his  practice  of  church  music  his  biographer,  Wal- 
ton, more  than  once  makes  mention.  During  his  university  course 
in  Cambridge  it  was  his  favourite  diversion  from  study ;  and  while 
he  was  settled  at  Bemerton  he  was  accustomed  to  Vv^alk  a  mile  to 
Salisbury  cathedral  twice  a  week  to  sing  there  and  in  private  music 
meetings.  He  composed  many  hymns  which  he  set  and  sang  to 
his  lute  or  viol.  He  used  to  say  of  music  that  it  relieved  his  droop- 
ing spirits,  composed  his  distracted  thoughts,  and  raised  his  weary 
soul  so  far  above  the  earth  that  it  gave  him  an  earnest  of  the  joys 
of  heaven.  Nor  must  we  forget  the  example  of  Joseph  Alleine, 
whose  short  ministry  of  seven  years  wrought  so  great  a  change  at 
Taunton.  His  "  Alarm  to  the  Unconverted  "  has  been  instrumental 
in  the  conversion  of  a  multitude  of  souls.  "  Towards  the  close  of 
the  last  century,"  says  Dr.  Hamilton,^  "  a  minister  who  was  en- 
gaged in  translating  this  work  for  some  society,  repeated  the  sub- 
stance of  its  pages  to  his  Highland  congregation,  and  the  result  was 
a  widespread  awakening  which  long  prevailed  in  the  district  of 
Nether  Lorn."  Alleine's  custom  was,  as  his  widow  informs  us,  to 
spend  the  morning  from  four  till  eight  o'clock  in  prayer  and  medi- 
tation and  in  singing  psalms.  In  this  last  sacred  exercise  he  took 
much  delight. 

1  Christian  Classics,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  219-222. 


128         PRAISE  AS  WAITING  FOR  THE  AID  OF  THE  SPIRIT. 

Another  advantage  which  the  man  of  God  derives  from  the 
service  of  holy  praise  is  this :  it  ever  keeps  near  his  heart,  and  fresh 
in  his  memory,  the  most  sacred  and  the  most  popular  notions 
respecting  the  divine  altril)utes — notions  to  which  he  will  need  con- 
stantly to  recur  in  order  to  nourish  his  own  iiiith  and  that  of  his 
connre^-ation.  These  attributes  are,  as  some  good  man  has  said, 
"  the  preachers  thunder,''  and  none,  we  may  add,  have  hurled  these 
bolts  with  such  force  as  those  who  have  forged  them  in  furnaces  of 
hearts  that  glowed  with  the  sacred  fires  of  daily  praise.  It  is  there- 
fore in  the  service  of  2)raise  that  we  can  most  patiently  u"«<7  ybr 
answers  to  ^:)ra?/er.^ 

Let  the  preacher  therefore  begin  his  daily  private  devotions  with 
either  singing  or  saying  the  praises  of  the  Lord.  Let  him  sing  or 
read  some  psalm  or  hymn.  If  he  can  sing,  it  will  be  well  for  him, 
in  imitation  of  some  of  the  best  composers,  to  sing  such  extempo- 
raneous tunes  as  are  better  adapted  to  the  inspired  words  of  David 
than  most  of  our  popular  tunes  are — we  say  extemporaneous ;  for  no 
student  who  has  studied  the  Psalms  critically  and  has,  at  the  same 
time,  correct  opinions  about  the  province  of  devotional  music,  will 
be  quite  satisfied  with  singing  many  of  these  divine  lyrics  to  our 
juvenile  and  skipping  tunes.  If  he  simjily  and  honestly  desires  to 
praise  God,  as  an  individaal  and  not  as  a  member  of  a  congrega- 
tion, he  will  best  please  God  and  his  own  heart  and  conscience  by 
o-iving  voice  to  his  sincere  feelings  in  a  free  chaunt  or  recitative; — 
in  such  unpremeditated  musical  tones  as  most  naturally  express  the 
grief,  joy,  hope,  fear,  and  other  affections,  which  the  Psalmist  sent 
up  as  swinging  incense  before  Jehovah. 

1  Psa.  Ixv.  1 ;  xxxiii.  20-22 ;  Ixii.  1-6 ;  cxlix.  5. 


BOOK  11. 

OF  INVENTION. 


SECTION  I -THE  NECESSITY  OF  INVENTION. 

By  invention  we  here  understand  the  finding,  pondering,  and 
arranging  of  such  thoughts  as  belong  to  the  subject  to  be  handled. 
But  is  the  study  involved  in  such  process  necessary  ? 

The  New  Treatment  clearly  indicates  the  point  where  plenary 
inspiration  ends  and  partial  inspiration  begins.  It  is  obvious  that 
Timothy  obtained  his  knowledge  of  the  Gospel  and  of  the  way  to 
preach  it,  not  directly  from  plenary  inspiration,  but  from  those  who 
were  moved  by  that  inspiration.  And  accordingly  he  was  directed 
to  "  give  attendance  to  reading,"  and  to  ''  meditate  "  on  religious 
subjects  (1  Tim.  iv.  13-15).  Though  reading  here  may  possibly 
relate  to  the  lections  of  the  sacred  writings  before  congregations, 
yet  it  will  not  be  denied  that  the  meditation  here  required  of  him 
was  a  private  and  not  a  public  duty.  In  preparing  to  teach  and 
exhort,  the  young  preacher  was  to  depend  chiefly  on  the  sacred 
writings,  the  apostolic  teachings,  study,  and  the  gracious  illumina- 
tions of  the  Divine  Spirit.  And  yet  we  ought  not  to  infer  from 
this  passage  that  study  was  unfriendly  to  plenary  inspiration,  and 
that  consequently  unlettered  ignorance  is  the  condition  most  favor- 
able to  the  direct  conveyance  of  divine  communications.  The  true 
view  of  the  matter  is,  that  plenary  inspiration  superseded  the  ne- 
cessity of  all  study  as  to  the  matter  of  the  revelations  made,  but 
did  not  always  in  fixing  the  form  of  the  oracle  refuse  to  avail  itself 
of  the  intelligence  and  culture  which  it  found  already  prepared  for 
it  at  the  time  of  its  illapse.  That  the  prophets  and  apostles  ever 
preached  without  a  full  inspiration  we  do  not  know.  We  do  know, 
however,  that  Solomon  studied  (Eccles.  xii.  9),  that  Daniel  understood 
by  books  the  duration  of  the  captivity  (ix.  2),  that  of  the  Gospel 


130  THE  NECESSITY  OF  INVENTION. 

salvation  the  prophets  inquired  and  searched  diligently,  "  searching 
what,  or  what  manner  of  time  the  Spirit  of  Christ  which  was  in 
them  did  signify,  when  it  testified  beforehand  the  sufferings  of 
Christ  and  the  glory  that  should  follow  "  (1  Pet.  i.  10-12),  and  that 
Paul  deliberated  on  the  kind  of  Gospel  truth  he  would  preach  at 
Corinth  (1  Cor.  2;  2  Cor.  ii.  1).  But  we  have  no  evidence  that  this 
especial  search  was  either  introductory  or  supplementary  to  any 
particular  communications  from  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  primitive 
disciples  enjoyed  irvdeed  for  three  years  the  instruction  of  the 
Great  Teacher.  But  while  his  personal  teachings  were  invaluable 
aids  to  their  own  subsequent  labours,  we  have  no  Gospel  warrant 
for  either  affirming  or  denying  that  such  instruction  served  directly 
to  fix  either  the  matter  or  the  form  of  those  inspired  writings 
which  some  of  them  were  commissioned  to  transmit  to  after  times. 
Our  Lord  gave  them  some  rules  and  directions  about  preaching. 
The  following  maxim  is  pertinent  to  our  subject,  and  is  remai'kable 
for  the  happy  correspondence  between  the  language  and  the  idea 
which  it  conveys  :  "  Therefore  every  scribe  which  is  instructed 
unto  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  like  unto  a  man  that  is  an  house- 
holder which  bringeth  forth  out  of  his  treasure  things  new  and 
old  "  (Matt.  xiii.  52).  The  word  "  scribe  "  belongs  to  the  "  old  "  and 
the  phraSe  "  kingdom  of  heaven "  belongs  to  the  "  new."  This 
maxim  teaches  us  that  in  our  preaching  we  should  explain  and 
apply  both  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Xew,  and  by  implication  that 
we  should  make  new  applications  of  old  truths. 

That  teaching  of  the  Spirit  which  was  formerly  called  "  inspi- 
ration of  suggestion,"  did  not  shut  out  all  study  on  the  part  of  the 
apostolic  disciples.  In  one  place  (1  Cor.  ii.  13)  the  words  taught 
by  man's  wisdom  are  contrasted  with  the  words  taught  by  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Now  if  we  admit  that  teaching  here  means  suggest- 
ing, yet  we  must  consider  that  neither  words  or  thoughts  can  be 
promjDted  to  those  who  had  not  previously  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  them.  As  philosophical  terms  would  not  readily  come  to  the 
lips  of  those  Greeks  Mho  were  not  before  familiar  with  them,  so 
the  religious  words  which  the  apostles  employed  in  preacliing  and 
writing  would  not  have  been  suggested  to  them  by  the  Spirit 
directly,  unless  the  same  Spirit  had  before  taught  them  indirectly 
through  Christ's  personal  "ministry  and  the  inspired  teachings  of 
the  Old  Testament.  So  now  we  cannot  hope  that  the  Paraclete 
will  suggest  texts  to  us  which  we  never  committed  to  memory, 
or  enable  us  to  illustrate  our  thoughts  from  Scripture  examples 
which  were  not  before  familiar  to  us. 

One  of  the  counsels  of  the  apostle  Paul  to  Timothy  is,  "  Be  dili- 


THE  NECESSITY  OF  INVENTION.  131 

gent  to  show  thyself  unto  God  as  one  tested  by  trial,  A  labourer 

NOT  ASHAMED,  CUTTING  STRAIGHT  THE  WORD  OF  TRUTH"    (2    Tim. 

ii.  15).  Here  the  metaphor  seems  to  be  drawn  from  road-making; 
and  Timothy  is  exhorted  to  endeavour  as  a  labourer  to  cut  straightly^ 
i.  e.,  either  broadly,  or  iri  the  right  direction,  the  way  of  truth;  so 
that  his  disciples  as  travellers  might  walk  in  the  main  road  of 
Christian  instruction.  (Cf.  Gal.  ii.  14;  2  John  iv;  Heb.  xii.  13.) 
This  general  advice  may  include  one  or  more  of  the  things  follow- 
ing :  First,  Try  to  make  a  highway ;  in  other  words,  preach  the 
great  doctrines  of  "  the  common  salvation,"  and  so  avoid  the  nar- 
row ways  and  passes  and  violent  collisions  of  those  who  contend 
about  words.  As  the  first  roads  wind  about  from  one  habitation 
or  hamlet  to  another  in  accommodation  to  hills,  ravines,  and  rocks, 
while  the  common  or  royal  roads  of  a  higher  civilization  stretch 
straightly  across  the  country  and  afford  a  wide,  level,  raj)id,  and  safe 
communication  between  distant  j)oints  of  the  empire.  If  this  be 
the  import,  then  we  are  required  to  devote  ourselves  to  such  Chris- 
tian instruction  as  vitally  and  immediately  concerns  all  men  every 
where.  Or,  secondly ,  endeavour  to  cut  the  highway  in  the  right 
direction :  keep  the  place  of  destination,  the  eternal  city,  continu- 
ally in  view.  Preach  practically  with  a  reference  to  holy  living 
and  to  the  four  last  things.  Then  will  you  safely  pass  and  lead  by 
and  above  the  devious  paths  of  false  teachers  and  their  followers ; 
whereas,  if  you  give  heed  to  foolish  and  ignorant  questions,  verbal 
disputes  and  oppositions  of  the  falsely-called  knowledge,  you  will 
be  like  one  who  follows  the  windings  of  a  brook  and  hearkens  to 
its  empty  babblings.  You  will  go  and  lead  on  to  more  and  more 
ungodliness,  and  your  faith  and  that  of  your  hearers  will  be  over- 
turned. "  Among  the  smooth  stones  of  the  stream  is  thy  jDortion ; 
they  are  thy  lot."  If,  on  the  contrary,  you  lay  out  and  make  the 
highway  in  the  direction  of  the  city  of  God,  you  will  follow  right- 
eousness, faith,  love,  and  peace,  with  those  who  call  on  the  Lord  out 
of  a  pure  heart ;  and  thereby  prepare  the  way  for  the  victorious  and 
triumphal  progress  of  the  King  of  Glory. 

From  this  counsel  to  Timothy,  as  well  as  from  our  Lord's  teach- 
ings as  to  the  matter  of  preaching,  we  may  conclude  that  all  post- 
apostolic  preachers  are  to  employ  Invention  {Inventio,  svpsdti) 
either  in  the  ancient,  limited  sense,  or  in  the  modern  comprehensive 
sense ;  either  as  the  art  of  discovering  such  matter  as  is  proper  to 
persuade,^  or  the  art  of  finding  out  that  subject,  matter,  and  method 


1  Cicero  De   Inventione,  L.  i.,  C.  7  ;    Partitiones  oratorio,  C.  2 ;    Auctor  al 
Ilerennium,  L.  i.,  C.  2,  3;  Vossius,  Orat.,  L.  i,  C.  2,  §1. 


132  THE  NECESSITF  OF  INVENTION. 

which  are  most  suitable  to  the  oLject  of  a  discourse.  Now,  while 
the  first  uninsi)ire(l  preachers  were  necessarily  required  to  exercise 
their  minds  in  a  way  that  more  or  less  resembled  the  process  of 
rhetorical  invention,  we  may  reasonably  suppose  that,  as  the  Chris- 
tian sermon  diftVred  as  to  its  subject,  its  matter,  its  spirit,  and  its  end 
from  the  classical  oration,  such  of  the  first  post-apostolic  preachers 
as  were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  rhetorical  invention,  would 
modify  that  art  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  new  kind  of  address.  And 
it  is  evident  that  these,  as  Avell  as  those  who  were  totally  ignorant 
of  classical  rhetoric,  allowed  their  views  of  the  nature  and  duties  of 
their  vocation  as  revealed  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  exemplified 
by  their  predecessors,  to  determine  their  theory  and  practice  of 
invention.  Nor  will  it  be  denied  that  a  modern  preacher's  notions 
of  invention  are  likely  to  be  shaped  by  what  he  believes  to  be  the 
nature  and  duties  of  his  vocation,  and  that  of  his  inspired  prede- 
cessors. Does  he  believe  that  Jesus  was  only  a  religious  teacher, 
and  that  he  is  a  successor  of  our  Lord  in  his  teaching  office  ?  Then 
he  will  naturally  apply  invention  to  the  discovery  of  matter  for 
instruction.  Or  does  he  believe  that  the  apostles  were  mere  pro- 
claimcrs  or  heralds  of  the  Gospel,  and  that  he  is  a  successor  of  the 
apostles  in  their  proclaiming  office ':'  Then  his  invention  will  con- 
sistently occupy  itself  with  the  Gospel,  as  an  announcement  of  a 
new  and  perfect  way  of  salvation,  and  his  matter  and  method  will 
be  such  as  befits  the  declaration  or  exi)lanation  of  good  news  from 
the  throne  of  the  Most  High  to  condemned  offenders  who  never 
l>efore  heard  or  understood  the  terms  of  the  message.  He  may 
likewise  deem  himself  authorised  by  this  notion  of  his  vocation  to 
use  arguments  and  persuasives  to  move  sinners  to  accept  the  ofier 
of  pardon  and  redemption. 

Let  us  then  endeavour  to  obtain  clear  and  comprehensive  ideas 
of  what  the  Scriptures  teach  respecting  the  work  of  preaching. 
And  let  us  not  confine  ourselves  to  the  examination  of  two  or  three 
words,  nor  allow  ourselves  to  be  misled  by  their  etymology ;  for 
as  some  passengers  may  be  going  out  of  one  end  of  a  boat  or  car 
while  others  may  be  coming  in  at  the  other  end,  so  the  same  word 
may  convey  at  the  same  time  a  new  idea,  and  an  obsolescent  one. 
Ivegarding  the  vocation  as  religious,  indeed,  but  not  depending  for 
its  name  or  existence  on  the  branch  of  divine  truth  with  which  it 
ni.Tv  at  any  time  more  especially  have  lo  do,  lot  us  first  turn  to  the 
llcl)rc\v  Scri^Jturesfor  information  respecting  it.  The  most  ancient 
])reacher  was  called  a  "  seer  "  or  "  prophet,"  yet  he  did  not  merely 
see  visions  nor  predict  future  events,  but  also  taught.     And  accord- 


THE  NECESSITY  OP  INVENTION.  133 

ingly  the  apostle  Peter  speaks  of  some  teachers  m  the  new  economy 
as  acting  the  part  of  some  prophets  m  the  okl.^  He  also  reasoned, 
pleaded,  rebuked,  warned  and  comforted.  Nor  was  his  function 
inconsistent  with  the  duties  of  convincing,  exhorting,  and  dissuading. 
Turning  to  the  New  Testament,  we  find  the  preacher  "  bringing 
glad  tidings,"  "  heralding,''  "  teaching,"  and  "  talking;"  "  reasoning," 
"  admonishing,"  "  persuading,"  and  "  comforting."  The  priests  and 
Levites  of  Judah  appear  to  have  considered  it  one  part  of  their  work 
to  teach  the  people.^  But  in  Israel  the  prophets  acted  as  priests, 
and  taught  not  only  the  people  but  their  own  successors ;  there  is, 
also,  a  lai'ge  amount  of  didactic  matter  in  the  prophetic  sermons 
which  were  addressed  to  Judah.  Moses,  the  greatest  of  the  proph- 
ets of  the  Hebrews,  was  likewise  their  greatest  teacher.  We  teach, 
therefore,  as  prophets,  and  not  as  priests.  "  We  are  not,"  says  Dean 
Stanley, "  like  the  Jewish  priests,  we  are  not  like  the  Jewish  Levites, 
but  we  have,  God  be  praised,  some  faint  resemblance  to  the  Jewish 
prophets."  John  the  Baj)tist  was  a  prophet  and  herald,  yet  he 
taught  his  disciples ;  and  as  all  preachers  ought,  he  convinced  of  sin 
before  he  said,  "  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin 
of  the  world." 

The  sermons  which  were  preached  in  the  synagogues  were  by 
the  Jews  sometimes  designated  by  the  term  Xoyoi  IJapaxXiidEcos, 
"  Avord  of  exhortation "  (Acts  xiii.  15,  Heb.  xiii.  22).  The  Septu- 
agint,  as  well  as  our  version,  represents  the  Hebrew  jirophets  as 
preaching  {5 on2i\im.  2;  Psa.  xl.  9;  Isa.  xL  9;  lii.  7;  Ixi.  1;  Neh. 
vi.  7).  The  reading  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  synagogues  is  by 
James  called  preaching  (Acts  xv.  21).  Noah  is  styled  "a  preacher 
of  righteousness  "  (2  Pet.  ii.  5).  That  the  vocation  of  the  Hebrew 
prophet  was  essentially  identical  with  that  of  the  Christian  preacher 
is  also  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  the  appellation,  "  man  of  God,"  is 
equally  applied  to  both  (Deut.  xxxiii.  1 ;  1  Sam.  ii.  27 ;  1  Kings  xii. 
22 ;  2  Kings  i.  9;  2  Chron.  viii.  14,  etc.,  etc. ;  1  Tim.  vi.  11 ;  2  Tim. 
ili.  17).  The  name  is  also  given  to  the  angel  who  came  to  Manoah 
and  his  wife  in  the  character  of  a  prophet  and  uttered  a  prediction. 
Many  have  been  misled  by  a  habit  of  adopting  the  derivative  senses 
of  words.     The  Greek  for   herald  is   an  example  of  this  remark. 

1  2  Pet.  ii.  1. 

2  Lev.  X.  11 ;  2  Chron.  xv.  3.  "Though  in  respect  of  mode  and  degree,  the 
prophets  and  apostles  have  no  successors,  yet  in  respect  of  the  essentials  of  their 
administration,  ordinary  ministers  now  perform  those  functions  in  the  Churcli 
which  the  extraordinary  once  discharged."  (WiUiam  Ames,  Medulla  Theologica, 
L.  i.,  C.  30,  sec.  4.) 


134  THE  NECESSITY  OF  INVENTION. 

The  Homeric  lieralds  were  not  merely  proclaimers,  but  the  chief 
executive  officers  of  kings. 

AVe  have  thought  it  well  worth  our  while  to  show  that,  according 
to  the  Bible,  the  prophet  is  not  a  mere  predictor,  nor  the  preacher  a 
mere  proclaimer,  or  herald,  but  both  substantially  followed  the  same 
vocation  of  proclaiming,  teaching,  exhorting,  rebuking,  comfort  mg, 
etc.,  and  that,  consequently,  William  Perkins,  Jeremy  Taylor,  and 
many  other  of  the  early  English  preachers,  were  right  when  they 
called  preaching  "prophesying,"  and  comprehended  in  the  term 
every  kind  of  pubUcly  explaining  and  applying  the  word  of  God.  And 
it  is  the  more  necessary  that  we  should  examine  the  import  of  the 
words  which  serve  to  explain  what  acts  were  included  in  the  voca- 
tion of  prophesying  and  preaching,  because  some  scholarly  and  dis- 
tinguished men,  misled  by  etjTnologies,  or  too  intent  upon  justify- 
ing their  preconceptions,  have  framed  theories  of  preaching  out  of 
mismterpretations  of  single  Greek  terms — theories  that  have  had  a 
wide  influence,  not  only  among  students,  but  other  intelligent  and 
learned  persons. 

And  these  theories  have,  in  part,  been  constructed  out  of  a  mis- 
use of  primitive  examples.  We  are  oi\en  told  that  we  are  right  and 
safe  so  long  as  we  copy  the  pattern  set  us  by  Jesus  and  his  apostles ; 
not  considering  that  we  ought  not  to  adopt  those  peculiarities  in 
their  ministry  which  were  incidental  to  the  novelty  of  their  message. 
John  the  Baptist  was  a  herald,  but  only  ui  a  figurative  sense,  and 
yet  he,  as  a  herald,  realized  the  literal  sense  of  the  word  far  more 
nearly  than  our  Lord  and  the  apostles  did ;  and  these  latter  more 
nearly  than  any  modern  preachers  can,  if  we  except  such  missionaries 
as  preach  the  Gospel  to  those  who  were  before  utterly  ignorant  of 
it.  If,  therefore,  we  are  to  confine  the  term  2^>'cavh  to  a  narrow, 
primary,  literal  sense,  the  pastor  is  not  preachmg  who  is  teaching 
the  doctrines  of  the  Christian  religion^  to  a  flock  that  has  for  the 
most  part  been  long  familiar  with  the  Gospel  plan  of  salvation. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  we  form  our  notion  of  preaching  from  a  com- 
prehensive and  thorough  study  of  the  Scriptures,  both  Hebrew  and 
Greek,  relating  to  the  man  of  God,  and,  at  the  same  time,  exercise 
a  sound  judgment  as  to  our  changed  relations  to  the  Di\ine  Spirit, 
to  the  Scriptures,  and  to  our  hearers,  then  will  the  example  of  the 
mspired  prophets  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  the  Scrip- 
ture precepts  on  preaching,  be  found  of  inestunable  service  to  us  in 

1  We  should  remember  that  it  is  the  Christian  tencher  to  whom  the  taught  is 
directed  to  ''  minister  in  all  good  things."  (Gal.  vi.  6.) 


A 


THE  NECESSITY  OF  INVENTION.  135 

every  part  of  our  ministry ;  and  their  radical  and  inimitable  jDecu- 
iiarities  will,  after  long  experience,  prove  to  be  sm-prisingly  few. 

"  But,"  it  will  be  asked,  "  how  are  we  to  reconcile  this  more  com- 
prehensive idea  of  the  word  prophet,  with  that  more  restricted  one 
which  we  find  in  the  1st  Ejiistle  to  the  Corinthians,  where  the  pro- 
phetic gift  is  described  as  one  of  the  Charismata  imparted  by  the 
Divine  Spirit  to  the  primitive  churches.  Did  not  this  kind  of  pro- 
phesying pass  away  along  with  the  gift  of  tongues  and  the  power 
of  working  mh'acles  ?  "  To  this  we  answer,  that,  for  several  good 
reasons,  prophesying,  as  here  described,  is  not  to  be  placed  on  a 
level  with  the  gift  of  tongues  and  of  the  working  of  miracles. 

In  order  to  a  clear  conception  of  the  word  prophet  as  here  em- 
ployed by  the  apostle,  we  should  remember  (as  we  must  think  he 
did  not  forget)  the  signification  which  the  Corinthians  had  custom- 
arily attached  to  the  term ;  of  one  who  not  merely  foretold  events 
but  interpreted  and  reported  the  oracles  of  the  gods ;  of  one  who 
from  a  sudden  inspiration  explained  and  applied  the  mind  and  will 
of  the  gods  to  the  comprehension  and  feelings  of  mortals.^  The 
Corinthians  considered  the  addresses  of  trusted  prophets  as  of  such 
great  and  practical  value  that  the  speculations  of  their  philosophers 
about  divine  things  were,  in  comparison,  held  exceedingly  cheap. 
Hence  they  regarded  the  prophetic  communications  only  on  their 
human  side  and  in  their  direct  and  intimate  relation  to  life,  its 
successes  and  failures,  its  joys  and  sorrows,  and  all  its  near  and 
absorbing  mterests.  They  were  therefore  prej^ared  to  understand 
the  apostle  when  he  taught  them  that  Christian  prophecy  was  dis- 
tinct from  and  superior  to  other  ch'arisms  (1  Cor.  xii.  7-30.;  xiv.  4, 
6,  39) ;  and  that  its  express  and  exclusive  end  was  edification  or 
the  building  up  of  church  members  in  Christian  grace  and  know- 
Isdge,  and  adding  to  their  number  genuine  converts  (1  Cor.  xiv. 
8,  4,  24,  25).  This  was  accomplished  by  the  Spirit  of  Life  through 
information  (1  Cor.  xiv.  19,  30,  31 ;  cf  Rev.  ii.  20),  conviction  (Id. 
V.  24-26),  exhortation  and  consolation  (ver.  3,  31),  psalmody,  per- 

1  The  Greeks  of  the  time  of  Plato  (Phjedrus,  ()48)  sometimes  regarded  the  pro- 
phet as  an  interpreter  of  the  raving  Pj-thia.  In  another  place  (Politia,  L.  iv., 
427  C),  Plato  styles  Apollo  himself  the  interpreter,  because,  perhaps,  the  god 
was  held  to  be  the  inspirer  of  the  true  expounder.  Elsewhere  (De  Legibus,  L. 
ix.,  871  D.)  he  conjoins  the  god,  the  inspired  diviner  (or  Pythia),  and  the  inter- 
preter, in  the  work  of  counselling  as  to  certain  legal  proceedings.  Plutarch 
(Vita  Numse,  cap.  ix.)  says  that  the  Pontifix  was  both  interpreter  and  prophet. 
The  interpreter,  therefore,  was  not  an  office  or  work  necessarily  apart  from  pro- 
phecy, although  it  was  often  incompatible  with  the  ravings  of  the  diviner  or 
Pythia. 

10 


136  THE  NECESSITY  OF  INVENTION. 

haps,  including  prayer  (ver.  14-17 ;  cf.  ver.  6, 26),  where,  in  the  latter 
enumeration  of  the  charisms,  "  a  psalm "  takes  the  place  of  pro- 
phesying in  the  former ;  while  from  Col.  iii.  16,  we  learn  that 
psalmody  was  employed  to  teach  and  admonish  the  disciples. 

Now  these  prophets  are  assigned  a  rank  next  to  the  apostles  ; 
(1  Cor.  xii.  28,  29;  Eph.  ii.  20;  Ej^h.  iv.  11);  but  who  were  next 
to  the  apostles  in  degree  according  to  the  nature  of  their  work  and 
the  measure  of  their  usefulness  V  Their  inspired  successors  in  the 
order  of  time,  as  Timothy,  Titus,  Barnabas,  and  Apollos.  The 
latter  perpetuated  that  prophetic  vocation  which  the  apostles  had 
exercised  and  which  was  still  as  much  demanded  as  at  first,  for  the 
edification  of  the  churches.  As  the  churches  would  in  all  ages  need 
the  means  of  edification,  prophesying,  in  its  essential  character,  ^  was 
to  be  continued  through  all  mundane  ages.  Nor  was  it  to  be 
degraded  to  the  level  of  lay  exhortation  and  teaching,  however 
necessary  these  are ;  not  every  one  was  to  think  himself  called  and 
qualified  to  prophesy  (Cor.  xii.  29,  30.;  xiv.  26 ;  cf  Jas.  iii.  1).  The 
apostle  admonishes  his  converts  not  to  despise  the  exercise  of  this 
gift  (1  Thes.  V.  20),  and  Titus  as  a  minister  of  the  Avord  not  to  let 
any  man  despise  him  (Titus  ii.  15).  If  this  gift,  whereby  a  man 
might  "  excel  to  the  edifying  of  a  church,"  was  withdrawn  along 
with  that  of  miracles  and  speaking  with  tongues,  what  other  gifts 
essentially  diiferent  was  constituted  in  order  that  the  edification  of 
the  churches  might  still  go  forward  ? 

That  these  prophets  were  not  very  far  removed  from  post-apostolic 
preachers  is  further  evinced  by  the  twofold  supermtendence  to 
which  they  were  subjected.  Certain  persons  endowed  with  the 
gift  of  discernmg  spirits  criticised  them  (1  Cor.  xii.  10;  xiv.  29 ;  1 
Thes.  V.  19-21 ;  1  John  iv.  1,  6).  And  they  moreover  needed  the 
regulations  which  the  apostle  gave  them  and  which  they  were  to 
receive  as  coming  from  God  (1  Cor.  xiv.  29,  30,  37).  Consonant 
with  the  conclusion  that  they  were  but  partially  inspired  are  the 
cautions  given  them  by  him  and  Peter  to  "  prophesy  according  to 
the  proportion  of  faith,"  to  "  speak  as  the  oracles  of  God,"  and  to 
"  prove  all  things."  Origen,  in  his  comment  on  Rom.  xii.  0,  7,  avers 
that  in  prophesying  the  Spirit  co-operates  with  human  study. 

We  have  hitherto  attempted  to  show  that  it  is  our  duty  to  invent 
by  a  reference  to  the  precepts  of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles,  and  by 
demonstrating  what  are  the  essential   qualities  of  prophecy  in  all 

1  The  order  of  the  several  divine  vocations  which  are  mentioneil  in  t)ie  epistles 
of  St.  Paul  is.  perhaps,  best  interpreted  ieUncopicalli/,  tliat  is,  the  apostle  includes 
the  prophet,  the  prophet  the  teacher,  but  not  the  reverse. 


THE  SCRIPTURE  ELEMENT  IN  SERMONS.  137 

post-apostolic  ministers  of  Christ.  Had  we  space  the  necessity  of 
exercising  invention  might  be  further  established  by  an  appeal  to 
admitted  facts  and  principles.  It  might  be  proved  that  by  studying 
the  Scriptures,  and  so  doing  an  acknowledged  duty,  we  are  inevit- 
ably supplying  our  minds  with  materials  for  invention — that  the 
materials  thus  furnished  cannot  be  compared,  illustrated,  confirmed, 
and  applied  without  some  study — that  the  withholding  of  plenary 
inspiration  ought  to  be  a  hint  to  us  that  our  profiting  is  henceforth 
to  appear  not  through  new  communications  from  God,  but  from  the 
diligent  study  of  those  we  already  possess ;  that  partial  inspiration 
cannot  suggest  to  us  external  knowledge  that  was  not  before  in 
the  memory ;  that  the  Divine  Spirit,  who  loves  all  kinds  of  perfec- 
tion, has  encouraged  the  exercise  of  our  inventive  faculties  by  set- 
ting before  us  such  examples  of  his  own  invention  as  we  can  always 
safely  imitate,  but  can  never  render  useless  to  us ;  that  the  Father 
of  Light  has  not  only  given  us  the  results  of  his  deliberations  in  the 
eternity  past,  and  of  the  deep  thinking  to  which  he  moved  such 
wise  men  as  David,  Solomon,  and  Daniel,  but  wrought  the  miracle 
of  plenary  inspiration  in  its  highest  form,  in  order  that  the  apostles 
might  produce  the  best  effects  of  homiletical  invention  in  cases 
where  they  were  not  able  to  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of 
its  exercise ; — had  we  space,  we  say,  we  might  make  good  these 
positions,  but  we  are  limited  to  this  brief  and  condensed  statement 
thereof. 

Section"  II. — The  Sckiptuee  Element  in"  Sermon's. 

Concerning  few  things  do  preachers  differ  more  than  respecting 
the  nature  and  amount  of  the  Bibical  element  that  may  i:»roperly  be 
admitted  into  a  sermon.  Rudolf  Stier,i  limiting  the  idea  of  a  ser- 
mon to  that  of  a  proclamation,  fairly  inferred  from  this  false  premiss 
that  true  preaching  is  a  repetition  of  such  passages  of  Scrijjture  as 
belong  to  the  matter  in  hand ;  while  the  individuality  of  the  preacher 
chiefly  appears  in  such  comments  as  serve  to  connect  those  passages 
together,  and  occasionally  and  slightly  suggest  their  ap23lication.2 
Others  would  advise  the  preacher  not  only  to  derive  liis  doctrines 
from  the  Bible,  but  to  express  his  j^ropositions  and  partitions  in 

iKeryktik,  passim  (Halle,  1844). 

2  This  is  examplifled  in  his  Epistle  Precligten,  4vo.  (Halle,  1837).  From  his  Life, 
written  by  his  two  sons,  we  learn  that  when  charged  by  his  critics  with  preach- 
ing altogether  from  Scripture,  and  not  at  all  from  life,  he  admitted,  but  recom- 
mended his  practice. 


138  THE  SCRIPTURE  ELEMENT  L\  SERMONS. 

Scripture  language,  to  abound  in  exposition,  and  to  quote  freely  for 
illustration,  proof,  enforcement,  and  ornamentation.  But  others, 
going  not  so  flir  as  these,  after  selecting  their  subject,  are  in  the 
habit  of  collecting  all  tliose  parts  of  Holy  Writ  which  either  nearly 
or  remotely  pertain  to  that  subject,  and  then  employing  them  here 
and  there,  both  for  matter,  form,  diction,  and  style,  as  the  judgment 
may  choose  or  the  memory  provide.  A  more  numerous  class  are 
content  to  draw  their  texts  and  proofs  from  Scripture ;  while  a  few, 
either  not  habitually  studying  the  Bible,  or  fearing  lest  they  may 
lose  the  favor  of  their  philosophical  friends,  are  very  seldom  guilty 
of  misquoting  Scripture,  except  as  texts  or  "  pretexts." 

But  what  do  his  call  and  commission  herein  demand  of  the  Chris- 
tian preacher  ? 

They  demand  that  he  should  make  the  Bible  his  only  standard  of 
doctrine,  experience,  and  practice.  The  Bible,  and  the  Bible  alone, 
is  to  be  at  once  the  source  and  the  test  of  all  the  matter  of  his 
preaching.  Now  "  Rationalism,"  "  Spiritualism,"  "  Mysticism,"  "  Lib- 
eralism," "Traditionalism,"  "Ritualism,"  and  " yEsthetics,"  are  so 
many  crooked  and  devious  paths.  If  our  modern  Timothys  would 
be  '  workmen  that  need  not  be  ashamed,'  they  must,  according  to 
the  example  and  precept^  of  the  apostle,  make  straight  the  road 
of  truth.  Even  more  plainly  is  this  requirement  expressed  in  such 
passages  as  these,  "  Whether  prophecy,  let  us  prophesy  according  to 
the  proportion  of  faith  ;"2  ''  If  any  man  speak,  let  him  speak  as  the 
oracles  of  God."^  In  the  former  text  we  are  enjoined  to  teach  and 
exhort  that  which,  on  a  comparison  of  all  the  various  passages  relat- 
mg  to  the  same  subject,  we  find  revealed,  either  directly,  or  by  im])li- 
cation,  or  by  inference.  We  say  all ;  for  we  have  the  example  of  our 
Lord  and  the  apostles  for  such  thorough  collation.  By  the  latter  we 
are  directed  to  preach  the  matter  thus  furnished,  to  the  exclusion  of 
all  oracles  and  philosophies  that  are  merely  human.  Some,*  indeed, 
maintain  that  the  apostle  here  admonishes  Christian  prophets  to 
speak  Scripture  truths  in  Scripture  language.  But  this  would  have 
been  to  require  of  them  more  than  their  Divine  ]Master  or  any  of 
the  apostles  performed.  Nor  should  it  be  forgotten,  as  we  have 
elsewhere  shown,  that  the  pagan  idea  of  prophet,  as  related  to  the 
pagan  oracles,  was  often  not  that  of  one  who  merely  repeated  the 
words  of  the  pythoness,  but  of  one  who  rendered  the  incanhiff  and 
siihstance  of  the  su])])osed  revelation  into  the  language  which  the 
consulter  could  either  speak  or  read.     Rev.  J.  M.  Neale  (Medi:eval 

1  2  Tim.  ii.  15.  16.  2  Rom.  xii.  G.  3  1  Pet.  iv.  11. 

4  Gerhard's  Conimeiit.  iw  loc,  aud  Arrowsmilli's  Annilla  Cattchctica,  p.  63. 


THE  SCRIPTURE  ELEMENT  IN  SERMONS.  139 

Preaching,  p.  26)  lias  shown  that  Guavric,  of  the  twelfth  century, 
usually  quoted  nearly  three  times  as  many  Scripture  tenets  as  John 
Newton,  and  yet  who  of  us  would  venture  to  say  that  Guarric  was 
the  more  Scriptural  preacher  of  the  two.  Most  of  these  mediaeval 
Bible  preachers  borrowed  much  of  their  matter  from  the  fathers. 

The  occidental  nations  are  fond  of  inductive  and  deductive  reas- 
oning: they  love  to  arrange  and  appreciate  testimony;  to  argue 
from  definitions  and  hypotheses.  They  abound  in  questions,  and  even 
their  answers  they  transform  into  new  questions.  Such  minds  are 
not  to  be  put  off  with  repetitions  and  comments.  It  is  only  where, 
as  in  Scotland,  their  disposition  to  distinguish,  to  define,  to  prove, 
and  to  generalise,  is  carried  to  excess,  that  the  people  often  seek  a 
diversion  from  dogmatic  and  catechetical  teachings  by  listening  to 
expositions.  Let  no  one  infer,  however,  from  these  statements  that 
we  are  averse  to  expository  sermons,  to  a  due  interspersion  of 
Scripture  quotations  through  a  religious  discourse,  or  a  free  and  fre- 
quent use  of  the  facts  of  Bible  history.  Our  simple  endeavour  is 
to  show  the  kind  and  measure  of  Biblical  preaching  which  the 
divine  authority  exacts,  and  an  enlightened  congregation  can  receive 
and  improve.^ 

As  this  volume  is  chiefly  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  the 
matter,  style,  and  delivery  of  sermons,  according  to  the  i^atterns  we 
have  received  from  the  holy  prophets,  it  is,  surely,  unnecessary  to 
examine  here  the  question :  How  far  ought  we  to  imitate  the  man- 
ner of  our  Lord  and  the  apostles  and  prophets,  and  w^hat  are  those 
qualities  of  their  respective  styles  which  we  may  interfuse  with  our 
own  ?  Nor  will  the  student  expect  from  us  any  glowing  descrip- 
tion of  the  eloquence  of  the  Bible  preachers;  he  is  to  be  here 
occujDied  with  a  more  serious,  complicated,  and  gainful  business. 
The  diligent  study  of  every  jDart  of  this  work  will,  it  is  to  be  hoped, 
enable  the  young  preacher  to  bend  the  germs  of  his  peculiar  gifts 
in  a  Scriptural  direction. 

One  way  to  secure  Biblical  sermons  is  so  far  to  honour  the  Sci'ii3- 
tiu*es  as  to  consult  them  Jint  and  fully  on  our  subject  before  resort- 
ing to  any  human  authority.  A  due  reverence  for  the  God  of 
truth  demands  that  we  pursue  our  sacred  studies  in  this  order ;  nor 
is  our  profitmg  to  be  otherwise  assured.  Says  the  Rev.  John  Cooke, 
who  w'as  for  forty-three  years  pastor  at  Maidenhead,  England,  and 
who,  we  are  told,  never  preached  a  funeral  sermon  that  was  not 
blessed  to   the  conversion  of  one  or  more  souls :  "  On  one  occa- 

1  Read  John  Foster's  Essay  on  tlie  Prejudices  of  Men  of  Taste  against  Evan- 
gelical Religion,  and  Robert  Hall's  review  of  it. 


140  THE  SCRIPTURE  ELEMENT  IN  SERMONS. 

sion  I  was  called  to  preach  a  funeral  sermon — read  Dr.  Bates 
on  Death,  ;ind  was  charmed,  but  did  not  meet  the  assistance  I 
expected.  I  immediately  read  the  book  of  Job  and  Ecclesiastes, 
and  found  myself  presently  furnished.  This  incident  has  influenced 
me  more  than  twenty  years — always  to  read,  at  least,  those  parts 
of  Scripture  in  which  the  subject  is  mentioned  before  I  read  any 
human  author."  But  we  should  not,  in  our  enthusiasm  to  be  Scrip- 
tural preachers,  imitate  Stier's  sermons,  and  othei's  of  that  class 
which  embody  all  the  texts  which,  either  by  implication,  inference, 
or  allusion,  are  related  to  our  subject.  Tliis  process  has  been 
humourously  but  fitly  likened  to  the  course  of  hound-puppies  while 
hunting  hares  on  old  fields ;  the  whelps  follow  one  trail  imtil  they 
meet  another  scent  a  little  fresher  which  crosses  it,  and  so  another 
and  another ;  thus  they  zigzag  and  yelp  about  all  day  long,  but  run 
doAvn  no  game.  While  it  is  very  serviceable  to  have  before  our 
eyes  or  in  om-  memory  all  the  texts  which  prove,  illustrate,  or  apply 
our  subject,  yet  to  quote  and  explain  them  all  in  our  sermon  is  a 
most  unprofitable  piece  of  business. 

An  abimdant  use  of  Scripture  quotations,  therefore,  is  not  neces- 
sarily an  evidence  of  true  Scripturalness.  The  mediteval  preachers 
must  take  the  palm  as  quoters  of  texts ;  many  of  then-  sermons 
were  a  dark  inorganic  deep  of  quotations  which  they  had  borrowed 
from  the  fathers ;  they  literally  stole  God's  word  from  their  neigh- 
bours (Jer.  xxiii.  30).  If  we  give  an  audience  the  elixir  Jind  quint- 
essence of  all  that  the  Bible  teaches  as  to  our  subject  we  may  pro- 
ceed with  the  animated  assurance  that  we  are  preaching  Scriptur- 
ally.  And  yet  some  of  our  hearers  will  think  contrariwise ;  these 
are  they  who  count  the  bee  that  enters  the  hive  covered  with 
pollen  more  profitable  than  the  bee  that  lands  full  of  digested 
flowers.  Nevertheless,  let  it  suflSce  us  to  be  like  the  good  Pan- 
ticus  of  the  second  century,  who  because  of  his  way  of  extracting- 
sweetness  from  all  the  mountain  flowers  of  revelation  received  the 
name  of  "  the  Sicilian  Bee." 

Did  space  permit  Ave  might  here  give  many  examples  of  those 
who  have  adopted  the  Biblical  style  of  preaching  with  various  meas- 
ures of  success.  But  as  Ave  must  not  extend  this  chapter  much 
beyond  its  present  limits,  we  shall  mention  only  two  or  three. 
Among  those  who  have  imbibed  some  of  the  best  qualities  of  the 
Scripture  style  was  Antonio  Vieyra,  a  Portuguese  preacher  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  passed  the  most  of  his  life  at  Bahia  in 
Brazil,  where  for  many  years  he  poured  forth  an  eloquence  which 
in  some  points  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  TTobrew 
prophets.     His  countrymen  have  called  him  the  Lusitanian  Cicero; 


THE  SCRIPTURE  ELEMENT  IN  SERMONS.  141 

but  he  was  more  imaginative  and  vehement  than  the  great  Eoman 
orator.  Though  his  mmd  was  rather  of  the  .Oriental  than  the  Latin 
type,  yet  he  was  so  unequal  and  at  times,  so  ironical  and  rhapsodi- 
cal, that  it  is  not  an  easy  thing  to  determine  the  class  to  which  he 
belongs.  His  Clavis  Prophetarum^  on  which  he  occasionally 
worked  for  fifty  years,  and  which  at  his  death  he  left  still  unfin- 
ished, proves  him  to  have  been  an  enthusiastic  student  of  the  He- 
brew eloquence,  and  reveals  to  us  the  source  of  many  of  the  better 
elements  of  his  sermons.  He  was  more  mighty  in  the  Scriptures 
than  any  other  of  the  famous  Catholic  preachers,  not  exceptino- 
Segneri,  and  consequently  he  would  be  for  the  student  the  safest 
model  among  them  all,  were  it  not  for  the  occasional  excesses  of 
his  enthusiasm  which  in  a  cooler  climate  would  be  counted  mad- 
ness. 

But  more  purely  and  uatensely  Scriptural  than  his  was  the  style 
of  John  Bunyan.  The  student  and  minister  of  but  one  book,  he 
interfused  its  spu-it  and  manner  with  his  own.  To  the  Bible  and  to 
the  Bible  alone  was  his  style  indebted  for  its  freedom  and  noble- 
ness, its  animated  yet  holy  gravity,  its  universally  human  and  living 
interest  and  currency ;  all  of  which  is  bathed  in  a  clearness  that 
may  be  likened  to  a  warm  and  golden  sunshine.  Bunyan  is  the 
only  example  in  history  of  a  first-rate  genius  which  was  moulded 
and  finished  by  no  other  than  the  sacred  volume. 

And  yet  at  the  hazard  of  being  misunderstood,  we  must  venture  to 
suggest  whether  to  audiences  that  are  very  ignorant  of  Scripture  it 
is  wise  to  adopt  the  language  of  obscure  texts,  or  derive  figures  from 
the  less  familiar  incidents  of  Bible  history.  Though  Nahum  in- 
tended his  prophecy  against  Nineveh  partly,  for  the  hearing  of 
Judah,  yet,  as  was  to  be  expected,  it  abounds  in  ideas  which  are 
level  to  the  apprehension  of  Gentile  theists ;  and  Paul  in  preaching 
to  the  citizens  of  Lystra  and  Athens,  would  have  departed  from  one 
of  his  settled  maxims  (to  become  as  without  law  to  them  that  are 
without  law)  had  he  alluded  to  and  quoted  the  sacred  books  of  the 
.Tews  as  freely  as  he  did  in  discoursing  in  the  synagogues  of  his 
countrymen.  Socrates  complained  of,  the  orators  of  his  time  be- 
cause they  did  aim  to  make  men  wiser  than  they  were  \  but  both 
he  and  we  are  too  apt  to  forget  that  all  mere  persuasion  must  find 
its  fulcrum  in  the  common  stock  of  wisdom  and  knowledge  already 
in  possession.  And  why,  therefore,  should  we  judge  severely  those 
preachers  to  ignorant  audiences  who  while  substantially  holding 
forth  Christ,  compose  their  sermons  after  the  model  of  the  classic 
orators,  and  press  much  secular  matter  into  their  service  ?  If  the 
sermons  of  such  men  as  Abbe  Lacordau*e  and  Frederick  W.  Rob- 


142  THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  SERMONS 

ortson  led  more  elearly  and  directly  to  salvation  tlironsli  the  Lamb 
of  God,  we  should  be  yiore  inclined  to  think  that  their  adaptation 
to  the  mental  and  moral  habits  of  young  i)hilosophers  compensated 
for  the  want  of  Biblical  matter. 

But  to  Bible-readers  nothing  is  more  acceptable  and  impressive 
than  figurative  language  and  arguments  founded  on  some  event  in 
Scripture  history  Thus  Chrysostom  :  "  If  the  patriarch  Jacob,  when 
set  over  cattle,  feeding  irrational  sheep,  and  about  to  render  an  ac- 
comit  to  men,  passed  sleepless  nights  and  endured  heat,  frost,  and 
every  extreme  of  weather,  that  none  of  his  flock  might  perish,  how 
much  more  it  behooveth  us,"  &c.  Massillon,  inculcating  on  minis- 
ters the  duty  of  retiring  from  the  world  as  often  as  their  vocation 
of  leading  men  to  Christ  will  permit,  employs  this  beautiful  simile  : 
"  Like  that  star  which  conducted  the  Magi  to  Christ,  and  which  was 
a  type  of  pastors ;  it  showed  itself  as  far  as  Bethlehem,  whither  it 
was  to  conduct  those  sages  of  the  East ;  but  the  moment  they  found, 
acknowledged,  and  adored  the  infant  Saviour,  it  disappeared,  became 
eclipsed,  and  entered  again  into  the  clouds  of  the  firmament." 
Again,  Matthias  Claudius:  "Whether  the  prayer  of  a  moved  soul 
can  accomplish  or  effect  anything,  or  whether  the  JVexns  Beriim, 
the  fixed  connection  of  things,  does  not  allow  of  that,  as  some 
learned  gentlemen  think, — on  that  point  I  shall  enter  into  no  con- 
troversy. I  liave  great  respect  for  the  N'e.nis  Jiennn,  but  I  cannot 
help  thinking  of  Samson  who  left  the  JVcxiis  of  the  gate-leaves 
uninjured  and  carried  the  whole  gate,  as  every  one  knows,  to  the 
top  of  the  hill."  See  also  the  sermons  of  Thomas  Watson,  of  St. 
Stephens,  Walbrook,  London. 

And,  after  all,  whoso  examines  this  matter  fixedly  and  sharply, 
will  find  that  there  is  a  false  scripturalness,  no  less  than  a  true ;  and 
that  it  is  only  as  we  are  led  by  the  Holy  Spirit  into  the  wilderness 
of  trial  that  we  can  vanquish  Satan  with  oracular  weapons. 

Section  III. — The  Subject-matter  of  Sermons  as  found  in 

Scripture. 

"The  matter  of  preaching,"  says  Kosencranz,^  "  is  in  the  abstract 
the  whole  Faith,  in  the  concrete  the  whole  Life."  !More  specifically 
the  substance  of  each  sermon  is  to  be  determined  first  by  the  rela- 
tive im])ortance  of  subjects  as  measured  by  the  way  they  are 
em])]iasiscd,  repeated  and  amplified  in  the  sacred  Scriptures;  sec- 
ondly, by  their  various  aspects  when  studied  in  their  organic  and 

1  Theol.  Encykl.,  p.  866. 


AS  FOUND  IN  SCRIPTURE.  143 

inspired  relations  to  other  subjects ;  thirdly,  by  their  adaptation  to 
the  capacities  and  necessities  of  the  hearers.  As  the  result  of  aj^ply- 
ing  the  first  two  tests  we  arrive  at  the  following  conclusions,  the 
discussion  of  the  last  test  being  reserved  for  a  subsequent  section.^ 
Here  we  wish  to  be  understood  as  never  ignoring  or  forgetting  the 
fact  that  Christ  is  the  water-mark  in  every  page  of  the  Holy  Book, 
and  visible  to  every  believer  whenever  he  holds  it  up  to  the  light. 

1.  Those  subjects  take  the  first  place  which  relate  to  God^  his 
works,  his  attributes  and  his  nature. 

2.  Next  come  truths  respecting  the  origin,  nature,  works,  state 
and  relations  of  3 fan. 

3.  The  Zaio  of  God  in  its  relations  to  Man. 

4.  Christ  as  the  Ifediator.  Very  many  evangelical  preachers 
would  have  chosen  to  give  this  subject  the  first  place,  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  practically  superior  to  all  others.  But  it  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered that  the  Scriptures  have  raised  it  to  its  deserved  pre- 
eminence in  our  minds  and  hearts  by  first  dwelling  more  largely 
and  more  emphatically  on  the  subjects  which  serve  either  directly 
or  indirectly  to  prove  that  a  Saviour  is  necessary  and  every  way 
desirable.  Those,  who  like  the  apostle  Paul,  are  called  to  "  evan- 
gelical," or  missionary,  rather  than  pastoral  work,  may  deem  it  their 
sole  duty  to  "  preach  Christ  crucified."  But  even  they  should  not 
forget  that  this  apostle  likewise  preached  both  to  Jews  and  Greeks 
repentance  towards  God.^  But  of  the  permanent  pastor  the  danger 
is  that,  by  preaching  almost  exclusively  on  the  doctrine  of  salvation 
by  the  death  of  Christ,  he  leave  his  flock  without  any  distinct, 
comprehensive,  and  practical  views  concerning  the  nature,  attributes, 
and  acts  of  God  the  Father ;  and  consequently  exposed  either  to 
the  seductive  and,  so  far  as  it  goes,  more  full  and  sound  preaching 
of  deistical  theologians,  or  to  the  allurements  of  such  heretical  but 
eloquent  declaimers  as  delight  to  travesty  and  ridicule  that  grand 
system  of  Biblical  theology  of  which  they  and  their  hearers  are 
alike  profoundly  ignorant.  Space  forbids  us  to  enlarge  on  the  injury 
done  to  the  consciences  of  our  hearers  and  to  the  churches  we 
serve,  by  neglecting  to  instruct  them  in  the  knowledge  of  God  and 
his  law  with  a  view  to  their  exercising  an  intelligent  faith  in  Jesus, 
and  then  adorning  the  teaching  of  God  our  Saviour  by  all  holy  and 
obedient  living.  Let  the  pastor,  therefore,  remember  that  the 
"  man  of  God  "  is  the  foundation  on  which  he  is  to  build  the  true 
minister  of  Christ;  in  other  words,  that  the  theistic  ideas  with 
which  the  Hebrew  prophets  had  so  much  to  do,  underHe  and  sup- 

1  Sec  viii.  2  Acts.  xx.  21 ;  cf.  xxiv.  25 ;  Rom.  viii.  13  ;  Matt.  vii.  13,  14. 


144  THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  SERMONS 

port  the  grand  central  pchemc  of  mediation  which  is  so  often  and 
80  justly  the  theme  of  all  Christian  i)reachers. 

(1.)  In  preaching  Christ  we  should  give  the  preference  to  the  doc- 
trine of  palvation  through  the  death  of  Christ. 

(2.)  Next  in  importance  is  the  doctrine  of  the  wmj  of  salvation 
throuo-h  Christ,  and  the  grounds  of  vital  union  with  him. 

(:3.)  Of  less  consequence  is  the  biography  of  Jesus  as  it  is  given 
to  us  by  the  evangelists,  vinless  we  view  his  wonderful  life  upon 
earth  in  the  light  of  the  teachings  of  the  apostles  and  prophets. 
Modern  deists,  rationalists  and  pantheists  love  to  write  and  discourse 
about  the  man  Christ  Jesus  as  they  find  him  in  the  Gospel  narra- 
tive alone.  Unregenerate  readers  of  secular  poetry  and  demoraliz- 
ing- romance  are  never  wearied  and,  alas !  are  never  converted  by 
these  word-pictures. 

(4.)  As  the  object  of  love,  hope,  and  devotion,  Jesus  Christ  our 
Lord  cannot  be  preached  with  much  advantage  except  to  true  be- 
lievers and  sincere  inquirers.  The  apostolic  epistles  which  were 
almost  wholly  addressed  to  real  Christians  exhibit  to  us  the  rela- 
tive proportions  wherein  we  should  dwell  on  such  themes. 

(.J.)  Nor  should  we  forget  to  treat  all  Scripture  subjects  in  their 
relation  to  Christ,  or,  in  the  words  of  Andrew  Fuller,  "  Tliere  are 
varioois  important  truths  supposed  by  this  great  doctrine,  and  these 
require  to  be  illustrated  and  established.  There  are  7;arious  brcoich- 
cs  pertaining  to  it,  which  require  to  be  distinctly  considered ;  vari- 
ous consequences  arising  from  it,  which  require  to  be  pointed  out; 
various  duties  corresponding  with  it,  which  require  to  be  inculca- 
ted ;  and  various  evils  inimical  to  it,  which  may  require  to  be  ex- 
posed. All  I  mean  to  pay  is,  that  as  there  is  a  relation  between 
these  subjects  and  the  doctrine  of  the  cross,  we  must  introduce 
them  in  that  relation  if  we  would  introduce  them  in  a  truly  evan- 
gelical manner."  Yes,  when  we  examine  the  heart  of  any  one  of 
these  subjects  we  shall  find  there  a  crimson  cord  binding  it  to  the 
cross. 

(6.)  "We  should  make  Christ  the  end  of  all  our  preaching.  The 
subordinate  end  is  the  extension  of  his  kingdom  by  seeking  the 
convcrssion  and  edification  and  sanctificatlon  of  men.  The  ultimate 
end  is  the  personal  glory  of  Christ. i  According  hereto  is  the  ob- 
servation of  Mr.  Davison,'-  that  in  proportion  as  the  pi-oj)hots  en- 
larged their  predictions  concerning  the  ^Messiah,  did  they  at  the 
same  time  the  more  unfold  the  duty  of  repentance  and  other  prac- 
tical doctrines,  and  open  more  widely  the  prospects  of  eternal  life. 

1  Road  Rpv.  John  Jcniiinss'  "  Of  Preaching  Christ." 

2  D.SLOurscd  on  Piopliecy,  pp.  61,  503. 


AS  FOUND  IN  SCRIPTURE.  145 

5.  The  person^  offices,  and  tcorJcs  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  "Repre- 
sent," says  Dr.  Doddridge,  "  our  need  of  him ;  describe  his  work  in 
enlightening  the  mmd,  convincing  the  judgment,  renewing  and 
sanctifying  the  soul ;  quickening  to  duty,  fortifying  against  tempta- 
tion, assisting  in  prayer,  and  comforting  true  Christians,  witnessing 
to  their  adoption,  etc.  This  is  an  exceedingly  popular  subject,  and, 
what  is  of  still  higher  importance,  it  is  a  useful  and  Scriptural  one. 
When  you  enlarge  upon  it,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  add  cautions 
against  gi-ieving  the  Spirit,  and  directions  for  walking  in  the  Spirit, 
and  being  filled  with  the  Spirit."  We  have  only  to  add  that  we 
must  consider  not  merely  the  Scripture  account  of  the  Sj)irit,  but 
also  his  later  and  present  miracles,  if  we  would  clearly  and  fully 
understand  his  character ;  and  that  we  should  avoid  expatiating 
upon  such  subjects  to  the  eclipsing  of  Christ ;  ever  remembering 
that  he  came  not  to  speak  of  himself  but  to  glorify  Christ,  and  that 
hence  it  is  our  duty  to  keep  our  hearers  in  remembrance  of  his 
present  subserviency  and  loving  devotion  to  the  Lord  Jesus.  This 
and  the  preceding  subjects  are  of  supreme  importance,  and  appear 
to  have  been  included  by  Paul  under  the  term  "  kingdom  of  God," 
or  "  all  the  counsel  of  God."    (Acts  xx.  24.) 

6.  Devotional  subjects  or  such  as  are  intended  to  call  forth  adora- 
tion, confession,  petition,  and  thanksgiving.  We  should  not  be  satis- 
fied with  confining  these  exercises  to  prayer  and  praise.  The  large 
space  which  matter  of  this  kind  occupies  in  Scripture,  and  the  ten- 
dency of  congregations  towards  an  irreverent  and  indevout  hearing 
of  the  word,  ought  to  admonish  us  to  treat  devotional  subjects 
oftener  than  we  are  naturally  disposed  to  do,  and  to  sufiuse  all  our 
sermons  with  prayerful  sentiments.  Hereto  belong  lectm-es  on  the 
postukmda,  or  expositions  of  the  prayers  contained  in  Scripture ; 
it  is  an  error  to  confine  such  expositions  to  the  "Lord's  Prayer." 

7.  Experimental  subjects,  or  such  as  relate  to  the  truth  and 
grace  of  God  in  the  heart  of  man.  Holy  Writ  furnishes  us  with 
numerous  texts  which  illustrate  the  eflfects  of  divine  grace  on  the 
religious  affections.  When  Christian  experience  is  made  a  subject 
of  meditation  apart  from  its  relations  to  doctrines  and  duties,  and 
especially  to  conscience,  it  is  apt  to  foster  indolence,  self-conc*eit,  and 
presumption. 

In  order  to  preach  experimentally  with  profit,  we  have,  first  of 
all,  to  study  the  experimental  parts  of  Scripture  devotionally  and 
for  our  private  edification.  If  we  would  gain  broad  and  trust- 
worthy views  of  this  subject,  it  will  be  necessary  for  us  to  compare 
all  the  passages  that  relate  to  it,  otherwise  we  will  be  liable  to 
dwell  exclusively  on  such  texts  as  we  have  experienced  the  truth  and 


146  THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  SERMONS 

precioupness  of.  W«e  are  to  preach  from  the  heart  of  God  and  of 
his  inspired  servants,  rather  than  from  our  peculiar  experience  and, 
it  may  be,  egotistic  inwardness. 

But  still  as  to  these  matters  we  are  not  to  confine  ourselves  to 
Scripture,  for  the  very  good  reason  that  the  Divine  Spirit  has  for 
these  eighteen  hundred  years  been  carrying  forward  his  work  in 
the  hearts  of  Christians,  and  so  accumulathig  vast  evidences  of  his 
power. 

As  temptation  is  an  important  qualification  for  this  kind  of  preach- 
mg,  mature  Christians  are,  for  the  most  part,  the  best  prepared  for 
it ;  but  if  the  young  preacher  will  frequently  examine  his  own  heart 
and  preach  his  sermons  to  himself,  as  M'as  the  practice  of  Mather 
and  Doddridge,  if  he  will  talk  freely  with  those  whose  experience 
is  very  different  from  his  own,  and  whose  temperament,  education, 
and  religious  opinions  are  unlike  his — if  he  will  learn  to  classify  the 
various  kinds  of  real,  false,  and  equivocal  experience  which  come 
under  his  observation — if  he  will  read  Christian  biogi'aphy  with  a 
view  to  a  profounder  and  more  methodical  knowledge  of  spiritual 
phenomena  and,  at  the  same  time,  discriminate  between  such  as  are 
extraordinary  and  unprofitable,  like  those  of  the  Quietists  of  France, 
and  such  as  are  more  ordinary  and  tend  towards  practical  life,  like 
those  of  the  common  people ;  yet  never  forgetting  to  bring  them 
all  to  the  sure  test  of  Scripture  (for  the  Spirit  never  contradicts 
himself)  and  that  as  we  live  in  the  dispensation  which  is  distinc- 
tively his,  and  are  therefore  to  expect  some  phenomena  which  have 
not  lieen  recorded  in  Holy  Scripture — if,  we  say,  the  preacher  who 
is  still  young,  will  do  these  things,  he  will  prepare  himself  to  preach 
from  experimental  texts  with  an  intelligence  and  persuasiveness 
not  to  be  surpassed  by  the  aged  preacher  who  has  contented  him- 
self with  that  measure  of  heart  knowledge  which  he  has  found  in 
his  own  experience,  or  in  that  of  his  pious  acquaintance. 

8.  Doctrinal  subjects — by  this  we  mean,  credcnJa,  or  things  that 
are  to  be  believed,  as  distinguished  from  2>ostuIaiula  and  ar/cnda,  or 
the  things  that  are  to  be  prayed  for  and  to  be  practised.  Doctrinal 
sermons  are  authorized  by  the  large  amount  of  Scripture  matter 
which  is  obviously  intended  by  the  Divine  Spirit  to  support  and 
confirm  a  genume  faith.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  doctrines  of 
Holy  Scripture  are  never  Inculcated  philosophically  or  systematic- 
ally or  symbolically,  but  always  either  didactically  or  controver- 
sially or  experimentally  or  j)ractically.  And  yet  wc  may  not  hence 
conclude  tha*  systems  of  theology,  or  creeds,  or  philosophical  dis- 
cussions of  Christian  truth  are  in  themselves  unnecessary  and  use- 
less.    All  we  need  to  remember,  in  this  connection,  is  that  doctrinal 


AS  FOUND  IN  SCRIPTURE.  147 

truths  are  to  be  treated  by  the  preacher  after  the  manner  of  Scrip- 
ture and  not  after  the  manner  of  the  dogmatic  and  polemical  theo- 
logians, much  less  confined  to  the  range  of  symbolical  books  whose 
articles  were  mainly  designed,  as  Whately  says,  to  serve  as  so  many 
breast-works  for  the  defence  of  Christian  churches  at  those  points, 
where  they  were  besieged  or  attacked.  New  invaders,  advancing 
on  other  and  perhaps  more  exposed  points,  are  to  be  met  by  new 
munitions ;  but  the  preacher  who  should  limit  his  doctrinal  preach- 
ing to  his  "Thirty-nine  Ai'ticles,"  would  resemble  any  defender  of 
a  city  who  should  devote  all  his  resources  to  the  restoration  of  old 
forts  which  successfully  resisted  the  attacks  of  ancient  enemies, 
while  he  gave  no  heed  to  the  movements  of  a  hostile  army  that  was 
daily  hovering  about  the  unfortified  approaches  to  the  town. 

Some  there  are  who  mamtain  that  the  true  theory  and  central 
idea  of  all  preaching  consist  in  the  argumentative  discussion  of 
theology.  But  while  we  are  by  no  means  to  neglect  the  distinct- 
ive and  fimdamental  doctrines  of  Christian  Theology,  we  are  not, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  suppose  that  doctrinal  sermons  must  be  mainly 
argumentative.  "  Some  of  them,"  says  Schott, "  may  be  chiefly  such; 
others  may  be  principally  devoted  to  unfolding  the  nature  of  the 
truth  discussed,  and  others  to  the  exhibition  of  its  aj)propriate  in- 
fluence on  the  feelings  and  conduct.  Sometimes  these  three  charac- 
teristics may  be  united  in  one  and  the  same  discourse." 

Beware,  however,  of  the  puerile  habit  of  attempting  to  explain 
all  doctrinal  mysteries  and  commending  them  all  to  common  sense. 
Rehihard  says  that  the  illuminating  theologians  of  his  day  had 
succeeded  in  rendering  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  so  clear  and 
intelligible  that  nothing  was  left  but  pure  rationalism.  Some  of 
the  mysteries  of  divine  revelation,  when  received  by  an  intelligent 
faith,  serve  as  so  many  keys  to  imlock  all  other  mysteries. 

We  should  likewise  eschew  the  tendency  or  hahit  of  dwelling  on 
the  evidences,  apologetics,  and  polemics  of  Christianity.  These  sub- 
jects, like  all  others,  are  profitable  in  their  time  and  place,  and 
more  especially  as  handled  by  meek,  candid,  and  truth-loving  men. 
Very  young  preachers  and  very  old  ones  (the  former  by  tilting 
against  the  dayflies  of  heresy,  the  latter  by  caning  the  bleached 
skeletons  of  misbelief)  are  too  apt  to  "  smell  the  battle  afar  off," 
while  the  man  of  knowing  zeal  and  self-recollection  goes  not  forth 
to  the  strife  until  dangerous  errors  appear  on  the  field.  But  let  us 
turn  to  a  few  positive  canons. 

(1.)  To  anxious  inquirers  and  new  converts  the  cardinal  doctrines 
of  Holy  Scripture  are  to  be  preached  experimentally,  that  is  to  say, 
with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  nature  and  depth  of  their  religious  ex- 


148  THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  SERMONS 

perience.  For,  if  after  a  professed  convert  has  once  come  to  a  clear 
apprehension  of  any  fundamental  truth  of  the  Gospel,  he  cannot 
believe  it,  and  has  a  decided  aversion  to  it,  his  regeneration  is,  to 
say  the  least,  a  matter  of  reasonable  question. 

(3.)  But  in  order  to  obtain  the  believing  assent  of  the  new-born 
soul  to  a  doctrine  which  it  understands,  it  is  important  that  the 
doctrine  should  be  taught  in  the  connections  in  which  it  is  exhibited 
in  the  Scriptures ;  e.  g.,  when  preaching  on  Election,  we  should  ob- 
serve how  the  apostle  makes  it  include  the  means  as  well  as  the 
end ;  how  he  "  connects  prayer  with  predestination,  precept  with 
I^romise,  principle  with  example,  justification  with  penitence,  faith 
with  works,  and  redemption  with  renewal."^  This  process  is  easier 
and  more  profitable  than  that  of  showing  what  relation  any  doctrine 
has  to  a  complete  system  of  Christian  Theology. 

(3.)  And  yet  it  would  be  very  instructive  to  advanced  Christians 
to  study,  e.  g.,  the  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  in  its  relation  to  the 
other  necessary  doctrines  of  Biblical  Theology.  "  It  is,"  says  An- 
drew Fuller,2  "  to  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the  Bible  as  the 
life-blood  to  the  animal  system.  .  .  I  wish  to  beghi  with  the 
centre  of  Christianity — the  doctrine  of  the  cross — and  w^ork  round 
it ;  or  with  what  may  be  called  the  heart  of  Christianity,  and  trace 
it  through  its  principal  veins  and  relations,  both  in  doctrine  and 
practice.  .  .  The  whole  of  the  Christian  system  appears  to  be 
2'>resiqyposed  by  it,  included  in  it,  or  to  arise  from  it.^^^  The  cross 
stands  between  Jerusalerh  and  the  Sepulchre — between  the  sin  that 
crucified  Christ  and  the  newness  of  life  which  he  sj-mbolizcd  in  his 
resurrection ;  between  the  Sepulchre  and  Mount  Olivet ;  between 
our  risen  life,  with  all  its  conflicts  and  defeats,  an;!  our  ascended 
life,  with  all  its  triumphs  and  its  eternal  joys. 

9.  Pathetic  and  I^ersuas ice  suhjocta:  The  amount  of  excitatory 
matter  in  Holy  Scripture  is  very  large,  but  less  in  the  sermons  than 
in  the  psalms  of  inspired  men.  The  hortatory  matter  is  in  greater 
quantity,  and  yet  the  prophets  very  seldom  devote  entire  addresses 
tQ  such  matter,  and  then  exhort  ions  are  directed  more  frequently 
to  the  peojjle  of  God  than  tlie  children  of  this  world.  Very  many 
professors,  for  obvious  reasons,  will  like  their  pastor  exceedingly 
so  long  as  his  chief  endeavours  are  used  to  exhort  sinners  to  re- 
pentance.    On  the  other  hand,  be  Avarned  by  the  eflects  of  the 

1  Rev.  Dr.  A.  Reed  on  Human  Systems,  and  Bridges  on  the  Ministry,  PL  iv.,  c. 
4,  sec.  1. 

2  Essay  on  Truth,  and  Letter  iii.  on  Systematic  Divinity. 
8  Dr.  John  Edward's  Preacher,  Pt.  ii.,  London  ed.,  1706. 


AS  FOUND  IN  SCRIPTURE.  149 

earlier  ministry  of  Berridge  and  Chalmers,  who  found  that  the 
j)reaching  of  mere  morality  was  very  demoralizing ;  be  also  warned 
by  the  elfects  of  such  preaching  in  the  Roman  and  French  Catholic 
churches.  It  was  recommended  by  the  mediaeval  fathers,  Guibert 
of  Nogent,  St.  Francis,  and  Alanus  de  Insulis,  to  make  preaching 
consist  very  much  in  dissuasives  from  the  vices  and  persuasives  to 
the  virtues.  Compare,  too,  the  preaching  and  morals  of  France 
and  those  of  England  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  pro- 
tectorate of  Cromwell. 

10.  The  principles  and  precepts  of  Christian  Ethics  stand  next 
in  rank  as  themes  for  the  preacher.  We  do  not  here  mainly  intend 
the  great  primary  duties  and  obligations  of  men,  such  as  are  enjoined 
in  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  other  moral  precej^ts  of  the  old 
Law.  These  demand  an  earlier  regard  in  our  inculcations,  and  yet 
they  should  always  be  viewed  in  the  light  of  our  Divme  Master's 
fuller  and  dee23er  teachings.  Neither  do  we  we  chiefly  intend  the 
principles  of  moral  science  or  moral  philosophy.  Systems  of 
ethics  ought,  certamly,  to  be  studied,  but  they  are  principally  use- 
ful as  teaching  us  how  to  think,  not  as  furnishmg  us  with  matter. 
We  mean  those  ethical  principles  and  precepts  which  have  their  basis 
in  Christian  doctrine,  and  teach  and  enforce  such  virtues  and  duties 
as  are  the  fruit  of  faith  inj  and  love  to,  Christ,  as  derive  their  motives 
from  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  their  life  and  activity  from  the  grace 
of  Christ,  and  their  acceptableness  from  the  merits  of  Christ.^ 

It  is,  perhaps,  worth  while  to  repeat  here  certain  important 
maxims,  the  substance  of  which  is  found  scattered  passim  in  many 
works.  The  originators  of  not  a  few  of  these  maxims  it  would  be 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  ascertain. 

(1.)  Doctrinal  themes  may  often  be  treated  ethically,  and  ethical 
themes  doctrinally.  It  was  the  neglect  of  the  first  part  of  this 
suggestion  by  the  Calvinists  of  Switzerland  that  prepared  the  people 
for  the  moral  sermons  of  Francis  de  Sales.  Analogous  facts  are 
not  far  to  seek. 

(2.)  Never  consider  a  grace  or  virtue  abstractly.  The  subject  of 
Robert  Hall's  last  sermon  was  the  sin  and  absurdity  of  covetousness. 
It  was  observed  at  the  time  that  probably  not  one  of  his  hearers 
would  take  the  discourse  as  at  all  applicable  to  himself,  because  he 
employed  his  whole  force  on  the  love  of  money  as  a  pure  and  ab- 
solute princijjle.  John  Foster  adds  as  to  this  incident,  that  a  sermon 
on  the  love  of  money,  to  be  useful,  should  seize  and  expose  it  in 
those  modes  of  its  operation  imder  which  it  hides  and  palliates  its 


1  See  again  Rev.  John  Jennings'  "  Of  Preaching  Christ. 


150  THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  SERMONS 

true  quality ;  otherwise  it  might  even  do  mischief,  for  every  hearer 
who  could  say  he  did  not  so  love  money,  would  confidently  infer 
that,  therefore,  he  was  not  guilty  of  covetousness. 

(3.)  And  yet,  in  individualising  characters  and  discriminating 
among  the  practical  forms  of  sins  and  vices,  we  must  be  on  our 
guard  against  an  exclusive  tendency  towards  eloquent  descriptions, 
both  because  they  may  be  construed  as  jiersonal,  and  because  they 
may  inflame  the  very  passions  we  are  endeavouring  to  quell. 

(4.)  Some  ethical  subjects  are  too  unimportant  to  furnish  matter 
for  entire  sermons,  and  should,  therefore,  be  touched  upon  inciden- 
tally. Such  are  the  minor  virtues  of  courtesy,  magnaminity,  etc. 
It  is  not  easy  to  say  m  every  instance  where  virtue  ends  and  mere 
expediency  begins.  Christianity,  as  Vinet  says,  has  a  hand  which  is 
as  delicate  as  it  is  powerful. 

(j.)  Other  ethical  matters  are  too  special  and  individual  for  any 
mention  in  public  addresses.  Such  are  the  duties  of  lawyers,  phy-- 
sicians,  and  teachers,  and  many  cases  of  conscience.  These  are  best 
discussed  in  private  interviews. 

(0.)  In  cases  where  congregations  have  come  to  be  hardened 
under  bold  and  ill-tempered  rejiroofs,  it  might  be  advisable  to  stop 
preaching  arjalnst  sins  and  vices,  and  more  gently  and  compassion- 
ately to  recommend  the  opposite  graces  and  virtues.  Dwell  less  on 
those  things  which  Christian  morality  forbids,  than  on  those  things 
which  it  teaches. 

(7.)  Let  not  any  hearers  be  indulged  in  such  spiritual  aspirations 
as  tempt  them  to  overlook  and  neglect  those  moral  and  worldly 
virtues  which  the  natural  conscience  approves,  as  temperance, 
chastity,  honesty,  veracity,  fidelity,  kindness,  etc.  "  If,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Atwater,!  "  they  may  and  often  do  exist  without  piety, 
piety  cannot  exist  without  them." 

(8.)  '"It  is  useful,"  says  Scliott,  "  to  exhibit  the  virtues  of  the 
Christian  as  forming  a  complete  system ;  as  intimately  combined 
one  with  another,  so  that  no  one  may  feel  himself  justified  in  select- 
ing a  portion  of  these  duties  for  practice,  and  neglecting  the  re- 
mainder." See  "  Religious  Progress;  Discourses  on  the  Develop- 
ment of  the  Christian  Character,"  by  Rev.  Dr.  Wm.  R.  Williams. 

Here  we  might  mention  i^ol'dical  subjects ;  but  we  reserve  them 
for  another  section. 

11.  .Historical  and  biof/raphical  subjects.  The  Old  Testament 
and  the   New  furnish  a  multitude  of   events  and    characters   to 

1  In  his  valuable  article  on  "  Tlic  Matter  of  Preachins,''  in  Princeton  Review, 
vol.  xxvili ,  aud  inadverteutly  repriuted  in  Alexander's  "  Thoughts  on  Preaching." 


AS  FOUND  IN  SCRIPTURE.  15J 

illustrate  and  confirm  the  doctrinal  and  devotional  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture.  And  however  tempting  may  be  themes  from  ecclesiastical 
history,  from  the  general  history  of  religions,  and  from  the  lives 
of  good  and  holy  persons  as  written  by  uninspired  men,  it  is  never- 
theless safe  to  limit  ourselves  to  the  sacred  narratives  and  parables. 
For  the  selection  and  treatment  of  such  subjects,  Knibbe,'  Rein- 
hard,  and  Schott  lay  down  the  following  rules  :  The  subjects  should 
have  an  obvious  connection  with  Christian  doctrine  or  duty.  They 
should  be  spiritual  and  not  secular  in  their  final  impression  on  the 
mind.  They  should  be  in  some  degree  familiar  to  the  audience,  or  at 
least  such  as  may  be  easily  made  familiar  to  them.  We  should  be 
careful  not  to  fill  up  too  large  a  part  of  the  sermon  with  narrations, 
and  not  to  be  too  minute  in  our  historical  or  geographical  delinea- 
tions. We  should  never  distort  the  truth  of  history,  nor  allow  the 
imagmation  or  feelmgs  to  supply  what  the  authentic  narrative  has 
not  fairly  implied.  And  yet  we  ought  to  know  how  to  find  our  posi- 
tion in  two  difierent  worlds,  namely,  that  which  the  test  describes 
and  that  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.  We  should  be  modest  in  our 
interpretations  of  those  events  which  the  Bible  leaves  unexplained. 
We  ought  not  to  ascribe  legislative  authority  to  the  examj^les  of 
imperfect  men.  The  law  of  God  and  not  the  example  of  man  is 
our  rule  of  duty. 

12.  Addresses  to  tJie  young  ;  partly  ethical,  partly  expedient,  partly 
persuasive.  The  Scriptures  contain  much  matter  of  this  descrip- 
tion. 

13.  Types.  "  In  these,"  says  Dr.  Doddrige,  "  there  is  so  much 
room  for  fancy,  that  it  is  difficult  to  speak  judiciously  upon  them  ; 
and  more  difficult  to  please  if  they  be  not  drawn  to  excess.  But  for 
a  pastor,  especially  on  a  sacrament  day,  those  things  thaf  are  allego- 
rised2  in  Scripture,  maybe  very  profitably  enlarged  upon,  provid'ed 
the  similitude  and  difference  be  shown."  Most  preachers  appear  to 
admit  these  differences  with  great  reluctance;  as  if  an  antitype 
were  not  really  exalted  by  showing  its  dissimihtude  to  its  type. 

14.  Nature,  material  and  mental.  These  subjects  occupy  a 
wider  space  in  the  Scriptures  than  the  superfioial  reader  is  apt  to 
suppose,  and  therefore  deserve  a  higher  rank  than  Ave  have  assigned 
to  them,  and  would  have  assigned  them  had  we  not  recollected  the 
proneness  of  young  preachers  to  dwell  on  some  of  them  too  fre- 
quently and  too  copiously,  as  well  as  to  treat  some  of  them  either 

1  Knibbe's  Manuductio,  p.  150  ;  Reinhard's  Confess;ons.  Letter  s.;  D:-.  Park  s 
Trans,  of  Schott. 

2  Erasmus,  Ecclesiastes,  L.  iii.  ;  Opera,  vol.  v,  pp.  1010-1051 

11 


152  THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  SERMONS 

poetically  or  scientifically.  It  is  nevertheless  true,  as  Luther  has 
said,  that  "  all  the  works  of  creation  are  marks  and  symhols,  under 
which  Jehovah  conceals  himself,  and  through  which  he  communi- 
cates with  us,"  and  after  some  allowance  it  is  also  true,  as  Mrs. 
Browning  has  sung,  that 

.  .  .  .   "  Nature  comes  sometimes 

And  says,  '  I  am  ambassador  for  God.'  " 

These  subjects  have  been  called  j^^i^i^osophical,  and  such  of  them  as 
relate  to  the  passions,  intellect,  and  will,  2->sijcholor/ical.  Vinet 
would  also  include  Sociology  under"  the  head  of  Psychology.  Paul 
assailed  the  philosophy  which  was  taught  in  his  day,  while  he  inti- 
mated that  there  is  a  true  philosophy.  All  these  subjects  furnish 
less  of  principal  than  of  subsidiary  materials  for  sermons.  AVe 
should  all  join  Lord  Bacon  in  praying  "  Thy  creatures  have  been  my 
books  but  Thy  Scriptures  much  more.  .  .  We  beg  that  human 
thino-s  may  not  prejudice  such  as  are  divine ;  that  there  may  ha 
given  vinto  faith  the  things  that  are  foith's."  The  speculations  and 
language  of  Philosophy  when  habitually  carried  into  the  pulpit 
make  the  cross  of  Christ  of  none  effect  (1  Cor.  v.  1,  2). 

15.  The  Privileges  of  the  Children  of  God ;— the  pardon  of  their 
sins,  the  renovation  of  their  nature,  adoption,  perseverance  through 
divine  grace,  God's  providential  care  over  them,— all  thmgs  work- 
ing together  for  their  good, — access  to  God  through  Christ, — com- 
munion with  him,  believing  views  of  glory,  etc.  "  These  subjects," 
says  Doddridge,  "  will  impress  the  hearts  of  sinners  (as  a  lancet 
concealed  in  a  sponge), — as  well  as  raise  the  devout  affections  of 
true  Christians." 

IG.  Subjects  of  Consolation.  The  provisions  of  Gospel  redemp- 
tion supply  many  themes  of  this  description.  A  volume  might  l)e 
profitably  devoted  to  the  New  Testament  modes  of  administering 
comfort. 

17.  The  Four  Last  Things  must  be  treated  opportunely  yet, 
for  the  most  parf,  in  a  subsidiary  way  ;  courageously  yet  compas- 
sionately, but  abave  all,  in  an  evangelical  spirit  and  manner;  e.g., 
we  should  not  forget  that  Christ  has  the  keys  of  hell  and  of  death, 
that  he  will  judge  the  world,  that  his  glorified  presence  is  the  be- 
liever's heaven,  etc.  The  New  Testament  always  contrasts  these 
subjects  as  light  and  shade,  reward  and  punishment  being  set  over 
against  each  other.  They  afford  profitable  matter  for  parts  of  ser- 
mons on  many  very  different  subjects.  But  nowhere  is  it  more  im- 
portant to  ol)scrve  and  follow  the  movements  of  the  Divine  Spirit 
in  us  and  in  our  hearers,  lest  our  stated  congregations  become  at 


AS  FOUND  IN  SCRIPTURE.  153 

length  hardened  to  such  considerations,  just  as  the  blacksmith's 
dog,  according  to  Kichard  Baxter,  learns  to  sleep  soundly  under 
the  sharp  sounds  and  burning  cinders  which  hammer  and  sledge 
are  continually  flinging  at  him  and  around  him. 

Upon  this  entire  subject  it  is  necessary  to  repeat  an  imj)ortant 
caveat.  The  missionary,  and  every  other  preacher  who  has  to  ad- 
dress those  who  have  never  heard  the  true  Gospel  of  Christ  pro- 
claimed, should  begin  and  continue  to  explain  and  apply  to  them 
the  doctrines  of  grace  exclusively,  until  they  are  either  all  converted 
or  are  in  danger  of  coming  to  be  "  Gospel  hardened.''  We  are  too 
unmindful  of  the  fact  that  such  men  of  God,  and  such  only,  are  in 
a  vocation  and  field  similar  to  those  of  the  apostles,  and  are,  there- 
fore, to  make  salvation  through  Jesus  their  one  and  all-absorbing 
theme  in  obedience  to  his  great  commission,  and  to  the  words  and 
example  of  the  ajDOstles. 

Dr.  Burgon^  advises  the  young  pastor  to  keep  a  journal  of  his 
themes,  and  from  time  to  time  to  notice  his  omissions.  As  every 
man  is  liable  to  be  influenced  by  his  partialities  and  aversions  in 
dispensing  the  Gospel,  he  ought,  at  least,  to  take  himself  to  task 
betimes,  and  solemnly  inquire  whether  he  be  jireaching  all  parts  of 
divine  revelation  in  their  due  prof)ortion  and  intimate  correlation, 
on  the  one  hand ;  and,  on  the  other,  whether  the  kind,  combination, 
and  amount  of  Scripture  matter  preached  be  adapted  to  the  average 
capacities  and  wants  of  his  congregation.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
that  he  should  not  only  keep  a  record  of  his  texts  and  subjects,  but 
closely  and  constantly  watch  the  moral  and  spiritual  state  of  his 
flock.  In  order  to  invent  proportionately,  he  should,  according  to 
Aristotle's  advice,  consider  not  only  who  speaks  and  what  is  spoken, 
but  the  people  spoken  to.  Nor  is  the  first  requisite  of  small  im- 
portance. The  speaker  may  be  ever  so  careful  to  gain  and  convey 
a  proportional  knowledge  of  sacred  Scripture  to  the  mere  intellects 
of  his  congregation ;  and  yet,  if  he  does  not  view  all  his  subjects 
experimentally  and  'practically,  a  sad  disproportion  will  eventually 
appear  in  his  and  their  life  and  character.  It  is  a  great  thing  (we 
do  not  say  the  only  thing),  as  Keckerman  suggests,  to  make  our 
whole  invention  contribute  to  devotion.  If  we  lead  our  hearers  to 
the  throne  of  grace,  we  put  them  in  the  way  of  understanding,  be- 
lieving, applying,  and  obeying  the  word  preached. 

But  may  we  not  for  the  sake  of  variety  occasionally  compose  a 
sermon  out  of  materials  that  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  Scriptures, 
or  suggested  by  them  ?    In  other  words,  are  there  not  many  mod- 


1  Pastoral  Office,  p.  182. 


154  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

ern  dmrchly  political  and  social  questions,  whereof,  indeed,  divine 
revelation  is  totally  silent,  which  do  nevertheless  enable  preachers 
to  gratify  in  a  profitable  "way  the  i:)op)ular  love  of  change  and  diver- 
sity ?  To  forget  or  ignore  our  commission  is  dangerous ;  and  he 
who  secularises  in  order  to  popularise,  is  the  father  of  him  who  will 
profane  in  order  to  destroy.  But  every  reasonable  demand  for 
variety  can  be  answered  without  making  secular  appendices  to  our 
Bibles.  Each  truth  of  Scripture  may  be  presented  to  the  mind  in ' 
as  many  aspects  (we  do  not  say  all  equally  important)  as  a  copy  of 
the  sacred  volume  may  be  exhibited  to  the  eye. 

Those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  neglecting  Christian  theology  and 
of  speaking  contemptuously  of  creeds  and  dogmas,  are,  for  the  most 
part,  either  novices,  men-pleasers,  or  are  dangerously  ignorant  of 
church  history.  Does  any  man  think  that  Christian  doctrines  are 
of  small  value  ?  Let  him  read  the  history  of  the  martyrs,  and  so 
learn  what  sufferings  those  doctrines  have  cost.  Does  any  man 
think  that  Christian  doctrines  have  no  relation  to  holy  living? 
Let  him  read  the  history  of  heresies  and  there  behold  their  demor- 
alising fruits. 

Section  I\'. — Of  Political  Subjects. 


Many  distinguished  ministers  of  God  have  discussed  important 
questions  in  politics.  Gregory  Xazianzen  preached  political  ser- 
mons against  the  Emperor  Julian.  Augustine,  in  his  '"  City  of  God,'' 
illustrates  the  jtrinciples  of  human  government ;  Thomas  Aijuinas,  in 
his  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  and  in  his  other  writmgs,  lays  down 
political  maxims  of  considerable  value.  Bossuet,  in  his  Discourse 
on  Universal  History,  denies  the  pope's  claim  of  infallibility  and  his 
assumed  right  to  depose  kings ;  and  in  a  large  work  on  Scrii)ture 
Politics,^  he  attempts  to  establish  monarcliical  governments  on 
divine  authority.  The  gentle  Fenelon,  however,  is  said  to  have 
written  his  Telemachus  as  a  satire  on  the  character  and  reign  of 
Louis  XIV. — a  monarch  whom  Saurin  preached  against,  both  while 
he  lived  and  after  his  heath.  C£\Jvm  d..votes  the  last  chapter  of  his 
Institutes  to  the  discussion  of  the  nature  of  civil  government. 
Owen  and  Baxter  have  left  us  some  political  tracts;  Jeremy  Taylor 
wrote  on  Toleration ;  Roger  Williams  on  Religious  Liberty  ;  and 
Jonathan  Mayhew's  great  political  sermon,  preached  in  Boston,  has 
been  styled  the  "  Morning  Gun  of  the  Revolution." 

In  times  of  high  political  excitement,  no  sane  preacher  will  advo- 

l  Politique  Tirce  de  Ecriture  Saintc,  tome  sxsvi.  (ed.  Versailles,  1818). 


OF  rOLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  I55 

cate  the  principles  and  measures  of  a  party,  vinless  he  has  an  un- 
eqiaivocal  call,  either  from  Scriptixre.or  conscience,  benevolence  or 
humanity ;  for  he  knows  that  if  he  do  he  must  suffer  as  a  confessor 
or  die  as  a  martyr.  The  adverse  party  will,  for  the  sake  of  defend- 
ing themselves  or  attacking  "  the  partisan  preacher,"  lay  down  the 
broad  i>rinciple  that  the  man  of  God  should  never  meddle  with 
politics  in  the  pulpit.  It  was  on  this  plausible  ground  that  Burke 
assailed  Dr.  Price,  and  Milton  censured  Dr.  Griffeth ;  while  the 
professed  loyalists  of  Latimer's  time  brought  to  bear  against  him  and 
his  followers  the  assertion  that  all  reformatory  preachmg  caused 
sedition  and  rebellion.  However,  let  the  young  preacher  hearken 
neither  to  the  calumnies  of  enemies  nor  the  flatteries  of  friends ; 
but  2>roceed  according  to  the  Scriptiu-e  guidance  and  light  which 
A'/e  desire  now  to  offer  him. 

The  Hebrew  prophets  often  spoke  about  the  political  affairs  of 
their  nation ;  but  they  did  not  limit  their  teachings  to  the  theocracy, 
nor  were  any  of  them  the  court  preachers  of  Hebrew  monarchs. 
So  far  from  it,  they  taught  that  Jehovah  is  the  moral  and  jirovi- 
dential  Governor  of  all  men.  When  Jonah,  in  his  zeal  for  God's 
veracity,  let  this  truth  escape  his  memory,  it  was  brought  back  to 
him  in  the  vehicle  of  a  most  strikmg  symbol. ^  Is  not  our  God, 
God  over  all  ?  was  the  cutting  appeal  of  Isaiah  and  Amos2  to  their 
imfaithful  countrymen :  Is  not  Samaria  as  Damascus  ?  Are  ye  not 
as  the  children  of  the  Ethiopians  unto  me  ?  Is  not  our  God,  God 
over  all '?  Hence  the  prophets  taught  that  all  nations,  whenever 
they  either  kept  or  forsook  the  moral  part  of  the  laws  of  Moses, 
would,  with  due  allowance  for  the  proportion  of  light,  be  either 
rewarded  or  punished  accordingly.  When,  therefore,  they  predict 
the  overthrow  of  Gentile  kings  or  nations,  they  attribute  their 
downfall  to  moral  causes,  and  the  justice  of  Jehovah. 

They  likewise  believed  that  God  made  his  providential  govern- 
ment of  all  nations  siibservient  to  his  moral  government,  and  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  his  people,  wheresoever  their  lot  was  cast. 
Hence,  neither  their  themes  nor  sphere  were  shut  up  within  the 
landmarks  of  Judah  and  Israel.  Elijah^  adventured  as  far  as  Zerep- 
hath  in  Zidon,  and  went  to  Syria  to  anoint  Hazael  king  of  that 
idolatrous  people.  Elisha's"^  inspiration  and  miraculous  jiowers 
were  not  unknown  at  Damascus  before  he  visited  that  city.  Jonah, 
and  probably  Naham,  went  on  prophetic  missions  to  Nineveh.  As 
their  messages  would  seem  to  imply,  so  we  are  at  liberty  to  sup- 

1  Jonah  iv.  10,  11.  2  Isa.  x.  9  ;  Amos  ix.  7.  3  1  Kings  xvii.  9-24. 

4  2  Kings  V.  10 ;  vi.  12  ;  viii.  7. 


156  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

pose  that  the  mass  of  the  Ninevites,  like  the  Persians,^  believed  in 
one  sui)reme  God,  and  tliat  Xahiim  who  compares  the  ehy  to  a  pool 
of  water  on  account  of  the  confluence  of  its  inhabitants  from  adja- 
cent lands,  fomid  many  of  his  own  coimtrymen  in  that  city  to  whom 
part,  if  not  all,  of  his  discourse  may  have  been  personally  delivered. 
And  it  may  fairly  be  inferred  from  Jehovah's  commission  to  Ezek- 
iel,2  that  such  missions  were  neither  uncommon  nor  comparatively 
unsuccessful.  Witness  Daniel  in  Babylon,  and  Mordecai  in  Shushan. 
Apart  from  captivity  and  divine  command,  several  causes  con- 
spired to  attract  Hebrew  prophets  to  Gentile  cities.  The  principal 
foreign  nations  being  familiar  with  the  vocation  of  the  prophet,  and 
accustomed  to  resort  to  him  on  occasions  of  doubt  and  perplexity, 
were  always  prejiared  to  welcome  him  from  Avhatever  land  he  might 
be  sent  to  them.  Besides,  the  travellers,  merchants,  and  mariners  of 
Greece  and  other  western  nations,  could  hardly  fail-  to  hear  the 
prophets  of  Jehovah  at  Sidon,  Tyre,  and  Joppa,  while  the  caravans 
of  Egypt,  Nineveh,  and  Babylon  must  have  listened  to  them  while 
resting  on  the  oases  of  eastern  Palestine.  Xot  a  few  of  the  pagan 
j>rophets  were  evidently  but  the  degenerate  sons  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets.  Tlieir  great  ancestor  Noah  was  a  preacher  of  righteous- 
ness. And  the  fame  of  the  Jews  as  a  holy  nation  and  a  kingdom 
of  priests^  must  have  jiavedthe  way  for  the  coming  of  their  projjhets 
into  Gentile  lands  long  ere  philosophers  and  sojihists  partly  usurped 
their  power  in  pagan  nations.  More  than  six  hundred  years  before 
Lycurgus,  the  prophet  Mose^  gave  his  laws.  Three  hundred  years 
before  the  fabulous  heroes,  Orpheus,  Hercules,  and  Theseus  sailed 
for  Colchis,  Moses  led  his  people  through  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
desert  of  Arabia,  demonstrating  the  divine  wisdom  to  be  superior 
to  that  of  the  Egypt  he  had  k'lt  behind,  and  tlie  divine  insj)iration 
that  was  in  him  to  be  triumphant  over  the  diabolical  afflatus  Avhicli 
was  in  the  false  prophets  of  the  tribes  tliat  retired  before  his  ap- 
proach. Six  hunnred  years  before  Pindar,  the  king  of  tlie  Hebrews 
composed  liis  2)salms.  All  the  minor  prophets  liad  delivered  their 
messages  before  ]*ythagoras  of  Samoa  arose,  and  Esdras  flourished 
before  Socrates  and  his  disciple  Plato  taught  at  Athens.-*  Even 
philosophically  speaking,  the  scattering  of  these  holy  tribes  proved 
to  be  "  the  riches  of  the  Gentiles." 

1  Sir  Henry  RawUnson's  Memoir  on  the  Persian  Cuniforra  Inscriptions,  vol.  i., 
pnssim. 

2  Ezpk.  iii.  0,  0.     3  Exod.  xix.  G;  Dent.  iv.   6-8;  Isa.  xliii.  2;  cf.  1  Peter  ii.  9. 
<  Augustine,  Civ.  Dri,  L.  xviii.  C.  .38.    Tlioluck's  Hints  on  tlio  Importance  of  tho 

Study  of  the  0.  T.,  c.  i.,  iu  Bib.  Cubiuet,  vol.  ii. 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  157 

Add  to  this  the  purpose  of  God  and  the  teachings  of  his  prophets 
concerning  other  nations.  Whoever  among  the  Gentiles  would 
forsake  his  idols  and  "  cleave  unto  the  God  of  Israel,"  was  counted 
a  brother  and  fellow  citizen.^  In  the  reign  of  Solomon  the  Hebrews 
became  morally,  what  the  Greeks  afterwards  became  intellectually, 
the  teachers  of  all  mankind.  The  diffusion  of  the  pure  faith  among 
all  men  was  the  promise  of  the  prophets  and  the  song  of  the  con- 
gregations.2  And  often  did  those  men  of  God  make  the  destiny 
of  foreign  nations  a  theme  of  warning  or  encouragement  to  all  men. 
For  many  ages  did  the  light  of  the  holy  nation  thus  pour  its  steady 
effulgence  into  the  darkness  of  the  adjacent  nations,  imtil  the  suc- 
cessive caj^tivities  of  Israel  and  Judah,  as  it  were,  broke  the  Sheki- 
nah  into  many  stars,  and  fixed  them  in  the  great  centres  of  pagan- 
ism, there  to  shine  uneclipsed  and  unequalled  by  the  tapers  of  sooth- 
saying and  false  j^rophecy.  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Mordecai 
were  perhaps  only  representatives  of  a  large  class  of  similar  men 
who  through  divine  insijiration  and  grace  were  enabled  in  foreign 
lands  to  convert  kings,  to  rise  superior  to  prejudices  and  persecu- 
tion, and  advance  to  posts  of  wide  moral  and  political  influence.^ 

"We  should,  on  the  other  hand,  as  already  suggested,  guard  against 
the  error  of  supposing  that  the  Hebrew  prophets  were  the  court 
preachers  and  counseilers  of  state  in  the  palaces  of  the  Hebrew 
and  other  monarchs.  If  we  consider  the  relation  Samuel  sustained 
to  Saul,  Gad  and  Nathan  to  David,  Elijah  to  Ahab,  and  Elisha  to 
the  king  of  Israel  and  of  Syria,  Isaiah  to  Hezekiah,  and  of  Jeremiah 
to  Zedekiah,  we  must  conclude  that  they  acted  before  kings  as  im- 
partially and  exclusively  as  before  their  subjects  in  the  character  of 
ambassadors  of  God."*  They  sometimes  rebuked  in  kings  sins  that 
had  not  any  direct  bearing  on  their  policy,  and  interfered  with  the 
administration  of  affairs  only  so  far  as  the  law,  honour,  and  inspiration 
of  Jehovah  compelled  them  to  do.  "  With  what  propriety,"  asks 
Tholuck,  "  can  those  be  denominated  demagogues  who  manifested 
their  zeal  towards  the  kmgdom,  because  the  worship  of  God  was 
sinking  or  rising ;  who  threatened  wars  only  as  the  punishment  of 
ungodliness,  who  promised  peace  only  as  the  reward  of  piety,  who 
never  sought  their  own  interest,  who  foretold  the  future,  and  still 

1  Lev.  xix.  33,  84;  2  Chon.  vi.  82 ;  Isa.  Ivi.  3,  6,  7. 

2  Isa.  ii.  2-4 ;  Micah.  iv.  1-4 ;  Psa.  Ixvii. ;  Ixsxvi.  9  ;  xcvi.  97. 

3  The  prophets  of  Homer  in  some  respects  strongl)'  resemble  those  of  the  He- 
brew Scriptures;  cf.  Mr.  Gladstone's  Homer  and  Jloma-ic  Age,  vol.  jii.  178;  Juveti- 
tus  Muncli,  200,  288. 

4  Rev.  John  Davison  on  Prophecy,  pp.  232,  203. 


158  OF  rOLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

continued  herdsmen  (as  in  the  case  of  Amos),  and  Avho  on  account 
of  their  severe  correction  of  apostasy  must  have  been  in  continual 
danger  of  being  slain  Avitli  the  sword,  or  of  being  sawn  asunder  y"' 

The  law  was  given  by  a  prophet,  and  all  other  communications 
from  Jehovah  were  made  through  projjhets  (Deut.  xviii.  IS;  Zech. 
vii.  12 ;  Heb.  i.  2).  "  The  prophetical  ministry,"  says  Dr.  Manton, 
"  is  a  kmd  of  chancery  to  the  law."  It  is  erroneous,  therefore,  to 
suppose  that  the  prophets  were  the  reformers  of  the  law  of  Moses. 
So  far  from  this,  they  expounded  and  applied  that  law  as  God  saw 
the  state  and  condition  of  the  kings,  the  priests,  and  the  people 
demanded.^  They  likewise  taught  men  the  relative  value  of  the 
various  duties  which  the  law  exacted.^  Their  utterances  are  in 
perfect  consonance  with  the  Pentateuch ;  their  teachings  flowed 
from  the  law,  says  Calvin,  like  streams  from  a  fountain.  And  yet 
like  the  Great  Teacher,  they  were  moved  to  oppose  the  false  inter- 
pretations and  misapplications  of  that  law.^  Thus  Ezekiel  (xviii. 
20,  23),  in  exploding  the  common  proverb  as  to  hereditary  retribu- 
tion, shows  that  the  law  (Exod.  xx.  5)  comtemplated  such  retribu- 
tion only  in  the  case  of  those  who  did  not  repent.  Jeremiah  (xxxi. 
27-40)  had  before  predicted  that  in  the  new  disijensation,  men 
would  respect  that  proverb  no  more  ;  and  Moses  himself,  speaking 
as  a'prophetic  teacher  (Deut.  xxiv.  IG),  cautioned  the  people  against 
the  notion  that  this  retribution  was  legal,  such  as  they  might  them- 
selves inflict,  and  not  providential,  such  as  Jehovah  alone  would 
admuiister.  The  prophets,  like  their  great  Master  and  ours,  also 
showed  that  some  laws  were  rather  permitted  than  approved  of 
God  (Ezek.  xx.  25 ;  Matt.  xix.  8).  "  God  may,"  says  Dr.  Smith,  of 
Campelton,*  "  sometimes  deal  out  measures  to  his  people  that  seem 
to  be  wliat  he  himself  terms  his  laws,  '  not  good,'  but  this  is  to  be 
understood  of  either,  as  spoken  in  a  relative  sense,  imi)lying  that 
they  are,  however,  the  best  which  their  situation  and  circumstances 
can  bear.  And  'this  is  the  sponge'  (says  Montesquieu,  citing  the 
text),  '  that  wipes  out  all  the  difliculties  that  are  to  be  found  in  the 
law  of  Moses ' — and  with  equal  propriety  we  may  add — in  many  of 
the  ways  of  Providence." 

As  to  distinctive  mattev,  Hebrew  prophecy  is  the  day-star, 
twinkling  between  the  departing  niglit  of  the  law  and  the  advanc- 
ing day  of  the  Gospel.*     It  heralded  progress.     The  prophets  were 

1  Matt,  iv  3.  5  1  Sam.  xv.  22. 

3  Dr.  Fairbaim's  Law  in  Scripture,  pp.  105-207. 

4  Siupmary  View  of  tlie  Writings  of  tlie  Prophets,  in  Ezek.  xx.  25. 

f  Rev  John  Davison'.s  Warburton  Lectures  on  Prophecy,  pp.  8-')-6?. 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  159 

reformers  not  of  the  law  but  of  the  people.  Theirs  was  a  progress 
which  drew  constant  supplies  from  conservatism.  The  law  was 
typical  of  the  future  kingdom  of  God  and  the  observance  of  its 
rites,  and  the  keeping  of  its  precepts  were  needful  preparations  for 
advancing  the  people  from  a  material  to  a  spiriiual  economy.  The 
prophets  saw  that  in  the  law  were  wrapped  up  the  germs  of  great 
truths  regarding  the  Messiah,  and  that  whatever  of  prosperity  or 
adversity  befell  the  chosen  peojDle  was  but  preliminary  to  the  un- 
folding and  development  of  the  scheme  of  redemption.  And  hence 
these  prophets  were  hopeful  for  their  nation  and  for  all  the  world, 
and  the  most  hopeful  in  times  of  general  despair,  and  the  most  con- 
fident amidst  the  greatest  discontent  and  alarm.  They  never  see 
"the  star  of  Bethlehem"  except  when  the  night  of  some  great  judg- 
ment returns  to  their  people,  and  it  is  only  when  the  eye  is  fixed  on 
its  march  through  the  midnight  sky  that  they  step  forward  most 
firmly,  and  their  countenances  glow  most  angelically  with  the  pre- 
science of  the  birth  and  death  and  victory  and  benign  dominion  of 
their  Immanuel.  They  were,  therefore,  pre-eminently  sons  of  con- 
solation and  not  mere  awakeners  and  revivalists.  They  were  rather, 
indeed,  each  of  these  by  turns  according  to  their  various  avocations 
as  pastors.^ 

The  foregoing  principles  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  all  who 
would  comprehend  the  relations  of  the  prophets  to  j^olitics,  and 
determine  how  far  their  example  may  justly  and  safely  be  followed 
by  the  Christian  preacher.  Let  us  now  examine  their  political 
relations  and  example  historically. 

Under  the  Theocracy^  strictly  so  called,  which  contmued  from 
the  time  of  Moses  until  the  coronation  of  Saul,  we  first  find  a  prophet 
acting  as  law-giver  and  civil  magistrate  as  well  as  religious  teacher. 
Then  we  find  Deborah  at  once  a  prophetess  and  judge-  moved  of 
God  to  command  the  Israelites  to  go  to  war  against  Jabin,  the  king 
of  Canaan,  to  accompany  the  Hebrew  army  in  the  field,  and  to 
celebrate  their  victory  in  a  song  of  triumph.  Samuel  was,  at  first, 
prophet,  j)riest,  and  civil  magistrate.  Among  his  first  projihetic 
acts  was  an  exhortation  to  the  peojjle  to  return  to  the  Lord  as  a 
means  of  deliverance  from  the  Philistines.^  Jehovah  was  their 
King,  and  it  was  by  returning  loyally  to  him,  and  not  by  imitating 
the  monarchical  governments  of  their  pagan  neigbours,  that  th'ey 
were  to  become  mighty  and  victorious. 

1  Isa.  Ivi.  10,  11  ;  cf.  Ezek.  xxxiii.  7;  Jer.  ii.  8.;  iii.  15.;  xvii.  16.;  xxiii.  1-4, 
9-40. 

2  Judges  iv.  4,  5.  3  1  Sara.  vii.  3. 


IGO  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

Under  the  Monarchy  we  hear  Samuel  remonstrating  in  the  name 
of  the  Lord  against  the  political  act  of  choosing  a  king,  but  when 
Israel  had  fully  resolved  on  modifying  their  form  of  government, 
Samuel  was  commanded  of  God  to  yield  to  the  popular  voice  and 
anoint  Saul  their  captain  and  king.  Though  he  had  warned  them 
of  the  consequences,  yet  he  proceeded  to  secure,  so  far  as  possible, 
the  obedience  of  the  king  to  the  law  which  Moses  had  provided 
for  a  monarchy.^  One  of  his  earliest  acts  midor  the  new  power, 
was  to  forbid  the  execution  of  certain  recusants.^  Still  serving  the 
people  in  the  character  of  prophet  and  priest,  Samu>:l  reminded 
them  that  their  national  prosperity  dej^ended  on  their  obedience  to 
the  divine  law,3  repeatedly  rebuked  Saul  for  disregarding  the  com- 
mands of  Jehovah,  executed  Agag  with  his  own  hands  before  the 
Lord,  and  anointed  David  king  in  the  place  of  the  apostate  and  re- 
jected Saul.  We  have  no  space  to  mention  the  several  politcal  acts 
of  succeeding  prophets.  Nathan,  Ahijah,  Shemaiah,  Elijah,  Elisha, 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Zechariah,  Azariah,  Oded,  and  others,  were  inspired 
to  counsel,  reprove,  or  encourage  kings — inspired,  we  say,  for  it  is 
demonstrable  that  these  propliets  sj^oke  to  monarchs,  not  as  mere 
sagacious  statesmen,  but  almost  exclusively  as  men  of  God.  In  one 
instance  Nathan*  did,  we  concede,  mistakenly  suppose  that  David 
was  f(C)llowing  the  divine  guidance,  and  so  he  hastily  approved  his 
project  of  building  a  temple — a  project  that  seemed  reasonalde, 
benevolent,  and  in  accordance  with  the  divine  will  and  puri:)ose ;  but 
before  another  day  dawned  upon  the  prophet,  a  revelation  from  God 
corrected  tlie  error.  This  should  teach  us  that  we  ought  not  to 
advise  kings  concerning  even  spiritual  matters  without  authority 
from  the  word  of  God.  Nathan  was  afterwards  called  to  interpose 
in  order  to  secure  the  anointing  of  Solomon,  in  pursuance  of  David's 
oath  that  the  son  of  Bathsheba  should  succeed  him:  upon  which 
Matthew  Henry  observes,  "  When  crowns  were  disposed  of  by  im- 
mediate direction  of  Heaven,  no  marvel  that  prophets  were  much 
interested  and  employed  in  that  matter ;  but  now,  that  common 
Providence  rules  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  of  men  (Dan.  iv.  32), 
the  subordinate  agency  must  be  left  to  common  persons;  and  let 
not  prophets  intermeddle  in  them,  but  keej)  to  the  affairs  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  among  men." 

The  pro])hets  Elijah  and  Elisha  afford  aibnirable  cxamjiles  of 
moral  courage.  The  instances  of  their  firmness  and  boldness  in 
withstanding  the  idolatries  of  the  court  and  people  of  Israel,  and  in 

1 1  Sam.  X  25  ;  D?iif.  xvii.  14-20.  2  Id.  xi.  12,  13. 

3  Id.  xii.  12-14,  20-25.  4  2  Sam.  vii.  3,  5-17. 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS,  161 

rebuking  monarcbs,  and  of  their  success  in  defeating  the  enemies 
of  the  ten-  tribes,  are  so  familiar  to  all  that  they  need  not  be  repeated 
here. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  relations  of  these  two  prophets 
to  the  kings  of  Syria.  We  have  likewise  a  remarkable  instance  of 
Elijah's  concern  for  the  spiritual  jirosperity  of  the  rival  kingdom 
of  Judah  in  the  letter^  written  by  him  to  Jehoram,  and  which  was 
not  to  be  employed  for  the  reproof  of  the  king  of  Judah  until  after 
the  death  of  the  prophet.  It  is  a  proof  of  the  divine  legation  of 
these  prophets  of  Israel  that  they  did  not  share  the  antipathy  of 
their  nation  towards  Judah,  and  it  is,  therefore,  probable  that 
Jehovah  moved  Elijah  to  communicate  this  prophecy  in  a  posthu 
mous  writing,  in  order,  perhaps,  to  put  it  beyond  the  power  of 
Judah  to  suspect  that  it  was  dictated  by  party  spirit,  and  composed 
in  the  interest  of  the  king  of  Israel.  The  advice  a  i5roj)het2  gave 
to  Amaziah,  that  he  should  not  employ  the  mercenaries  of  Israel 
whom  he  had  hired  to  fight  his  battles,  was  not  prejudicial  to  the 
honour  of  all  the  ten  tribes,  but  only  to  that  of  the  children  of 
Ejjhraim,  who  had  already,  on  several  occasions,  shown  themselves 
signally  wanting  in  faith  and  obedience  towards  Jehovah,  and  the 
ravages  these  hirelings  afterwards  committed  on  the  cities  of  Judah 
must  have  convinced  every  candid  man  in  Israel  that  this  jDroi^het 
of  Judah  spoke  the  truth  of  God.  And  when  Jehoshaphat  became 
a  partner  with  the  wicked  Ahaziah  in  a  commercial  speculation,3  the 
prophet  Eliezer  predicted  that  the  Lord  would  wreck  liis  ships. 
As,  however,  the  storm  in  the  harbour  of  Ezion-geber  proved  alike 
disastrous  to  the  two  kings,  and  the  calamity  affected  but  remotely 
and,  perhaps,  not  unfavourably  the  popular  interests  of  the  tribes 
of  Israel,  none  could  reasonably  say  that,  the  prophecy  was  dictated 
by  a  clannish  spirit.  Equally  superior  to  the  conduct  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical factionary  was  the  humane  counsel  of  the  prophet  Oded^  in 
behalf  of  the  Judaic  captives,  whom  the  men  of  Israel  had  purposed 
to  reduce  to  bondage.  He  reminds  the  victors  that  the  prisoners 
are  their  brethren,  and  that  it  is  because  the  common  Lord  God  of 
their  fathers  was  angry  with  Judah,  that  he  has  delivered  these 
families  into  their  hands.  Amos  was  sent  to  prophesy  against  Israel, 
and,  though  he  was  a  native  of  Judah,  he  nevertheless  does  not 
spare  his  own  nation,  but  tells  them  that  they,  in  common  with 
Moab  and  Samaria,  are  to  expect  the  judgments  of  the  Lord.^ 

No  less  liberal  was  the  charity  of  Isaiah,  when  in  the  days  of 

12  Chion.  xxi.  12.       2  Id.  xxv.  7-13.       aid.  xx.  35-37.       4Id.  xxviii.  9-15. 
5  Amos  ii.  1-5 ;  vi.  1-6 ;  see  also  the  prophecy  of  Hosea,  his  contemporary. 


162  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

Ilezekiah,  as  the  spiritual  guide  of  that  king,  ho  officiated  at  the 
Passover  which  was  kept  in  the  second  month  at  Jerusalem.'  F'or 
who  can  doubt  that  he  was  inspired  of  Jehovah  to  counsel  Hezekiah 
to  invite  to  this  Passover  the  remaining  inhahitants  of  the  land  of 
Israel,  and  that  it  was  during  the  fourteen  days  when  for  the  fir.st 
time  after  many  years,  the  men  of  Judah  and  the  men  of  Israel 
stood  side  by  side  in  the  courts  of  the  temple  that  Isaiah  preached 
to  them  the  sermons  which  are  contained  in  the  last  twenty-seven 
chapters  of  his  projihecy?  Some  German  scholars  have  denied  these 
chaptera  a  place  among  the  genuine  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  principally 
on  the  ground  that  they  do  not  find  in  the  life  of  this  man  of  God 
any  occasion  that  befitted  such  themes  and  called  for  such  applica- 
tions of  them.  But  let  them  not  overlook,  as  they  all  have  done, 
this  occasion.  Let  them  study  well  the  true  conditions  and  pros- 
pects of  Judah  and  Israel,  and  study  again  from  this  new  stand- 
point these  chapters  which  they  have  learned  to  ascribe  to  "  the 
Great  Unnamed."  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  this  question ; 
nor  is  it  necessary  that  we  should  settle  it  here ;  for  whichever  side 
we  take  it  must  be  evident  to  any  one,  after  a  careful  examination 
of  these  chapters  as  to  this  point,  that  the  prophet  has  by  turns,  with 
admiral)lo  imjiartiality  and  timeliness,  reproved  and  comforted  both 
Israel  and  Judah. 

Noti<-.e  here  by  the  way,  that  when  Judah  is  in  danger  of  being  too 
highly  elated  by  the  fruition  or  prospect  of  prosperity,  Jehovah  in- 
spires this  prophet  to  foretell  some  calamity  that  is  calculated  to 
teach  them  their  dependence  on  Jehovah.  Thus  after  allaying  the 
fears  of  Ahaz  with  the  predictions  against  Syria  and  Ephraim,  allied 
enemies  of  whom  he  had  stood  in  fear,  the  prophet  proceeds  to  tell 
him  that  his  doom  is  to  be  executed  by  Assyria  :  thus  again  while 
Eliakim  is  told  of  his  future  exaltation,  he  is  likewise  warned  of  his 
downfall  because  of  his  nepotism,^  and  when  Ilezekiah  had  sung  his 
song  of  tlianksgiving  for  recovering  from  a  doa<lly  sickness  and  had 
in  his  ostentation  shown  his  treasures  to  the  son  of  the  king  of 
Babylon,  the  man  of  God  is  immediately  moved  to  foretell  him  of 
the  Babylonian  captivity. 

Jeremiah,  like  Isaiah,  cndc.ivours  to  dissuade  the  kings  of  Judah 
from  reposing  any  confidence  in  alliances  with  foreign  jiowers,  or 
their   own   martial    resources.      This   prophet   has   been    unjustly 


1  2  Chron.  xxix.,  xxx.,  xxxi.  May  we  not  say  tbat  it  was  by  the  moutli  of 
Isaiah  that  Ilczekiali  spoke  comfortably  to  the  Levites?  (2  Chron.  xxx  22;  cf 
Isa.  xl.  2. 

2  Isa.  xxii  24,  26. 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  163 

charged  with  a  want  of  patriotism  for  recommending  to  the  Idngs 
of  Judah  submission  to  the  Babylonian  yoke.  But  it  should  be 
remembered  that  none  can  speak  thus  of  this  prophet  without 
ignoring  at  once  the  inspiration  and  providence  of  God.  Nor 
should  we  forget  that  while  Jehovah  ever  moved  his  prophets  to 
forbid  the  forming  of  alliances  with  Gentile  powers,  yet  after  those 
alliances  had  been  consummated  and  treaties  made,  he  inspired  the 
prophets  to  enjoin  the  most  plain  and  scrupulous  discharge  of  all 
the  obligations  those  treaties  exacted.  Now  the  king  of  Judah 
had  sworn  fealty  to  this  foreign  monarch ;  so  that  Jeremiah,  or 
rather  his  divine  Inspirer,  was  thus  preventing  a  breach  of  faith 
which  is  of  all  things  the  most  unpatriotic.  But  so  far  from  a  lack 
of  public  spirit,  this  prophet  underwent  inexpressible  sufferings  in 
dungeons  and  imperilled  his  life  in  behalf  of  his  countrymen.  After 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  being  offered  a  refuge  at  the  court  of  Babylon, 
he  chose  rather  to  live  with  the  remnant  of  his  people,  first  amidst 
the  anarchy  of  Judah,  and  finally  exposed  to  famine  and  sword  in 
the  landK)f  Egypt.  The  persecutions  he  suffered  from  the  princes 
of  Judah,  and  the  consolations  he  at  that  time  derived  from  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures  are  described  with  wonderful  amplification 
of  thought  and  feeling  in  the  one  hundredth  and  nineteenth  Psalm, 
which,  in  our  judgment,  bears  many  traces  of  its  authorship. 

Not  only  against  kings  but  also  against  the  aristocracy,  male  and 
female,  both  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  are  called  to  speak.  The  latter  is 
very  bold^  in  his  declarations  as  to  their  character  and  doom ;  as  to 
Isaiah-  he  seems  to  be  describing  the  aristocracy  of  to-day,  and  what 
is  remarkable  as  an  unfulfilled  proi^hecy  concerning  them,  it  is  said 
that  the  day  is  coming  when  they  shall  cease  to  be  flattered,  and 
nobility  of  rank  give  place  to  nobility  of  character. 

The  Exile  created  political  problems  which  none  but  inspire^! 
prophets  could  have  solved  so  readily,  and  with  such  superhuman 
wisdom.  Jeremiah,  in  opposition  to  the  advice  of  the  false  prophets, 
counselled  the  captives  in  Babylon  to  devote  themselves  to  the  pur- 
suits of  peace  in  the  capital  of  the  Chaldean  empire,  saying,  "  Pray 
unto  the  Lord  for  it;  for  in  the  peace  thereof  ye  shall  find  peace."3 
Now  that  the  last  vestiges  of  the  theocracy  were  no  longer  trace- 
able, the  prophets  announced  that  principle  of  pious,  loyal,  and 
obedient  subjection  to  foreign  masters  which  was  henceforth  to  pre- 
vail both  among  Jews  and  Christians,  whether  slaves  or  fi-eedmen, 
Avhether  tributary  colonists  or  provincial  citizens.     The  political 

1  Jer.  V.  5-9,  25-29 ;  ix.  2-8,  23,  24,  etc.  2  Isa.  chaps,  iii,,  iv.,  v.,  sxxii. 

3  Jer.  xxix. 


164  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

conduct  of  the  Hebrew  exiles  is  narrated  in  the  books  of  Daniel, 
Ezekiel,  Ezra,  Esther  and  Kehcmiah.  The  history  of  tliis  i)eople 
contains  no  chapters  more  honorable  to  them  as  subjects  than  these ; 
nor  can  wc  doubt  tliat  had  it  not  been  for  the  counsels  and  sermons 
of  those  divinely  inspired  prophets  with  which  they  were  now 
blessed,  these  captives  would  have  left  to  subsequent  ages  no  other 
record  than  the  ruins  of  cities  among  which  our  ethnologists  are 
seeking  the  monuments  of  "  the  Lost  Tribes." 

As  to  the  political  relations  of  Job,  they  appear  to  be  those  of 
the  ever-existing  patriarchal  life  of  the  East,  as  modified  by  the 
influence  of  the  high  civilization  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom,  and  of 
Egypt.  Job  was  a  Hebrew  chief,  who  perhaps  about  the  time  of 
David  and  Solomon,  led  a  pastoral  life  in  Uz,  a  region  in  the  north 
of  Arabia  Deserta,  between  Idumea,  Palestine,  and  the  Euphrates, 
and  near  a  city  through  which  lay  the  route  of  the  caravans  of 
Tema  and  Sheba,  and  where  he  was  by  turns  exposed  to  the  inroads 
of  both  Arabian  and  Chaldean  marauders.  His  political  opinions, 
and  those  of  his  neighbours  and  of  the  young  proi^hetElilm,  are 
every  way  deserving  of  our  study. ^ 

But  to  return :  we  should  not  let  it  escape  us  that  the  projihets 
did  not  enjoin  and  inculcate  the  duty  of  passive  obedience  to  idol- 
atrous powers,  without  at  the  same  time  strengthening  and  encour- 
aging the  captives  with  the  hope  of  deliverance  from  the  yoke  and 
the  ultimate  punishment  of  their  oppressors.  Jeremiah  and  Daniel 
foretold  the  duration  of  the  captivity,  while  the  former^  sends  to 
Babylon  a  prediction  concerning  the  fall  of  Babylon  for  the  conso- 
lation of  the  Hebrew  exiles.  His  book  of  Lamentations  also  en- 
courages them  to  hope  in  the  divine  mercy,  and  ironically  foretells 
the  retribution  that  is  to  be  inflicted  on  their  neiglibourin  j;  enemies, 
the  Edomites.  Ezekiel  likewise  aims  to  dissuade  his  fellow  exiles 
from  discontent  and  envy  by  predicting  the  judgments  which  are 
soon  to  fall  upon  Jerusalem  and  the  remaining  inhabitants  of  Judah; 
also  from  a  distrust  of  the  faithfulness  ot  God  by  foretelling  the  dis- 
tractions of  adverse  powers,  their  o\\ti  deliverance  from  captivity, 
and  their  ultimate  prosperity  under  the  reign  of  the  Messiah. 

It  also  deserves  our  attention  that  it  was  during  the  period  of  the 
captivity  that  God's  people  first  exemplified  that  principle  Mhich 
limits  and  yet  honours  the  authority  of  the  civil  magistrate — a  prin- 

1  Job  iii.  13-15 ;  ix.  24,  33  ;  xii.  6,  16,  25  ;  xiii.  2G  ;  xv.  34 ;  xx.  4-29  ;  xxi  7-33  ; 
xxix.  2-25;  xxx.  1-9;  xxxi.  28;  xxxiv.  17-30;  xxxvi.  7-23,  etc.  Those  who 
give  the  earliest  date  to  the  book  ought  to  regard  its  astronomy  as  prophetic. 

2  Jer.  chap.  1.  li. 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  165 

ciple  which  the  Christian  martyrs  maintained  and  consecrated  with 
their  blood.^  Daniel  and  his  fellow  captives  were  required  by  the 
commands  of  Jehovah  to  disobey  the  decrees  of  the  king  of  the 
Chaldeans,  but  they  nevertheless  submitted  meekly  to  the  civil 
penalties  that  were  visited  uj)on  them,  and  so  did  all  that  they  con- 
scientiously could  to  support  the  majesty  of  human  authority.  The 
neglect  of  these  principles  made  many  of  the  later  Jews  such  insur- 
rectionists that  they  were  expelled  from  Home  and  some  other 
ancient  cities.2 

Another  new  lesson  taught  by  the  Captivity,  or  rather  rej)eated 
with  new  emphasis,  is  the  j)rinciple  that  all  good  government, 
whether  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  proceeds  from  men  "  anoninted  "  or 
set  apart  for  the  service,  and  assisted  therein,  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 
In  Zech.  chap,  iv.,  Joshua,  the  high  priest,  and  Zerubbabel,  governor 
of  Judea,  are  symbolized  by  the  two  olive  branches  which  conveyed 
the  oil  from  the  olive  trees  to  the  chandalier ;  these  "  are  the  tico 
anointed  ones  that  stand  before  the  Lord  of  the  whole  earthy  As 
according  to  the  Hebrew  custom  both  the  sacred  and  the  secular 
authorities  were  publicly  anointed  in  token  of  their  spiritual  call 
and  endowment,  so  here  the  high  priest  and  the  governor  are  alike 
ordained  and  qualified  by  "  the  Lord  of  the  whole  earth  "  not  by 
the  God  of  Judea  merely,  but  of  alUlands,  even  those  in  which  the 
Jews  lived  as  captives  or  vassals,  yes,  moreover,  of  all  ages ;  for  in 
Christian  times  it  was  still  to  remain  true  that  the  best  govern- 
ments and  'administrations,  whether  in  Church  or  State,  are  equally 
to  be  reverenced  and  obeyed  as  God's  witnesses  and  illuminated  by 
an  unction  from  the  Holy  Ghost  (Rev.  ix).  Daring  the  Middle 
Ages  these  existed  in  a  miserable  dead-alive  state,  and  for  a  short 
time  actually  defunct,  although  not  buried ;  but  at  the  Reformation 
they  were  both  honoured  with  a  resurrection  and  ascension.  Such 
is  our  deeply  pondered  conjecture  about  these  ideas  as  rej)roduced 
in  Christian  prophecy. 

And  this  suggests  the  important  observation  that  ideas  of  the 
prophets  of  the  Captivity  often  reappear  again  in  their  higher  and 
wider  aj^plication  in  the  Apocalypse — a  book  full  of  political  phi- 
losophy. 

Thus  much  for  the  example  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  as  exhibited 
in  various  circumstances.  It  is  but  incidentally  that  we  have  men- 
tioned the  matter  of  their  more  political  addresses.     To  discuss  all 

1  Ezekiel  (xliii.  7-9)  foretells  the  end  of  political  encroachments  in  ecclesias- 
tical a  flairs. 

2  Acts.  viii.  2  ;  cf.  a  Suetonius,  Claudius,  25-30  ;  1  Peter  ii.  16. 


166  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

the  political  teachings  of  these  prophets  would  demand  volumes. 
Here  we  can  do  but  little  more  than  bear  testimony  to  the  inesti- 
mable value  of  the  political  principles  and  lessons  they  embody, 
llaleigh,  Clarendon,  Milton,  Coleridge,  Umbreit,  Bunsen,  Tholuck, 
and  other  great  names  have  regarded  the  prophets  as  the  best  of 
all  teachers  of  the  science  of  politics.  It  is  to  be  lamented  that  the 
Kight  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone^  should  have  endeavoured  to  set 
aside  this  verdict  by  declaring  that  he  can  never  read  without  pain 
the  disparaging  account  of  the  Greek  mind  and  its  achievements  as 
compared  with  those  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  which  is  given  by 
Milton  in  the  fourth  book  of  his  "  Paradise  Regained."  But  we 
humbly  submit  the  question  whether  Milton  was  not  by  genius  and 
attainments  as  capable  of  rightly  appreciating  both  Homer  and 
Demosthenes  as  any  modern  scholar  is  ?  Not  only  as  a  poet  but 
even  as  a  iiolitical  writer,  may  we  not  safely  say  that  he  has  no 
fellow  in  the  present  generation  ?  As  to  the  Hebrew  projjhets,  he 
partook  so  largely  of  their  spirit,  teachings,  and  aims,  that  his  com- 
petence to  judge  of  their  relative  excellence  as  "  statists  "  cannot, 
at  this  late  time  of  day,  be  reasonably  called  in  question. 

If  we  look  into  the  thing  more  closely  we  discover  that  the  whole 
matter  resolves  itself  mto  this  question:  Has  the  all- wise  God 
revealed  to  us  more  about  political  science  than  the  orators  and 
poets  of  ancient  Greece  ?  Mr.  Gladstone's  more  recent  experience 
in  solving  a  politico-religious  problem  will,  we  doubt  not,  lead  him 
to  endorse  the  opinion  of  Edmimd  Burke,  that  "  religion  is  the  basis 
of  civil  society  and  the  fruitful  source  of  all  blessing  and  comfort  m 
human  intercourse."  Proudhon,  the  socialist,  in  his  '•  Confessions 
of  a  Revolutionist,"  owns  that  it  is  surprising  that  as  soon  as  we  go 
deejily  mto  politics,  we  stumble  upon  theology.  He  begins  his 
"System  of  Economic  Contradictions"  with  the  investigation  of 
the  idea  of  God ;  and  Guizot  makes  this  thought  the  foimdation  of 
his  "  Discourse  on  the  English  Rtvolution."  The  latter  says :  "  All 
political  and  social  questions  refer  for  their  ultimate  solution  to 
the  religious  principle."  "  In  questions  purely  political,"  adds  Dr. 
Chr.  Ernst  Luthardt,^  "  religion  belongs  to  no  party  ;  it  is  neither 
monarchical  nor  republican,  neither  absolute  nor  limited ;  and  that 
because  it  is  only  religion  and  not  politics.  But  it  is  the  guardian 
of  the  sanctuary  of  law,  and  of  those  everlasting  and  divine  appoint- 
ments which  form  the  immovable  foundation  of  our  whole  temporal 

1  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,  vol.  ii.  pp.  5,  26-30. 

2  Lectures  on  the  Fundamental  Truths  of  Christianity,  pp.  153,  334  (Trans- 
lation). 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  1(37 

life  and  social  condition;  the  advocate  of  those  eternal  moral  prhi- 
ciples  and  rules  by  which  even  political  science  must  be  guided  and 
enlightened,  if  it  would  form  a  political  creed  or  choose  a  line  of 
procedure  based  upon  the  relations  and  necessities  of  fact  and 
justice." 

All  this  is  true  ;  and  yet  we  must  subjoin  the  qualifying  remark 
that  matchless  as  the  Hebrew  prophets  are  as  guides  in  all  that 
relates  to  the  higher  and  more  difficult  walks  of  statesmanship,  they 
should  always  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  jorophets  of  the 
new  dispensation,  and  especially  with  him  who  is  the  Alpha  and 
Omega  of  all  true  prophecy.  For  though  Jesus  and  his  apostles 
pursued  the  same  course  in  the  main  as  their  Hebrew  predecessors 
did  in  similar  circumstances,  yet  the  former  were,  in  certain  regards, 
l^laced  in  new  political  situations.  While  under  Oriental  supremacy 
there  had,  indeed,  been  extended  over  Judah  a  provincial  form  of 
government,  but  there  were  not  then,  so  far  as  we  know,  two  such 
parties  as  corresponded  to  the  Pharisees  and  the  Herodians  under 
the  Roman  proconsular  dominion  in  that  country.  At  any  rate, 
there  was  nothing  theretofore  to  call  forth  from  the  lips  of  a  prophet 
such  a  golden  sentence  as  that  of  Christ,  "  Render,  therefore,  imto 
Caesar  the  things  that  are  Ca3sar's,  and  unto  God  the  things  that  are 
God's."  The  Jews  had  under  the  exile  ordered  their  lives  accord- 
ing to  the  spirit  of  this  precept,  and  Guizot  is  wrong,  therefore, 
when  he  asserts  that  this  grand  principle  of  the  distinction  between 
man's  religious  and  civil  life  was  unknown  to  all  history,  and  to 
every  state  of  society  previous  to  the  advent  of  Jesus.  He  is,  how- 
ever, so  far  right  that  this  principle  is  of  divine  origin,  and  that  it 
had  never  before  taken  the  shape  of  an  inspired  maxim. 

Now  observe  how  the  case  'stood.  Our  Lord  in  the  early  part 
of  his  ministry  was  aware  that  the  Pharisees  would  seize  every  op- 
portunity to  make  it  appear  that  he  was  really  an  enemy  to  the  true 
Hebrew  faith  and  worship ;  and  hence  he  wrought  a  miracle  to  pay 
the  half  shekel  of  the  temple  tribute.  Though  he  mildly  and 
privately  protested  against  the  injustice  of  the  exaction,  yet,  to  avoid 
giving  offence,  he  resorted  to  extraordinary  means  for  obtaining  the 
required  stater.^  It  Avas  also  the  aim  of  the  Pharisees,  along  with 
the  Herodians,  to  fasten  upon  him  the  charge  of  sedition  by  attempt- 
ing to  prove  that  he  pretended  to  be  the  king  of  the  Jews.2  When, 
accordingly,  he  was  asked  in  the  most  flattering  words,  to  decide 
as  to  the  lawfulness  of  paying  tribute  to  Ctesar,  he  shaped  his  an- 
swer so  as  to  put  it  out  of  the  power  of  the  Pharisees  either  to  pro- 

1  Matt.  xvii.  24-27.  2  Luke  xxiii.  2  ;  John  xix.  14-22. 

12 


168  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

claim  him  an  enemy  to  the  law  of  Moses  and  the  freedom  of  the 
people  of  God,  or  to  join  the  Herodians  in  stigmatizing  him  as  an 
instigator  of  opjiosition  to  the  Koman  authority  and  a  disturber  of 
tlie  public  peace. ^  But  his  reply  Avas  intended  not  only  as  an  en- 
sanii)le  to  us  of  the  wisdom  and  prudence  we  are  to  exercise  in 
difficult  circumstances,  but  of  our  duties  with  reference  to  politics. 
From  the  words  he  spoke  on  this  occasion,  the  preacher  is  au- 
thorized— 

I.  To  rebuke  the  vices  of  politicians  of  all  parties :  "  But  Jesus 
perceived  their  wickedness  and  said.  Why  tempt  ye  me,  ye  hypo- 
crites ?  " 

II.  When  needful,  to  teach  and  exhort  Christians  out  of  the 
Scriptures  to  perform  their  political  duties )  "  Render,  therefore, 
unto  CiBsar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's." 

III.  As  occasion  requires,  to  teach  and  exhort  politicians  out  of 
the  Scriptures  to  perform  their  Christian  duties :  "  and  unto  God, 
the  things  that  are  God's."  And  especially  that  they  should  not, 
by  paying  that  homage  to  Satan  which  belongs  to  God  only,  seek 
to  obtain  from  the  former  an  increase  of  ^loliticul  influence. - 

Our  Lord's  conduct  on  another  occasion  instructs  the  jircacher  in 
all  legal  and  civil  controversies,  that  he  should  not  forget  to  regard 
eve;y  question  as  a  religious  teacher  ought.  When  a  person ,3  inter- 
rupting his  discourse,  said,  "  Master,  speak  unto  my  brother  that  he 
divide  the  mheritance  with  me;"  he  not  only  replied,  '"  Man,  who 
made  me  a  judge  and  a  divider  over  you,"  but  proceeded  most  op- 
portunely to  warn  all  of  the  danger  of  covetousness,  and  to  incul- 
cate upon  them  the  duty  of  contentment.  His  conduct  to  men  in 
authority  was  such  as  became  the  divine  Prophet,^  who  never  flat- 
tered and  never  vilified  them. 

Though  he  announced  the  great  two-edged  truth,  "  My  kingdom 
is  not  of  this  world,"  yet  he  acted  on  the  prmciple^  inculcated  by 
the  prophets  on  the  Hebrews  of  the  captivity  and  by  the  apostles 
on  the  Christian  converts,  that  we  should  be  obedient  to  civil  au- 
thority for  God's  sake. 

As  to  War  our  space  compels  us  to  take  for  granted  Avhat  has  so 
often  been  proved,  that  the  prophets  and  Jesus  and  his  apostles  do 
not  condemn  all  wars  and  warriors.     This  is  the  place  to  make  a 

1  Matt.  xxii.  15-22.  2  Matt.  iv.  8-10.  3  Luke  xiii.  1-84. 

•ILuke  xiii.  31-33;  Joliii  xviii.  10-21;  Luko  xxii.  G7-()9  ;  John  xviii.  34-37; 
,  Luke  xxiii.  8-11 

5  Jer.  xxvii.  G;  xxix.  7;  Rom.  xiii.  1  ;   1  Pet.  ii.  13,  14. 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  169 

few  suggestions  as  to  the  best  manner  of  preaching  on  war  and 
other  related  subjects. 

For  one  thing ;  in  inculcating  the  proper  duties  of  rulers  in  time 
of  war,  and  particularly  in  preaching  against  retaliation,  we  must  be 
on  our  guard  against  making  any  reserve,  either  expressed  or  im- 
plied in  favour  of  governments,  or  magistrates,  or  commanders,  or 
armies,  as  bodies  of  men. 

We  must,  for  another  thing,  consider  whether  though  a  war  be 
just,  yet  the  nation  ought  not  to  regard  it  as  a  chastisement  of  a 
holy  and  righteous  God  for  national  sins.  When  Luther  wrote  to 
the  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  concerning  the  war  against  the 
Turks,  he  asserted  that  right  was  on  the  side  of  the  Emperor  and 
the  German  nation,  and  yet  he  does  not  fail  to  add  that  the  Turk 
is  "  God's  rod,"  and  that  '  the  quarrel  must  begin  with  repentance, 
and  that  the  Germans  must  consider  their  ways  or  they  will  contend 
in  vain.' 

We  are,  again,  after  the  example  of  John  the  Baptist,  to  preach 
to  the  soldiers  repentance  and  the  other  duties  required  by  their 
vocation  and  condition  (Luke  iii.  14).  This  is  better  than  tte  most 
eloquent  secular  war  speeches,  because  more  worthy  of  the  preacher 
and  every  way  more  advantageous  to  the  soldier  and  his  country.! 

Finally,  in  funeral  sermons  for  fallen  soldiers  it  might  sometimes 
be  advisable  to  show  what  kind  of  patriotism,  or  of  heroism  amounts 
to  a  Christian  virtue,  or  to   set  forth  the  teachings  of  Scripture 
concerning  Sudden  death.     As  to  these  subjects  there  is  much  of  , 
dangerous  error  and  superstition  afloat  in  the  public  mind. 

In  general,  the  preacher  who  reads  his  commission  correctly,  will 
oftener  find  occasion  to  teach  men  their  civil  and  political  duties 
than  their  civil  and  political  rights^  especially  the  duty  of  opposing 
bribery,^  oppression,  and  other  such  political  sins. 

To  adapt  civil  policy,  law,  and  administration  to  the  unforeseen 
course  of  Divine  Providence,  is  one  of  the  greatest  achievements  of 
the  profoundest  statemanship.  Herem  thorough  knowledge  of 
Christian  ethics  is  of  essential  service ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  in 
the  most  mysterious  labyrinth  of  affairs  it  generally  happens  that 
one  plain  principle  of  morality  is  our  only  and  our  suflicient  clue. 

1  "  Every  minister,"  says  Jeremy  Taylor,  "  ouglit  to  preach  to  his  parish  and 
urge  their  duty :  St.  John  tlie  Baptist  told  the  soldiers  what  the  soldiers  should 
do,  but  troubled  not  their  heads  with  what  was  the  duty  of  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees."     (Rules  and  Advices  to  the  Clergy.) 

2  Applications  de  la  Morale  a  la  Politique,  par  Joseph  Droz  (Paris,  1825),  p.  20. 
S  Isa.  i.  23 ;  Amos  v.  12. 


170  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

The  study  of  liistory  Avill  also  enable  us  to  understand  some  of  the 
fixed  methods  according  to  which  the  King  of  kings  governs  all 
nations.  Almost  proverbial  have  become  these  words  of  Schiller: 
"  Die  Weltgeschichte  ist  das  Wcltgericht,"  the  world's  history  is 
the  world's  judgment.  But  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
prophet  is  still,  as  of  old,  the  best  interpreter  of  history;  for  he  dis- 
closes to  us  the  more  secret,  higher,  and  more  general  purposes  of 
God.  The  student  of  history,  as  it  is  now  commonly  written,  may 
trace  the  stream  of  civilization  in  many  of  its  meanderings,  and  tell 
the  causes  of  its  bends,  falls,  and  eddies ;  and  explain  those  convul- 
sions of  the  earth  which  notched  for  it  a  path  through  the  Creator's 
walls :  but  his  point  of  view  is  low  and  his  horizon  invaded  by  fogs 
or  storms.  The  prophet,  on  the  contrary,  stands  high  above  stonns 
and  even  clouds ;  he  is  on  a  mountain  tower  where  he  is  the  first  to 
say  All  hail !  to  the  rising,  and  the  last  to  say  Farewell !  to  the 
setting  sun;  he  is  the  first  to  hear  the  thunder  of  every  snow-break; 
the  sources  of  the  stream  of  history  lie  revealed  at  his  feet ;  known 
to  liim  are  "  the  balancings  of  the  clouds,"  and  the  temperature  of 
the  glatiers,  and  the  workings  of  other  mysterious  agencies  that 
either  madden  or  tame  its  career ;  he  can  show  us  the  uses  even  of 
the  drifl-wood  Avhich  rides  on  its  current,  and  of  the  ice-fl-oes  which 
the  /reshet  left  high  on  its  banks ,  he  can,  moreover,  enable  us  to 
behold  for  ourselves  clearly  and  afar  the  sea  into  which  its  waters 
ultimately  roll.  And  these  things  are  of  principal  service  to  us, 
whether  we  are  considered  as  "  hithersided "  or  "  y6ndersided." 
The  common  task  of  the  mere  student  of  history  may  api)ear  the 
more  i)ractical  and  the  more  useful.  This  is,  however,  a  great  mis- 
take. It  is  of  the  utmost  utility  to  me  who  am  choosing  a  rock  on 
which  to  build  my  home,  to  be  able  to  ascertain  how  high  the  pass- 
ing waters  may  rise,  and  whether  their  sources  are  perennial,  or 
whether  causes  are  at  work  which  will  in  a  few  years  leave  their 
channel  perpetually  dry.  Nor  am  I  unconcerned  to  learn  whether 
they  empty  into  navigable  tides,  or  only  into  some  dead  sea,  or, 
dividing-  into  a  hundred  shallow  ditches,  are  finallv  lost  amidst 
desolate  sands.  The  forces,  impulses,  and  results  Avhich  are  con- 
tinually showing  themselves  in  politics  are  moral  rathei-  than  intel- 
lectual or  ph^'sical.  This  lesson,  which  Jehovah  tauglit  to  the 
human  race  while  it  was  yet  in  its  infancy,  it  accounts  too  childi.><h 
for  its  manhood.  "It  clearly  appears,"  says  Heeren,^  "from  the 
history   of  politics  that  religion   maintains  a  higher  political  im- 

1  Idoni  ubcr  Politilc  der  Alton   Welt,  B.  i.,   pp.  18,  22.     Cf.  his  Essay  and 
that  of  Villers  vn  the  Political  liitluence  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany. 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  171 

portance  the  further  we  trace  back  the  annals  of  the  world."  "  An- 
ciently," adds  Tholuck,  "  mankind  lived  in  a  more  immediate  connec- 
tion with  the  world  above  than  they  do  at  present.  Hence,  this 
lively  sentiment  that  nothing  could  de  done  sine  NumineP  The 
monarch  was  chosen  and  anointed  by  the  Lord,  and  was  his  tem- 
poral representative,  while  the  Lord  liimself  was  still  acknowledged 
to  be  the  universal  King.  It  was  believed  that  every  event  de- 
pended on  the  divine  will  and  purpose.  And  assuredly  it  evermore 
remains  true,  as  Richard  Baxter  has  forcibly  said,  "  Is^othing  can  be 
rightly  knov/n,  if  God  be  not  known ;  nor  is  any  study  well  managed 
nor  any  great  purpose  where  God  is  not  studied.  We  know  little 
of  the  creature  till  we  know  it  as  it  standeth  in  its  order  and  respects 
to  God ;  single  letters  and  syllables,  uncomposed,  are  nonsense ;  he 
that  overlooketh  the  AljAa  and  Omega,  and  seeth  not  the  beginnino- 
and  end  and  him  in  all  who  is  the  all  of  all,  doth  see  nothing  at  all. 
All  creatures  as  such  are  broken  syllables,  and  they  signify  nothino- 
as  separated  from  God." 

But  as  it  was  the  fatal  error  of  the  ancient  pagans,  so  it  is  of 
some  modern  statesmen,  to  regard  the  Supreme  Bemg,  as  to  his 
providential  purposes  merely,  irrespective  of  his  moral  law.     In 
vain  do  we  study  the  relations  of  the  divine  government"  to  public 
affairs  unless  we  hkewise  study  its  constitution  and  laws,  its  rewards 
and  retributions ;  for  these  are,  in  part,  the  rules  on  which  the  Divine 
Being  conducts  his  providential  administration.      And  as  nations 
must^  necessarily  be  finally  judged  in  Time,  if  judged  at  all,  while 
individuals  are  finally  judged  in  Eternity  alone;  herein  we  find  the 
reason  why  there  is  less  mystery  in  God's  providential  dealings  with 
nations  than  with  individuals.     In  the  former,  the  virtues  and  vices, 
as  well  as  their  connection  with  their  rewards  and  penalties,  are  ex- 
posed to  the  observation  of  all.     But  it  is  not  enough  to  adore  God 
as  the  disposer  of  all  national  events  imless  we  forecast  the  future 
posture  of  affairs  in  the  light  of  those  principles  of  eternal  ethics, 
according  to  which  he  always  did  and  always  will  proceed.     The 
Hebrew  people  were  constantly  taught  by  their  prophets  that  the 
events  to  be  expected  were  coming  either  as  national  rewards,  or  as 
national  penalties  of  the  holy  laws  of  Jehovah,  and,  therefo;-e,  they 
were  guarded  against  a  superstitious  belief  in  an  unreasoning  Fate 
and  a  blind  Fortune,     They  exercised  faith  not  only  in  the  omnipo- 
tence and  omniscience  of   God,  but  in  his  commandments  also. 
"  Our  system  of  laws,"  says  Josephus,i  "  was  far  more  useful  than 
that  of  any  other  nation;  for  Moses  regarded  all  the  virtues  as 

1  Contr.  Api.,  c.  ii.,  ^16. 


172  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

subordinate  parts  of  piety  to  God,  and  not  piety  as  a  mere  subdivi- 
sion of  virtue.  In  his  legislation  he  recognizes  all  our  actions  as 
having  a  relation  to  God."  Some  of  the  pagans  did,  it  must  be 
admitted,  believe  in  a  Fate  who  ruled  Olympus  itself,  and  in  a 
jS'^cijiesis,  or  goddess  of  justice,  Avho  pimishes  human  pride  and 
arrogance ;  nor  were  they  without  some  other  notions  resi^ecting 
divine  rewards  and  penalties.  But  in  general,  their  opinions  con- 
cerning national  prosperity  and  adversity  as  coming  from  the  gods, 
were  not  associated  with  the  principles  of  ethics.  Nor  are  the 
opinions  of  most  modern  statesmen  in  this  respect  very  different 
from  those  of  the  ancient  pagans.  They  do  indeed  recognize  the 
hand  of  Providence  in  imparting  to  the  people  certain  intellectual 
notions,  and  giving  and  preserving  to  them  material  wealth ;  they 
will  even  proceed  so  far  as  to  admit  that  it  is  rational  to  conclude 
that  virtue  has  an  inherent  tendency  to  promote  national  })rosperity, 
and  vice  has  the  opposite  eflect.  This  is,  however,  very  far  from 
an  experimental  and  practical  persuasion  that  a  holy  and  just  God 
does  actually  reward  nations  for  their  virtues,  and  punish  them  for 
their  vices,  and  that  these  are  the  ^^-ouiVZenC/a^  acts  of  his  moral 
government.  The  study  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  along  with  the 
book  of  Revelation  is  necessary,  in  order  to  illustrate,  imj^ress,  and 
enforce  this  great  principle — a  principle  that  did  not  pass  away 
with  the  theocracy,  and  that  was  in  nowise  dependent  on  peculiar 
religious  privileges  and  miraculous  interpositions. 

But  then  we  ought  to  consider  that  in  order  to  interpret  aright 
the  signs  of  the  times,  we  must  study  them  not  only  m  the  light  of 
the  divine  laics,  but  likewise  m  the  light  of  God's  ^j'»?y;»oscs  of 
mercy  in  the  work  of  redemption.  To  determine  the  nature  of  the 
events  of  our  day  without  the  Sun  of  Righteousness,  were  as  difficult 
as  it  would  be  to  define  the  laws  of  light  without  any  reference  to 
its  celestial  fountain.  And  there  is  no  hour  in  our  passing  history 
so  gloomy  that  we  cannot  trace  up  through  the  opening  clouds 
more  than  one  shadowy  beam  to  that  Sun  where  they  concentre 
and  point  to  the  stage  of  his  progress  through  the  heavens,  even 
when  we  cannot  behold  his  unscreened  and  benignant  face.  And 
yet  when  we  see  the  Lord  Jesus  sparing  a  nation  at  a  time  when 
it  apparently  deserves  punishment,  or  pimishing  it  while  it  seems 
to  us  needful  that  it  should  be  spared,  let  us  beware  that  we-  do 
not  mistake  the  design  of  him  who  "  is  head  over  all  things 
to  the  Church."  It  is  undoubtedly  his  purpose  to  order  the  affairs 
of  nations  so  that  they  shall  subserve  the  spiritual  prosperity  of 
his  jieople.  But  then  we  may  err  l)y  underrating  the  eoni])lexity 
of  the  problem  we  are  to  solve.     It  must  be  remembered  that  where 


i 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  173 

the  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  ungodly,  but  poor  and 
ignorant,  they  may  be  permitted  to  advance  in  material  prospei'ity, 
in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  sustain  churches  and  schools  ;  in 
this  maimer  does  the  goodness  of  God  sometimes  lead  a  nation  to 
repentance.  Or,  where  a  nation  has,  for  the  most  jDart,  apostatised 
from  the  religion  of  Jesus,  and  has  come  to  be  fixed  in  unbelief, 
its  inhabitants  may,  before  the  day  of  retribution  shall  arrive,  enjoy 
remarkable  material  prosperity  and  every  kind  of  animal  and  many 
sorts  of  intellectual  pleasure,  simply  because  they  are  to  have  their 
good  things  in  this  life  only ;  while  a  people  truly  Christian  may 
be  denied  these  things  to  the  end  that  their  graces  and  virtues  may 
be '  exercised,  or  their  negligences  and  misdoings  punished ;  for, 
like  nations,  true  Christians  are  punished  in  this  life  only.  King- 
doms or  empires  that  are  mainly  as  to  politics  and  common  life 
unfriendly  to  Jesus,  may  be  subject  to  changes  on  account  of  the 
true  Churches  or  Christians  they  contain.  "  What  a  weight,"  says 
Andrew  Fuller,  "  lies  upon  the  religious  part  of  a  nation ;  who 
either  prove  like  Paul  the  salvation  of  them  that  sail  with  them,  or, 
like  Jonah,  the  principal  cause  of  the  storm."  Nor  does  the  problem 
always  end  here.  It  may  extend  to  the  relations  one  nation  sus- 
tains towards  several  other  nations.  And  hence  the  study  of  the  his- 
tory of  Egypt,  Syria,  Assyria,  Chaldea,  and  other  idolatrous  pow- 
ers, in  their  relation  to  Judah  and  Israel,  and  of  the  various  predic- 
tions concerning  these  nations  and  the  causes  of  their  political 
changes,  is  indispensable  to  those  who  would  comprehend  the  oper- 
ations of  Providence  in  public  alFairs.  Were  some  preachers  to 
ponder  these  and  other  such  things  more  deeply,  they  would  not 
so  often  nor  so  confidently  put  themselves  forward  as  interpreters 
of  "the  signs  of  the  times."  Happily  for  the  preacher,  it  is  no  part 
of  his  duty  to  foreknow  the  political  times  and  seasons  with  pro- 
phetic, much  less  historic  accuracy.  It  is  enough  for  him  that  he 
acquaint  himself  and  his  hearers  with  the  prophetic  and  historic 
records  of  those  vices  and  virtues  on  which  the  fortune  of  a  nation 
depends,  and  to  use  those  records  as  the  grounds  of  admonitions 
and  warnings. 

If  we  examine  closely  these  relations  of  God's  laws,  and  purposes, 
and  providences  to  every  nation  in  the  light  of  the  example  and 
utterances  of  the  prophets,  we  cannot,  as  many  preachers  have  done, 
refuse  politics  a  place  in  sermons  on  the  plea  that  the  kingdoms  and 
nations  of  this  world  are  merely  material  and  temporal  interests, 
and  therefore  cannot  be  proper  themes  for  those  who  are  to  occupy 
themselves  wholly  and  exclusively  with  matters  of  spiritual  and 
eternal  concern.     With   equal  reason  might  a  preacher  refuse  to 


174  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

apply  the  principles  of  Christian  ethics  to  social  and  commercial 
life.  These  relationships  and  pnrsuits  are  temporal,  and  are  doomed 
to  pass  away  with  the  world,  and  yet  the  man  of  God  does  not  ex- 
cuse himself  from  explaining  and  inculcating  the  Christian  duties 
which  these  states,  relations,  and  employments  require.  A  due  rev- 
erence for  the  laws  of  God  and  a  pious  attention  to  its  individual, 
social,  and  civil  rewards  and  penalties,  the  devout  study  of  his  re- 
vealed purposes  and  of  every  department  of  his  providence,  to  say 
nothing  of  a  benevolent  regard  for  the  welfare  of  the  poor,  the  igno- 
rant, and  the  ungodly,  Tyill  demand  of  the  preacher  an  examination 
of  all  such  political  questions  as  touch  and  affect  these  objects. 

But  let  it  not  be  imagined  from  anything  we  just  now  advanced,  that 
we  recommend  the  preacher  to  cherish  a  party  spirit,  or  to  take  a 
side  in  party  politics.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  if  he 
keep  on  his  own  ground  and  only  discuss  the  reglious,  moral,  and 
philanthropic  aspects  and  bearings  of  party  questions,  he  will  some- 
times, of  necessity,  lean  more  or  less  to  one  side,  and  consequently 
be  exposed  to  the  displeasure  of  the  opposite  side.  In  such  cases 
he  is  ever  to  consult  the  dictates  of  Christian  expediency,  and  so 
determine  what  course  is  most  likely  to  promote  the  holy,  disinter- 
ested, and  benevolent  object  he  has,  or  ought  to  have,  in  view,  and 
yet  hQ  should  always  dissever  his  notion  of  Christian  expediency 
from  the  mere  mundane  interests  of  himself,  or  the  Church  or  de- 
nomination to  Avhich  he  belongs.  Now  some  would  practically 
separate  this  notion  of  a  high  and  Christian  expediency  from  the 
notion  of  duty.  They  say,  "  It  is  sufficient  for  me  to  know  that  a 
cause  is  a  just  and  good  cause,  and  when  I  have  ascertained  that  it 
is  so,  my  duty  is  at  the  same  time  ascertained."  And  yet  these 
preachers  would  be  very  unwilling  that  their  hearers  should  thus 
summarily  dispose  of  most  other  questions  of  duty,  because  in  al- 
most all  cases  where  we  have  decided  that  a  certain  good*end  ought 
to  be  effected,  we  are  expected  so  far  to  respect  the  oracles  of  God 
as  to  inquire  in  their  light,  "  W/iat  ought  I  to  do  about  this?  From 
what  inotlces  ought  I  to  act  ?  Wlien  ought  I  to  speak  out '?  In  what 
mcumer  should  I  proceed?  What  means  ought  I  to  employ?" 
And  if  human  passions  and  earthly  interests  are  involved  in  these 
questions,  the  more  studiously  and  the  more  prayerfully  are  we  ex- 
pected to  occupy  ourselves  with  their  solution.  So  peculiar  are 
the  motives,  and  methods,  and  means  required  by  the  Gospel  in 
bringing  about  the  public  welfare,  that  they  will  never  be  identical 
with  those  by  which  the  mere  demagogue  would  accomplish  the 
same  ol)je('t.  "NVe  ought,  therefore,  in  maintaining  or  winning  what 
is  ritxht  in  itself  to  beware  of  alhliatinor  with  those  who  are  endeav- 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  175 

ouring  to  effect  the  same  end  by  unjustifiable  means.  Then,  agam, 
human  passions  and  party  spirit  may  be  so  unreasonably  inflamed 
in  the  advocacy  or  defence  of  a  good  cause  that  sober  minds  are 
sometimes  in  danger  of  concluding  that  the  questions  at  issue  are 
themselves  the  offspring  of  party  animosity,  or  the  mere  produc- 
tions of  selfish  and  artful  politicians,  when  in  fact  they  may  have  had 
their  origin  in  true  public  spirit,  in  a  deep  sense  of  right,  in  hu- 
mane sentiments,  or  something  of  the  like  description.  Nor  is  this 
all ;  at  such  times  we  are  too  apt  to  confound  causes  with  instru- 
ments or  necessary  attendants.  Thus  blindly  did  Ej^hraem  Syrus 
take  vij)  this  lamentation,  "  Because  the  priests  have  fallen  into  dis- 
putings,  therefore  kings  are  thrown  into  war."  This  is  a.  very  an- 
cient blunder.  Ahab  was  guilty  of  it  when  he  said  to  Elijah,  "  Art 
thou  he  that  troubleth  Israel  ?  "  It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind 
that  every  party,  whether  political  or  religious,  has  adherents  who 
are  conspicuous  because  they  are  fussy,  talkative,  and  unreasonable, 
but  who  really  do  little  either  to  forward  or  retard  its  principles. 
The  petrel  is  not  the  cause  of  the  storm,  neither  is  the  halcyon  the 
cause  of  the  calm. 

Much  mischief  has  been  made  by  misapprehending  the  proi^er 
relations  of  theology  and  political  science,  and  of  the  Church  and  the 
State.  We  are  often  told  that  because  the  State  should  not  meddle 
with  ecclesisastical  affairs,  the  Church  and  its  ministers  should  not 
meddle  with  political  matters ;  that  as  the  provinces  of  religion  and 
politics  are  different,  so  the  sj^here  of  the  Christian  is  distinct  from 
that  of  the  statesman,  and  that  consequently  the  ministry  have 
properly  as  little  to  do  with  politics  as  politicians  have  to  do  with 
theology.  Such  assertions  are  grounded  on  the  error  that  the  re- 
ligion of  Christ  m  its  spiritual  and  ethical  forces  ought  not  to  reach 
and  pervade  every  department  of  human  society.  The  Church,  as 
such,  and  her  ministry,  by  virtue  of  their  office  cannot,  we  admit, 
claim  any  share  in  acts  of  legislation  or  administration.  Neither, 
on  the  other  side,  has  the  State  or  any  of  its  politicians  a  right  to 
destroy  the  freedom  of  Christ's  truth  and  grace — a  right  to  strike 
at  the  two-edged  sword  of  the  Gospel  which  goes  out  of  the  mouth 
of  Jesus,  and  is  wielded  by  the  hands  of  his  servants,  even  when 
they  therewith  "execiite  vengeance  upon  the  heathen,  and  punish- 
ments upon  the  people ;  to  bind  their  kings  with  chains,  and  their 
nobles  with  fetters  of  iron"  (Psa.  cxlix.  6-9;  Rev.  i.  16).  "This 
honour  have  all  his  saints,"  and  no  mortal  power  can  rightfully 
deprive  them  of  it.  It  was  no  arrogant  boast  but  a  vindication  of 
the  moral  supremacy  of  the  true  prophet  in  all  ages,  when  Luther 


176  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

replied  to  the  Prince  Elector:  "  You  cannot  protect  me  by  your 
might,  but  I  can  protect  yon  by  my  prayers." 

"  O,  but  does  not  all  experience  prove  that  a  very  good  Christian 
may  make  a  very  poor  politician,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  very 
shabby  Christian  make  a  very  good  jiolitician  ?  Will  the  mere  piety 
of  a  man  insure  the  correctness  of  his  political  opinions,  or  enable 
liim  without  study  and  practice  to  apply  those  opinions  to  all  the 
details  of  legislative  or  administrative  business  ?  "  There  has  been, 
it  must  be  admitted,  too  much  of  that  fanaticism  which,  without 
any  knowledge  of  the  science  of  government,  or  any  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  merits  of  political  questions,  presumes  to  judge  and 
decide  them  not  only  for  itself  but  for  others  as  well.  We  depre- 
cate this  religious  fanaticism  as  much  as  we  do  that  political  fanati- 
cism which  has  the  hardihood  to  pass  sentence  on  all  theological 
questions  without  having  examined  any  one  of  them.  It  must, 
nevertheless,  be  conceded  that  in  all  cases  where  questions  of  right 
are  involved,  that  man  is  the  best  judge  who,  other  things  being 
equal,  has  a  knowledge  of  the  divine  attributes,  government,  and 
laws,  and  of  the  evangelical  plan  of  salvation ;  that  where  most  men 
are  failing  to  examine  the  merits  of  a  political  opinion  or  measure 
because  of  passion  and  self-interest,  he  is  most  likely  to  determine 
impartially  who  has  crucified  his  affections  and  lusts,  and  learned  to 
live  unselfishly  for  the  welfare  of  others ;  and  that  where  any  ethical 
principle  is  concerned  in  any  issue,  he  can  act  most  intelligently  who 
has  both  a  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge  of  Christian  morals. 
"  Godliness  is  profitable  unto  all  things,  having  promise  of  the  life 
that  now  is,  and  of  that  Avhich  is  to  come."  It  not  only  sanctifies 
that  political  knowledge  which  we  already  possess,  but  enables  us  to 
acquire  more,  and  that  of  the  most  excellent  quality.  Other  things 
being  equal,  the  most  advanced  Christian  will  be  the.  most  intelli- 
gent citizen  and  the  wisest  statesman.  To  deny  this  were  to  deity 
that  the  Christian  ages  and  nations  have  made  better  governments 
and  laws  than  the  old  pagans  constructed.  Christian  piety  has 
made  the  largest  contributions  to  all  the  sciences,  and  if  it  has  not 
always  discovered,  yet  has  it  improved  almost  every  useful  inven- 
tion. The  saintly  John  Taulcr  was  right  Avhen  he  declared  that  a 
man  ought  to  be  a  better  shoemaker  for  being  a  Christian,  and 
Luther  probably  had  his  words  in  mind  when  he  sang : 

"  Nnl  more  devout  the  priest  can  be, 
Tliun  Cliiistiaii  housemaid  with  her  broom, 
Her  work  pursuing  faitiifully." 

As,  moreover,  the  Christian  is,  or  ought  to  be,  more  benevolent 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  I77 

and  humane  than  his  unbelieving  neighbour,  he  is  more  competent 
than  the  latter  rightly  to  understand  all  laws  which  concern  the 
poor  and  the  afflicted  part  of  the  people.  Few  things  are  more 
plainly  revealed  in  holy  Scripture  than  that  God  and  his  prophets 
and  his  people  side  and  sympathise  with  the  destitute,  oppressed, 
and  suffering  classes.  Indeed,  the  mass  of  true  believers  have  hith- 
erto belonged  to  these  classes.  Now,  we  presume  that  no  one 
will  deny  that  very  many  political  problems,  as  those  relating  to 
taxation,  currency,  tariff,  emigration,  education,  suffrage,  etc.,  do 
often  vitally  affect  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  condition  of  the 
poor.  When  any  of  these  problems  are  put  forward  for  solution, 
the  true  Christian  will  take  that  side  which  he  believes  to  be  most 
friendly  and  helpful  to  the  poor.  Wanting  in  knowledge  and  judg- 
ment he  may  be  sometimes ;  but  lacking  in  philanthropy  hardly 
ever.  The  Hebrew  prophets  taught  reverence  for  the  Lord's  anoint- 
ed, whether  king  or  priest,  and  dutiful  subjection  to  constituted 
authority;  but  when  either  king  or  priest  afflicted  the  poor  by 
oppression  or  extortion,  those  prophets  dared  to  alarm  him  with 
warnings  and  solemn  denunciations.  Political  reforms  are  in  this 
respect  a  severe  but  instructive  test  of  the  character  of  churches 
and  their  pastors.  "  During  the  agitation  of  the  reform  bill,"  says 
Gresley,!  "  however  strong  the  feelings  of  the  preacher,  it  was  his 
duty  to  refrain  from  touching  on  a  subject  on  which  good  men 
as  well  as  bad  were  divided,  and  which  it  was  impossible  to  men- 
tion at  the  time  without  an  excitement  of  worldly  passion.  But 
when  Bristol  was  in  flames,  Derby  and  ISTotthigham  in  the  hands 
of  a  mob,  then  it  was  time  to  preach  peace,  and  to  put  men  in  mind 
'  to  be  subject  to  principalities  and  powers,'  and  to  obey  magis- 
trates "  (Titus  iii.  1).  But  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby^  took  a  more  appro- 
priate and  a  more  Christian  ground.  "  No  one,"  he  writes,  "  seems 
to  me  to  understand  our  dangers  or  to  speak  them  out  manfully. 
One  man,  who  sent  a  letter  to  the  Times  the  other  day,  recom- 
mends that  the  clergy  should  preach  subordination  and  obedience. 
I  seriously  say,  God  forbid  they  should ;  for  if  any  earthly  thing 
could  ruin  Christianity  in  England,  it  would  be  this.  If  they  read 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  and  Amos  and  Habakkuk,  they  will  find  that 
the  prophets  in  a  similar  state  of  society  in  Judea  did  not  preach 
subordination  only  or  chiefly,  but  they  denounced  oppression  and 
amassing  overgrown  properties  and  grinding  the  labourers  to  the 
smallest  possible  pittance;  and  they  denounced  the  Jewish  high 
church  party  for  colmtenancing  all  these  iniquities  and  prophesying 

1  Treatise  on  Preaching,  Letter  xxii.  2  Life  and  Correspondence,  chap,  vi- 


178  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

smooth  things  to  please  the  aristocracy."  Speaking  of  the  want  of 
sympatliy  between  the  rich  and  jioor,  and  the  distress  of  the  latter, 
embittered  as  it  was  by  seeing  the  former  living  in  luxury,  he  says : 
"  This  is  the  plague  spot  to  my  mind  in  our  whole  state  of  society, 
which  must  be  removed  or  the  whole  must  j^erish.  And  under  God 
it  is  for  the  clergy  to  come  forward  boldly  and  begin  to  combat  it. 
If  you  read  Isaiah  iii.,  v.,  and  xxxii. ;  Jeremiah  v.,  xxii.,  and  xxx. ; 
Amos  iv. ;  Habakkuk  ii.,  and  the  epistle  of  James  written  to  the 
same  jieople  a  little  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  you  will 
be  struck,  I  think,  with  the  close  resemblance  of  our  state  to  that 
of  the  Jews ;  while  the  state  of  the  Greek  churches  to  whom  St. 
Paul  wrote  was  wholly  different,  because  from  their  thin  popula- 
tion and  better  political  circumstances,  poverty  among  them  is 
hardly  noticed,  and  their  duties  to  the  poor  are  consequently  much 
less  prominently  brought  forward.  And  unluckily  our  evangelicals 
read  St.  Paul  more  than  any  other  part  of  the  Scriptures,  and  think 
very  little  of  consulting  most  those  parts  of  Scripture  Avhich  are 
addressed  to  persons  circumstanced  like  ourselves."  To  this  we 
may  add  that  as  most  of  the  Christian  converts  were  much  in  the 
condition  of  the  Jews  of  the  captivity,  living  in  subjection  to  pagan 
rulers  and  masters,  they  were  likewise  required  to  yield  the  same 
passive  obedience  as  the  captive  Hebrews,  waiting,  however,  m 
hope  for  deliverance,  not  by  insurrection  and  armed  resistance,  but 
by  the  providential  interposition  of  the  Lord.  To  Christian  slaves 
Paul  wrote  :^  "  Art  thou  called,  being  a  servant  ?  Care  not  for  it ; 
but  if  thou  mayest  be  made  free,  use  it  rather."  He  reproved  fraud 
and  oppression  where  they  were  practised  among  the  bi'otherhood.- 
It  should  be  considered,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  apostles  had 
but  few  opportunities  of  rebuking  kings  and  masters  for  oppres- 
sion, but  when  they  had  they  did  not  fail  to  improve  them,  as  we 
learn  from  the  example  of  James,  also  tliat  of  Paul,  who  before  that 
rapacious  taker  of  bribes  and  booty,  Felix,  reasoned  in  the  first 
place  concerning  righteousness,  and  who  did  not  fear  to  write  a 
letter  to  Philemon,  asking  the  freedom  of  the  slave  Onesimus. 

It  is  not  sufficient,  however,  that  we  extend  our  inquiries  to  both 
the  prophets  and  tlic  apostles.  A  comprehensive  view  of  the  be- 
nevolent and  humane  tendencies  of  all  true  prophesying  can  only 
be  gained  by  including  also  the  utterances  of  our  Divine  ]Mastcr, 
and  particularly  the  woes  by  Avhich  he  rebuked  and  warned  the 
Scribes  and  Pharisees,  the  dominant  ecclesiastical  power,  ami,  as 
the  account  of  the  crucifixion  proves,  the  px'cvailing  influence  in  the 


1  1  Cor.  vii.  21.  2  Id.  vi.  7  ;  1  Thes.  iv.  6. 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  179 

political  life  of  Jerusalem.  The  parable  of  the  Rich  Man  and  Laz- 
arus was  spoken  in  reproof  of  these  covetous  cleriders  of  his  teach- 
ings about  mammon.  What  woes  does  he  pronounce  against  them 
for  their  lack  of  judgment  and  mercy,  and  for  being  full  of  extor- 
tion. Read  also  what  he  says  concerning  their  oppressive  and  par- 
tial exactions  :  "  They  bind  heavy  burdens,  and  grievous  to  be 
borne,  and  lay  them  on  men's  shoulders ;  but  they  themselves  will 
not  move  them  with  one  of  their  fingers."  And  again :  "  Wo  unto 
you,  for  ye  devour  widows'  houses,  and  for  a  show  make  long 
prayers."2  Thus  spoke  Jesus  to  and  of  the  politico-ecclesiastical 
rulers  of  the  land  and  oppressors  of  the  peoj)le. 

But  to  return  to  the  consideration  of  some  other  objections  that 
are  often  urged  against  preaching  on  politics.  It  is  said  again,  that 
as  the  preacher  should  always  aim  to  select  such  themes  as  are  ap- 
plicable to  the  moral  condition  of  his  audience,  so  if  he  preaches  on 
politics  he  must  frequently  censvire  and  denounce  the  conduct  of 
the  absent,  and  even  strangers  and  foreigners  whom  his  sermons  are 
not  likely  to  benefit,  and  that  therefore  his  political  preaching  is, 
to  say  the  least,  entirely  useless.  Such  objectors  have  reason  on 
their  side  whenever  they  can  prove  that  these  absent  persons  or 
distant  nations  are  not  in  some  way  politically  related  and  account- 
able to  the  congregation  addressed,  and  that  a  Christianized  public 
opinion  has  no  influence  on  distant  n-ations  or  persons  and  commu- 
nities which  are  politically  hidependent  of  us.  Many  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets  preached  concerning  foreign  nations,  although  less  fre- 
quently than  their  writings  would  at  first  view  appear  to  show. 
Reproofs  and  warnings  administered  orally  to  their  immediate 
hearers  were  not  always  written.  But  these  warnings,  accompanied 
by  predictions  which  were  intended  for  the  absent,  were  committed 
to  written  rolls,  in  order  that  foreign  nations  and  subsequent  gene- 
rations might  perceive  and  believe  that  the  predictions  and  their 
fulfillments  were  alike  from  Jehovah. 

Another  objection  is,  that  as  preachers  are  the  professed  ambas- 
sadors of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  and  as  peacemakers  are  declared  to 
be  the  blessed  friends  of  God,  it  does  not  become  them  to  kindle, 
but  rather  to  quench  the  fires  of  party  strife.  This  would  be  vef  y 
good  counsel  if  it  did  but  proceed  a  little  farther,  and  tell  them  that 
these  fires  are  best  quenched  by  depriving  them  of  their  fuel,  namely, 
error,  prejudice,  wrong,  and  all  the  vices  that  produce  popular  dis- 

1  Luke  xvi.  13-31. 

2  Matt,  xxiii.  1-39;  Luke  xx.  47  ;  compare  Isa  x.  1,  2  ;  Ezek.  xxii.  25;  Hosea 
iv.  8  ;  Micah  ii.  9. 


180  OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS. 

content  and  suffering :  "  The  work  of  righteousness  shall  be  peace ; 
and  the  effect  of  righteousness,  quietness  and  assurance  for  ever  " 
(Isa.  xxxii.  17).  We  cannot  discharge  our  obligations  nor  gain  any 
permanent  advantage  by  concealing  from  ourselves  and  our  congre- 
gations, the  causes  and  cures  of  political  epidemics,  and  saying, 
"  Peace,  peace,  when  there  is  no  peace"  (Jer.  vi.  14;  viii.  11).  We 
are,  to  be  sure,  bidden  to  "follow  peace  Avith  all  men,"  but  alas  for 
all  advocates  of  false  peace,  we  are  in  the  same  breath  also  com- 
manded to  follow  '•  holiness,  without  which  no  man  shall  see  the 
Lord  "  (Heb.  xii.  14). 

A  more  powerful  objection  against  partisan  preaching  is,  that  as 
most  Sunday  congregations  are,  in  great  part,  composed  of  women 
who  cannot  reply  to  the  speaker,  they  are  not  the  i3roper  assem- 
blies for  determining  the  comparative  justness  of  the  claims  of  dif- 
ferent men  and  measures. 

The  question  here  ai'ises.  When  ouglit  the  preacher  to  begin  to 
instruct  his  people  respecting  the  moral  or  religious  bearings  of  a 
political  principle  or  measure ;  when  the  subject  is  first  agitated,  or 
later  when  every  body  is  talking  about  it  ?  As  a  general  rule  it  is 
no  doubt  best,  if  possible,  to  prevent  all  great  errors  and  misdeeds 
of  this  nature,  by  early  teachings  and  warnings ;  before  all  men 
have  taken  sides  and  have  entrenched  thems-jlves  in  strong  preju- 
dices. And,  in  order  to  this,  it  may  not  be  unwise  to  anticipate 
the  turn  political  affairs  are  to  take,  not  by  foolishly  proclaiming 
presentiments  and  the  results  of  a  fallible  foresight,  but  by  lay mg 
down  and  applying  such  Scrijiture  principles  as  will  fortify  the  peo- 
ple against  a  jiolitieal  invasion  from  the  point  whence  we  entertain 
a  silent  jiersuasion  that  it  is  advancing.  But  we  should  beware  of 
being  mere  stormbirds,  as  the  false  prophets  almost  alvrays  were. 
"  Amid  the  miserable  and  manifold  distractions  Avhich  we  find  from 
Jeremiah  to  have  ushered  in  the  last  days  of  apostate  Judah,  they 
were  invariably  the  false  prophets  who  put  themselves  forward  in 
public  agitations ;  the  true  prophets  never  came  forth  with  their 
claim  upon  obedience  except  Avhcn  they  had  a  distinct  message  from 
above,  and  could  utter  the  awful  summons  to  attention  in  these 
words,  *  Thus  saith  the  Lord,'  and  then  their  message  was  never 
welcome  either  to  high  or  low ;  they  spoke  therefore  from  the 
necessity  of  a  painful  duty,  and  not  for  the  gratification  of  a  carnal 
feeling.'"! 

And  yet,  we  repeat,  politics,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  creed 
and  spirit  and  policy  of  a  parti/,  should  be  kept  out  of  the  pulpit. 

1  Rev.  Robert  Wilson  Evans,  "  Bishopric  of  Souls,"  p.  251. 


OF  POLITICAL  SUBJECTS.  181 

In  order  that  it  may  be  so  precluded,  the  preacher  will  need  that 
gracious  discrimination  which  '  tries  the  things  that  differ  '  (Rom. 
ii.  18).  Many  and  various  are  the  pretexts  which  partisan  j^reachers 
employ  in  their  own  defence.  Among  the  most  specious  are  these : 
"  I  was  a  citizen  before  I  was  a  minister,  and  therefore  my  political 
duties  should  take  the  precedence  of  my  clerical."  To  this  it  has 
been  retorted :  by  parity  of  reason  he  might  say,  I  was  a  child 
before  I  became  a  man,  and  therefore  I  ought  to  reserve  to  myself 
the  right  of  behaving  childishly.  The  ministerial  office  and  func- 
tion may  also  be  degraded  by  this  other  sophistical  plea,  "  I  can 
with  a  good  conscience  pray  for  the  triumph  of  such  a  man  and 
such  measures,  and  therefore  I  think  consistency  requires  that  I 
should  in  my  preaching  aim  to  bring  about  that  triumph."  But 
what  is  this  but  exalting  the  desire  Of  the  creature  to  an  authority 
equal  to  the  oracles  of  the  Ci-eator  ?  what  is  this  but  to  speak  a 
vision  of  our  own  heart  and  not  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  Lord? 
(Jer.  xxiil.  16,  26).  Others  still  there  are  who,  when  one  general 
political  impulse  moves  the  people  and  there  are  few  or  no  dissent- 
ing persons,  exclaim,  Vox  2^opull^  ■i;ox  del !  Why  this  unanimous 
movement  of  a  whole  people  unless  it  be  the  will  of  God  that  such 
measures  should  be  adopted  and  siich  ends  be  pursued  ?  Hence 
they  conclude  that  to  be  consistent  they  have  little  to  do  but  to  be 
Interpreters  of  the  popular  will,  and  echoes  of  the  popular  voice. 
At  any  rate,  they  cannot  be  stigmatised  as  partisan  preachers  ;  for 
all  men  are  of  their  opinion  !  Beware  of  thus  making  the  people 
and  their  demagogues  your  oracles,  lest  you  be  finally  numbered 
among  the  prophets  who,  to  please  the  people,  prophesied  smooth 
falsehoods  (Isa.  xxx.  9,  10 ;  Jer.  v.  31 ;  Mich.  ii.  11).  Let  young 
prophets  be  on  their  guard  against  these  wild  gourds  that  hang 
upon  the  wild  vine.  Let  them  not  think  to  neutralise  their  poison 
by  mixing  them  with  lentiles,  nor  presume  that  the  Master  will 
always  come  at  their  request,  to  render  wholesome  the  deadly  pot- 
tage.    Robert  HalU  set  a  good  example  to  those  ministers  who 

1  AVorks,  vol.  i.,  pp.  198,  199;  cf.  Greene's  Reminiscences  in  voL  iv.,  Amer. 
ed.  Rev.  Dr.  Mather  Byles,  being  privately  asked  why  he  did  not  preach  poli- 
tics, replied  {not  from  the  pulpit,  as  one  writer  implies),  "I  have  thrown  up  four 
breast-works  behind  which  I  have  entrenched  myself,  neither  of  which  can  be 
forced.  In  the  first  place,  I  do  not  understand  politics  ;  in  the  second  place,  you 
all  do— every  man  and  mother's  son  of  you;  in  the  third  place,  you  have  politics 
all  the  week  ;  pray,  let  one  day  out  of  seven  be  devoted  to  religion ;  in  the  fourth 
place,  I  am  engaged  in  a  work  of  infinitely  greater  importance.  Give  me  any 
better  subject  to  preach  upon  than  the  truths  I  bring  you,  and  I  will  preach  it  on 
the  next  Sabbath."  {Spmffue's  AnnaU,  Trinitarian  Congregational,  vol.  i ,  p.  378, 
Compare  American  Anecdotes,  vol.  i.,  p.  256.) 


182  OF  DEMONSTRATIVE  SUIJJECTS. 

think  they  ought  to  espouse  tlie  cause  of  a  political  party.  He 
wrote  for  the  press  on  the  suhject;  but  studiously  and  avowedly 
kept  it  out  of  his  sermons. 

While,  therefore,  the.  preaclier  has  the  best  authorities  on  his  side 
when  he  undertakes  to  treat  of  the  higher  elements,  relations,  and 
applications  of  politics,  yet,  all  things  considered,  he  can  hardly  help 
concludin<j:  that  neither  the  highest  dignity  of  his  office  nor  the 
o-reatest  utility  of  his  woi'k  appears  in  such  sermons.  However 
necessary  such  discourses  sometimes  are,  and  though  severe  tests 
of  his  moral  courage  and  self  denial,  still  he  will  ever  regard  those 
sermons  which  are  instrumental  in  converting  and  edifymg  individ- 
uals as  more  directly  and  lastingly  useful.  Nor  can  he  hide  from 
himself  the  fact  that  those  ministrations  which  effect  the  conversion, 
edification,  and  sanctification  of  his  congregation  are  none  the  less 
powerfully,  though  less  directly  influencing  public  affairs  and  con- 
tributing to  the  political  welfare  of  the  nation.  This  more  obscure 
and  more  ordinary  work  he  will  in  his  best  hours  account  his  chief 
joy  and  rejoicing.  He  will  love  to  recollect  the  just  and  pithy  say- 
ing of  Thomas  Adam,  that  "  a  poor  country  parson  fighting  agabist 
the  devil  in  his  parish  has  nobler  ideas  than  Alexander  had.'"  And 
whenever  tempted  by  subtle  and  near-sighted  demagogues  to  speak 
in  behalf  of  a  party,  he  will  resist  them  with  something  even  beyond 
the  lofty  spirit  of  the  philosopher  Anaxagoras,  who  when  blamed 
for  neglecting  politics  to  observe  the  stars,  and  asked  if  he  had  no 
concem  for  his  country,  replied,  "  Yes,  the  greatest  for  my  country, 
but  it  lies  there,"  pointing  with  his  finger  to  the  starry  heavens. 
Lest  he  should  too  often  be  censued  for  a  want  of  patriotism  or 
humanity,  or  an  unchristian  neglect  of  civil  duties,  he  may  reply: 
•'Yes,  the  greatest  for  my  country,  but  it  is  broader  than  some  sup- 
pose. It  is  not  only  visible  and  temporal,  but  also  invisible  and 
etemal."  Consider,  too,  tliat  we  of  this  human  world  owe  our 
light  and  orbit  to  a  Luminary  that  rides  immeasurably  ahead  of  us. 

Section  V.— Of  Demonstrativk  Subjects. 

The  custom  of  eulogising  saints  has  been  so  enormously  abused, 
that  some  enlightened  and  conscientious  preachers  now  make  and 
]ironouncc  but  very  few  ])anegyrics.  The  history  of  homiletics 
contains  the  materials  for  a  i)retty  heavy  verdict  against  all  this 
business  as  hitherto  conducted.  The  vast  quantity  of  lying  legends 
(some  of  them  very  beautifully  told)  which  have  grown  out  of  this 
practice,  have  been  as  thorns  which  have  choked  the  harvest  of  the 


OF  DEMONSTRATIVE  SUBJECTS.  183 

true  words  of  life.    Dante  was  a  Catholic,  and  yet  he  deemed  it  his 
duty  to  lift  up  his  voice  against  them  ; 

"  Christ  did  not  to  his  first  disciples  say, 
Go  forth  and  to  the  world  preach  idle  tales." 

Panegyrics  were  often  delivered  by  the  ethnic  orators  of  Greece 
and  Rome ;  but  it  is  a  striking  and  significant  fact  that  we  have  no 
express  authority  for  any  other  Christian  eulogies  (apart  from  those 
which  we  pronounce  in  memory  of  the  Lord  Jesus  himself)  than 
such  as  we  make  in  honour  of  Mary,  the  sister  of  Lazarus.^  Not  a 
fcAV  instances  of  short  and  incidental  commendation  we  do  indeed 
find  in  holy  Scripture.  Moses^  makes  honourable  mention  of  Caleb, 
Joshua,  and  the  sons  of  Levi ;  ^David^  in  his  lamentation  over  Saul 
seems  to  forget  for  a  moment  his  own  preference  for  Jonathan  ; 
Jeremiah'*  commends  the  filial  obedience  of  the  Rechabites ;  Zech- 
ariah  exalts  Joshua  and  Zerubbabel,  the  high  priest  and  the  governor 
of  Judah,  in  the  estimation  of  the  people. ^  Our  Great  Teacher 
praised  the  faith  of  the  Centurion^  and  of  the  woman  of  Canaan, 7 
and  the  open-heartedness  of  Nathanael,^  to  say  nothing  of  the  Marys 
and  the  poor  widow.  Paul  ];)raises  Priscilla  and  Aquila^  and  Onesi- 
phorus,^*^  while  he  commends  the  obedience  of  the  Church  of  Rome,^^ 
the  benevolence  of  the  Churches  of  Macedonia^^  and  of  the  He- 
brews ;i^  and  in  exhorting  his  converts  to  faith,  takes  occasion  to 
commemorate  the  names  of  those  ancient  saints  who  had  displayed 
this  grace. ^■^  The  only  thing  that  looks  like  the  germ  of  the 
Christian  panegyric  is  the  simple,  veracious,  and  affecting  act  of  the 
widows,  who  stood  by  the  body  of  Dorcas,  weeping  and  showing 
the  coats  and  garments  which  she  had  made  while  she  was  with 
them.i^  This  occurrence  teaches  us  that  nothing  is  more  profitable 
and  more  consistent  with  Christian  principle  than  the  iDathetic 
statement  of  what  the  deceased  has  either  done  or  suffered  for  the 
sake  of  God  or  man.  In  cases  where  the  deceased  had  exhibited 
an  example  of  singular  moral  or  spiritual  excellence,  it  is  no  doubt 
in  consonance  with  the  words  of  Jesus  and  his  apostles,  to  describe 
his  laudable  qualities  and  actions.  Particularly  will  it  be  Christ- 
like for  the  preacher  to  commend  to  the  admiration  and  holy  emu- 
lation of  his  congregation,  examples  of  real  but  unacknowledged 
worth,  to  brighten  the  memory  of  the  calumniated  and  persecuted, 

1  Matt.  xxvi. ;  Mark  xiv.  2  Deut.  1.  36-38  ;  xxxiii.  9.  3  2  Sam.  i.  23. 

4Jer.   XXXV.  5  Zech.  iii.,  iv.  6  Matt.  viii.  10.  7  Id.  xv.  28. 

8  John  i.  47.  9Rom.  xvi.  3,  4.  10  2  T^m.  1.  16.  n  Rom.  xvi.  19. 

12  2  Cor.  viii.  13  Heb.  x.  34.  14  Id.   xi.  15  Acts  ix.  39. 

13 


184  OF  DEMONSTRATIVE  SUBJECTS. 

the  despised  and  the  forgotten.  Almost  every  faithful  pastor  has 
occasion  to  make  the  accjuaintance  of  poor,  unfortunate,  and  afflicted 
persons  whose  sanctiticd  tasks,  temptations,  and  sutVerings  have 
made  them  great  and  exemplary  in  the  virtues  and  graces  which 
are  imitable  and  unspeakably  serviceable  in  the  common  and  hum- 
ble walks  of  life.  Let  him  give  to  the  people  beautiful  and  ani- 
mated narratives  of  those  whose  example  shone  in  such  obscurity, 
lest  otherwise  they  will  be  lost  upon  the  most  of  a  community. 
And  herein  the  preacher  has  need  to  hearken  to  the  apostolic  pre- 
cept, ''  Mind  not  high  things,  but  condescend  to  men  of  low  estate." 
"What  are  the  funeral  orations  wliich  Bossuet  and  Flechier  pro- 
nounced over  the  remains  of  princes  and  marshals,  in  comparison 
of  any  common  funeral  sermon  thait  in  subject  and  spirit  reminds 
us  of  Leigh  Itichmond's  narrative  of  ''  The  Dairyman's  Daugliter." 
"When  we  hear  undistinguishing  and  unqualified  eulogies  uttered 
over  the  remains  of  the  rich  or  the  honoured  for  the  gratification 
of  a  family  or  a  society,  or  a  partisan  junto,  we  cannot  but  think 
that  if  Tmmanuel  were  to  appear  in  the  assembly,  he  would  say  to 
the  encomiasts,  as  he  did  to  the  minstrels  whom  he  found  making 
a  noise  in  tho  house  of  Jairus,  "  Give  place." 

In  composing  funeral  sermons  of  the  honorific  kind  the  following 
rules'  should  guide  us : 

1.  The  explanation  of  the  text  and  context  need  not  be  attempted 
unless  it  can  contribute  in  some  way  to  the  illustration  of  the  char- 
acter which  is  the  subject  of  the  eulogy.  Nor  is  it  wise  to  discuss 
the  theme  suggested  l)y  the  text,  where  such  discussion  may  require 
considerable  space. 

2.  Nothing  should  be  the  subject  of  panegyric  but  moral  excel- 
lence. Other  qualities  may  indeed  find  a  place  in  a  discourse  of 
this  kind,  when  they  are  introduced  not  for  their  own  sake  but  in 
order  to  set  oft"  real  virtues.  Thus  the  high  birth  of  a  person  may 
be  mentioned  in  order  to  add  the  greater  lustre  to  his  humility; 
his  riches,  in  order  to  show  his  moderation  and  his  benevolence;  his 
poverty  to  reeomincnd  his  jiatience,  contentment,  and  even  his 
beneficence  and  self-denial  for  the  g^od  of  others ;  or  his  want  of 
early  education  to  enhance  his  genius  and  his  application  to  study 
in  later  years.^ 

For  the  methods  of  treating  such  subjects,  see  Disposition,  Sec. 
IV.,  and  for  style  see  Explication  and  Excitation. 


1  Quint.,  L  iii.,  C.  vii. ;  D.-.  Jolin  Ward's  Sy."'tpni  of  0.-n*ory,  Lecf.  vii.  ;  Camp- 
bell's Lectures  on  Pulpit  Eloquenco,  Lect.  xi.j  Tbereiuiii,  Eloquence  a  Virtue,  B. 
ii.,  C.  vi. 


RULES  FOR  THE  CHOICE  OF  TEXTS,  185 


Section  VI. — Rules  for  the  Choice  of  Texts. 

The  first  inspired  preachers  did  not  begin  their  discourses  by 
quoting  a  passage  of  holy  Scripture ;  for  the  obvious  reason  that 
they  spoke  directly  from  Jehovah.  Enoch,  Noah,  and  Moses  made 
divine  communications  to  men  before  the  greater  portion  of  our 
sacred  writings  existed.  The  earliest  instances  oi  (W&couy&q^  foicnded 
on  Holy  Writ  are  those  of  Moses  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy.  In 
one  of  these  he  enjoined  a  repetition  of  his  sermons  at  the  end  of 
every  seven  years  in  the  solemnity  of  the  year  of  release  (Deut.  xxxi. 
10-13).  The  prophets  often  quoted  the  books  of  Moses,  and  par- 
ticularly the  divine  commands  they  contain.  "We  find  a  nameless 
prophet  in  the  time  of  the  Judges  repeating  a  command  before 
given  but  not  before  written  (Judges  vi.  10).  We  have  in  the  book 
of  ISTehemiali  (chap,  viii.)  a  full  accoimt  of  the  manner  the  Jews 
observed  the  duty  Moses  had  commanded  of  publicly  reading  ths 
divine  law.  The  command  was  (Deut.  xxxi.), "  Thou  shalt  read  this 
law  before  all  Israel  in  their  hearing,  .  .  .  that  they  may  hear  and 
that  they  may  learn."  And  accordingly  we  are  told  that  the  Levites 
read  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  God  distinctly,  and  gave  the  sense 
and  caused  them  to  understand  the  reading.  This  took  place,  as 
Moses  had  enjoined,  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Deut.  xxxi.  10). 
It  did  not  consist  in  exposition  but  in  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
text  into  the  current  Chaldee.^  After  the  synagogue  was  estab- 
lished, it  became  the  custom  first  to  read  and  translate  the  holy 
writings  in  the  hearing  of  the  assembly,  and  then  to  deliver  a  topical 
address  or  exhortation  founded  on  a  few  of  the  words  that  had  been 
repeated  and  intei'preted.  Sometimes  one  man  read  and  another 
translated.  At  first  considerable  license  in  exposition  was  allowed 
the  extemporaneous  interpreter ;  but  at  a  later  period  hermeneutical 
rules  were  established  which  served  to  limit  this  license.-  Our 
Divine  Master  taught  in  the  synagogues  (Luke  iv.  16-31 ;  Matt.  iv. 
23 ;  John  xviii.  20),  but  he  did  not  confine  his  teaching  to  the  ex- 
position of  the  Scriptures.  The  apostle  Peter,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  choice  of  Matthias,  quotes  in  the  middle  of  his  address  Psa.  Ixix. 
25,  and  Psa.  cix.  8 ;  and  in  the  exordium  of  his  Pentecost  sermon 
he  quotes  Joel  ii.  28-32.  The  speech  of  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  2-53) 
was  a  brief  exposition  of  the  sense  and  design  of  Hebrew  history. 
Paul,  in  Hebrews  1st  and  2d  chapters,  quotes  as  proofs,  certain  parts 
of  Deuteronomy,  2d  Samuel,  the  Psalms,  and  Isaiah.     The  apostle 

1  Havernick's  Intro.  0.  T.,  pp.  410-412  (Clark's  Trans  ).  2  Id.  328. 


186  RULES  FOR  THE  CHOICE  OF  TEXTS. 

James  embodies  in  his  leading  proposition  (i.  19)  texts  from  Pro- 
verbs and  Ecclesiastes. 

From  tliese  instances  it  will  be  seen  that  we  have  no  Scripture 
examples  of  the  modern  custom  of  quoting  a  text  at  or  near  the 
beginning  of  sermons  as  a  textual  or  a  topical  basis  of  discourse. 
And  yet  these  sacred  precedents  directly  warrant  us  in  founding 
our  religious  discourses  on  one  or  more  texts  cited  informally  in 
the  manner  of  quoting  argimientative  proofs.  When,  moreover, 
we  remember  that  the  holy  prophets  began  their  sermons  with  the 
phrase,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord,''  we  may  fairly  infer  from  their  ex- 
ample that  it  is  lawful  to  quote  texts  before  the  exordia  of  our 
sermons.  As  every  true  sermon  has  its  foundation  in  the  word  of 
God,  so  either  expediency  or  necessity  usually  demands  that  the 
preacher  limit  his  discourse  to  one  or  more  portions  of  that  word. 
But  the  formal  quoting  of  select  passages  of  Scripture,  either  before 
or  after  the  exordium,  is,  as  Palmeri  has  remarked,  a  mere  matter 
of  ecclesiastical  usage.  The  early  Christian  fathers  usually  quoted 
texts  at  the  beginning  of  their  topical  sermons,  but  very  seldom 
adapted  their  themes  to  them.  The  mediaeval  preachers  very  fre- 
quently discoursed  without  Scripture  texts,  especially  when  the 
festivals  of  saints  re<juired  them  to  deliver  demonstrative  sermons. 
Pete-r  of  Blois  preached  from  an  A)itip}io)i.  Venerable  Bede  and 
Peter  of  Celles  selected  their  texts  from  Latin  hymns,  just  as 
modern  Russian  preachers  not  uncommonly  found  their  sermons  on 
a  Troparion.  Gierke,  one  of  the  translator^  of  the  Bil)le,  and  other 
Protestant  divines  of  that  age,  on  some  occasions  took  their  texts 
from  catechisms.-  Nevertheless,  the  learned  Keckerman3  informs 
us  that  the  evangelical  church  of  his  time  preferred  the  taking  of 
Scripture  texts  ;  among  other  reasons  for  this,  that  the  apostle  Peter 
says:  "If  any  man  s})eak,  let  him  sjteak  as  the  oracles  of  God." 
Our  Lord's  instructive  talks  sometimes  sprang  out  of,  and  wei'e 
illustrated  by,  occasions  and  circumstances  then  present  or  recent,^ 
but  the  beatitudes  which  introduce  the  Sermon  on  the  ^Mount  are 
unfoldings  of  the  inner  significance  of  several  texts  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptmx'S. 

We  have  thus  far  traced  the  origin  of  the  use  of  texts;  let  us  now 
examine  some  of  the  maxims  which  are  followed  by  those  who 
choose  theii"  texts  wisely.     But  before  all  rules,  and  in  order  to  the 

1  Evangelisclie  noniiletik,  p.  315. 

2  Rev.  .1.  M.  Noale's  Mediaeval   Proacliors,  pp.  xlii.,  .')4. 
sRliPtorica  Ecclosiastica,  chap.  i. 

4  Abp.  Newcome's  Observations  on  our  Lords  Conduct,  Pt.  i.,  chap,  ii.,  sec.  6. 


RULES  FOR  THE  CHOICE  OF  TEXTS.  Jgj 

right  use  of  them  all,  implore  the  Holy  Sj^irit  to  direct  you  in 
selecting  your  text.  Among  the  valuable  rules  which  writers  on 
homiletics  have  left  us,  we  find  two  classes,  negative  'and  positive. 
1.  Never  take  a  text  you  do  not  fully  understand,  nor  one  that  you 
are  not  likely  to  make  intelligible  to  your  auditory.  Very  obscure 
texts  may,  however,  be  reserved  for  your  expository  sermons.  2. 
Do  not  frequently,  except  in  exjDository  discourses,  preach  from 
poetic  and  sublime  texts.  When  necessity  seems  to  require  a  de- 
parture from  this  rule,  let  an  apologetic  exordium  go  before  the 
taking  of  the  text.  3.  Avoid  the  temptation  of  using  as  texts  pas- 
sages which,  when  broken  from  their  connection,  or  employed  in 
an  arbitrary  sense,  appear  quaint  or  ludicrous.  ^'  But  we  are  to  dis- 
tinguish," says  Dr.  Ripley,  "between  a  smile  occasioned  by  the 
special  approj^riateness  of  a  text  in  given  circumstances,  and  the 
lightness  of  mind  which  is  produced  by  the  perception  of  oddity." 
4.  Never  take  a  text  out  of  its  connections  in  such  a  way  that  it 
may  be  made  to  convey  almost  any  sense,  and  to  yield  an  applica- 
tion to  everybody  in  all  conditions,  as  "  Adam,  where  art  thou  ?  " 
"  Whatsoever  things  were  written  aforetime,  were  written  for  our 
learning;"  "  Is  there  not  a  cause  ?  "  etc.  5..  A  preacher  may  really 
api3ear  disingenuous  in  choosing  his  text,  if  through  passion  or  pre- 
judice he  misinterpret  or  misapply  it.  With  Ehud  he  says,  "  I  have 
a  message  from  God  to  thee,"  but  immediately  puts  forth  his  left 
hand  and  takes  the  dagger  from  the  right  thigh.  6.  Seldom  use  a 
text  as  a  mere  motto  of  a  sermon.  7.  A  text  should  contam  a  com- 
plete sense ;  we  do  not  say  a  complete  sentence ;  for  our  Lord 
chose  for  a  text  the  first  half  of  a  long  sentence  (Luke  iv.  18,  19). 
We  mean  a  complete  sense  of  the  inspired  writer  from  which  it  is 
taken.  Claude  goes  further  and  insists  that  the  text  should  include 
all  the  particular  clauses  of  the  longest  sentence.  8.  The  text  should 
contain  the  subject  of  the  sermon,  and  if  possible  that  view  of  the 
subject  which  the  sermon  is  intended  to  exhibit  and  apply ;  it  is  also 
desirable  that  the  text  be  so  full  as  to  express  the  whole  of  the  sub- 
ject; but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  sermon  which  attempts  to  exhaust  a 
very  long  text  is  liable  to  exhaust  the  audience.  9.  Other  things 
being  equal,  choose  weighty  texts,  expressing  the  great  leading 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  Next  to  these  in  rank  belong  striking  texts, 
because  they  preach  for  themselves  and  will  be  remembered  long 
after  the  sermon  is  forgotten.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  the 
second  place  may  not  justly  be  claimed  by  fitting  texts,  by  which  we 
mean  such  as  are  so  suitable  to  the  subject  that  they  evermore  re- 
mind your  hearers  of  your  sermon.  10.  It  is  prudent  to  preach 
occasionally  from  an  uncomon  text.     "  We  are  struck,"  says  Vinet, 


188  TOPICS,  OR  LOCI  COMMUNES. 

"  at  the  constant  recurrence  of  certain  texts,  as  if  the  generality  of 
preachers  considered  ihomselvcs  under  obligations  to  repeat  them." 
Mr.  S.  Baring-Gould  tells  us,  that  on  three  successive  Sundays,  in 
three  different  churches,  he  heard  sermons  on  Felix  waiting  for  a 
more  convenient  season.  Having  mentioned  this  curious  fact  to  a 
clerical  relation  of  his  he  forgot  the  circumstance.  Five  years  after 
this  clerical  relation  was  ])revented  from  preaching  on  the  same 
subject  in  another  church  by  discovering  him  in  a  i:)ew  as  he  Avas 
going  into  the  pulpit.  Next  Saturday,  at  the  other  end  of  England, 
he  related  this  incident  to  a  county  parson,  wliereupon  he  rei^lied, 
'•  I  am  really  very  sorry,  but  I  had  prepared  Felix  for  to-morrow, 
and  what  is  more,  I  do  not  see  my  Avay  towards  changing  the  sub- 
ject." 

Sectiox  YII. — Topics,  or  Loci  Commuxes. 

Claude,  in  imitation  of  Aristotle  and  Cicero,  has  left  us  twenty- 
seven  valuable  topics  or  hints  "  to  open  sources  of  observation,"  as 
he  says;  but  both  he  and  his  discijiles  have  too  narrowly  restricted 
their  helpfulness.  They  are,  indeed,  of  great  service  in  determining 
the  subject  and  matter  and  arrangement  of  most  kinds  of  sermons  ; 
and  yet  it  is  possible  for  the  young  student  to  expect  too  much 
assistance  from  them.  As  Dr.  "NVatts  has  said,  ''it  is  only  the  man 
of  sense  and  judgment  that  can  use  them  well;  for,  among  the 
variety  he  only  knows  what  is  fit  to  be  left  out,  as  well  as  what  is 
fit  to  be  spoken."  When  he  further  says  that  "  a  man  of  moderate 
genius  who  has  made  himself  master  of  his  theme,  has  seldom  need 
of  them,"  it  seems  not  to  have  occurred  to  him  that  these  tojjics 
not  unfrequently  enable  even  the  man  of  genius  to  perform  the 
often  difficult  task  of  mastering  his  theme.  Learn  to  despise  them 
as  he  may,  every  good  sermonizer  must  employ  them,  if  not  con- 
sciously, yet  imconsciously.  But  if  he  would  use  them  the  most 
profitably,  he  must  keep  filling  the  lamp  of  genius  with  the  oil  of 
knowledge.  "Without  a  knowledge  of  philosophy  in  general," 
says  Keinhard,  "  and  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  many  parts  of 
it  in  particular,  as  psychology  and  ethics,  for  instance,  a  man  never 
can  succeed  very  well  in  the  invention  of  subjects.  .  .  .  He  who 
is  deficient  in  these  respects — who  does  not  always  look  upon  nature 
with  philosophical  eyes,  and  make  it  his  constant  study — should  not 
wonder  if  he  generally  fails  of  obtaining  good  subjects  for  his  ser- 
mons, and  in  a  text  which  has  been  selected  for  a  discourse,  finds 
it  impossible  to  perceive  what  experienced  eyes  discover  at  a  single 
glance."  Augustine  was  familiar  with  Plato,  and  is  said  to  have 
incorporated  all  hi<  ideas  in  his  own  works.     The  subject-matter 


i 


TOPICS,  OR  LOCI  COMMUNES.  189 

of  Bourdaloue's  and  Tillotson's  sermons  evinces  a  close  observation 
of  current  opinions  and  vices. 

The  order  of  these  toj^ics  might  be  advantageously  changed. 
The  last  two  might  be  placed  first,  and  these  be  followed  by  the 
twenty-third  and  the  fourth  successively,  and  so  other  changes ;  but 
for  facility  of  reference  we  choose  to  preserve  their  original  order. 
Our  limits  compel  us  to  condense  them. 

I.  "  Rise  from  species  to  genus,"  or  from  particulars  to  generals. 

II.  "  Descend  from  genus  to  species,"  or  from  generals  to  par- 
ticulars. 

III.  "  Remark  the  divers  characters  of  a  vice  which  is  forbidden, 
or  a  virtue  which  is  commanded,"  i.  e.,  the  qualities,  characteristics, 
and  concomitants  of  vices  and  virtues. 

IV.  "  Observe  the  relation  of  one  subject  to  another." 

V.  "  Observe  whether  some  things  are  not  supposed  which  are 
not  expressed,"  e.  </.,  when  we  speak  of  a  change,  the  terminus  a 
quo  necessarily  supposes  the  terminus  ad  quein^  and  so  the  reverse. 

VI.  "Reflect  on  the  persons  speaking  or  acting,"  on  their  oftice, 
country,  education,  name,  character,  etc. 

VII.  '•  Reflect  on  the  state  of  the  person  speaking  or  acting,"  i.  e., 
the  condition,  or  circumstances,  or  mood  of  mind,  of  the  person. 

VIII.  "  Remark  the  time  of  a  word  or  action,"  including  the  time 
when  a  precept  is  to  be  observed. 

IX.  "  Observe  place." 

X.  "  Consider  the  persons  addressed." 

XI.  "  Examine  the  particular  state  of  the  persons  addressed," 
i.  e.,  the  circumstances,  temptations,  provocations,  etc. 

XII.  "  Consider  the  principles  of  a  word  or  action,"  i.  <?.,  from 
what  motive,  affection,  passion,  or  conviction,  the  jDcrson  spoke  or 
acted. 

XIII.  "  Consider  consequences,"  i.  e.,  the  uses  or  abuses  of  a  doc- 
trine, the  applications  or  perversions,  the  influence  or  tendency  of 
truths  or  errors,  etc. 

XIV.  "  Reflect  on  the  end  proposed  in  an  expression  or  action," 
i.  e.,  the  aim,  j^urpose,  or  scope,  of  it. 

XV.  "  Consider  whether  there  be  any  thing  remarkable  in  the 
manner  of  speaking  or  acting,"  e.  g.,  "More  than  conquerors;" 
"  Before  Abraham  was,  I  am." 

XVI.  "  Compare  words  and  actions  with  similar  words  and 
actions,"  i.  e.,  of  another  person  in  order  to  show  the  difference. 

XVII.  "  Remark  the  differences  of  words  and  actions  on  different 
occasions,"  i.  e.,  those  of  the  same  person  on  different  occasions. 

XVIII.  "  Contrast  words  and  actions,"  of  different  persons  by 


190  TOPICS,  OR  LOCI  COMMUNES. 

way  of  antithesis,  as,  the  agonies  of  tlie  dying  Jesus  and  the  joys 
of  the  dying  martyrs. 

XIX.  ''  Examine  the  grounds,  or  causes  of  an  action  or  expres- 
sion; and  show  the  truth  or  equity  of  it,"  e.  g.,  if  preaching  upon 
the  text,  "  The  word  was  made  flesh,"  we  may  show  from  Scripture 
the  reasons  v/hy  the  Son  took  upon  him  a  real  humanity ;  or  when 
preaching  upon  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  we  may  show  how 
the  divine  toisdom  was  exliibited  in  that  event.  The  Pharisees 
complained  that  the  discijiles  of  Jusus  did  not  keep  the  traditions. 
We  may  here  justify  the  disciples  by  showing  what  are  the  princi- 
ples of  Christian  hberty.  So  when  Jesus  said  to  the  paralytic, 
"  Sin  no  more,  lest  a  worse  thing  come  unto  thee,"  we  may  show 
the  JKStness  of  the  expression  by  stating  what  probable  grounds 
he  had  in  the  former  sins  of  the  man.  So  of  the  grounds,  rea- 
sons, and  principles  on  which  rest  our  obligations  to  practise  all 
virtues. 

XX."R,emark  the  good  and  bad  in  expressions  and  actions,"  "We 
may  sometimes  correct  bad  expressions,  as  "  Silver-Tongued  "  Smith 
does  in  preaching  on  the  words  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  iv.  29,  30) : 
"  He  should  rather  have  said, '  Is  not  this  Nebuchadnezzar's  folly  ? ' " 
etc. 

XXI."Suppose  things." 

XXII.''Guard  against  objections." 

XXIII.  "  Consider  characters  of  majesty,  meanness,  infirmity, 
necessity,  utility,  evidence,  etc. ;"  e.  //.,  marks  of  viajesty  and  tender- 
ness in  the  words  of  Jesus,  marks  of  infirmity  in  the  words  of  his 
disciples,  the  necessity  of  Christ's  advent,  of  the  mission  of  the 
Divine  Spirit,  and  his  abiding  with  us ;  the  utility  of  the  miracles 
of  Christ ;  the  evidence  of  the  truths  which  are  already  disputed  or 
are  likely  to  be  contradicted.  This  evidence  may  be  hi  some  cases 
drawn  from  those  Scriptures  where  the  truths  are  set  forth  with 
great  prommence  and  distinctness ;  in  other  cases  it  may  be  derived 
from  many  passages,  "  so  that,  all  together,  they  may  diifuse  a  great 
brightness  upon  the  text,  and  clearly  show  its  true  sense." 

XXIV.  "  licmark  degrees,"  i.  e.,  in  error,  ignorance,  and  guilt,  as 
exemplified  in  the  Scriptures  and  particularly  in  the  writings  of 
Paul,  -Nvho  does  not  always  use  the  same  vehemence  in  s]ieaking 
against  error.  (Compare  Gal.  i.  8,  9;  Eom.  xiv.  2-4;  1  Cor.  iii. 
15,  17  ;  Acts  xvii.  IC.) 

XXV.  "  Observe  different  interests."  Thus  when  the  Lord 
Jesus  healed  the  withered  hand  in  the  sj-nagogue  on  the  Sabbatli, 
the  Divine  Ilealcr,  the  afllicted  man,  and  the  llorodians  and  the 
Pharisees  had  different  interests  in  the  miracle.     Each  resjjarded  it 


ADAPTATION.  191 

in  the  light  of  his  own  character  and  desires.     Cf.  Tholuck's  vol. 
of  sermons,  entitled  "  The  Light  of  the  World." 

XXVI.  "Distinguish.     Define.     Divide." 

XXVII.  "  Compare  the  different  parts  of  the  text  together."  If 
Rom.  viii.  1  be  the  text,  we  may  compare  the  first  ])art  and  the 
last,  and  show  from  the  one  what  God  does  for  the  faithful,  and  in 
the  other  what  the  faithful  do  for  the  glory  of  God.  So  again  if 
the  text  be  Eph.  ii.  4,  5,  we  may  compare  these  two  phrases,  "  dead 
in  sin  "  and  "  rich  in  mercy,"  as  being  two  extremes — extreme  mis- 
ery and  extreme  mercy,  one  in  us  and  the  other  in  God. 

Commentai'ies  on  thes'e  commonplaces  of  Claude  have  been 
written  by  Robinson,  Simeon,  and  Sturtevant,  See  also  Arte  dl 
PvecUcar  Bene,  by  P.  Segneri,  in  Operc,  tome  iv.,  pp.  982-985 
(Milan  ed.,  1847). 

Section"  VIII. — Adaptation. 

Very  comprehensive  is  this  remark  which  Gregory  the  Great 
makes  in  one  of  his  homilies,^  "  An  instructor  ought  to  consider 
what,  to  whom,  when,  in  what  manner,  and  how  much  he  speaks." 

In  discussing  the  matter  of  sermons  w^e  suggested  that  the  choice 
of  it  will  depend  partly  on  the  necessity  of  adapting  it  to  the  capa- 
cities and  needs  of  the  hearers.  The  rhetorical  canons  of  adapta- 
tion have  usually  been  applied  in  composing  and  teaching  all  the 
principles  and  precepts  of  homiletics.  And  it  would  indeed  be 
more  philosoi^hical  to  assign  them  no  separate  place  in  a  system  of 
rhetoric.  But  as  they  often  afford  invaluable  assistance  in  the 
choice  not  only  of  the  texts  but  of  the  subject-matter  of  sermons, 
we  have  thought  good  to  consider  them  as  being  among  the  fore- 
most of  those  things  that  belong  to  invention,  without  denying  that 
their  jurisdiction  reaches  every  part  of  homiletics. 

Not  a  few  modern  writers  and  teachers  proceed  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  public  addresses  of  Christ,  the  apostles,  and  other 
prophets  do  not  furnish  the  proper  basis  on  which  to  build  a  system 
of  sacred  rhetoric,  for  the  reason  that  they  lack  adaptation  to  modern 
occidental  minds  and  temperaments.  This  we  cannot  allow.  On 
the  contrary,  we  hold  firmly  and  boldly  the  ground  that  no  produc- 
tions merely  human  are  so  well  adapted  to  the  minds  and  condition 
of  the  mass  of  mankind.  Few  things  in  these  addresses  are  more 
instructive  than  these  very  adaptations,  whether  we  consider  their 
kind  or  their  degree. 


1  Horn,  in  Ezek.  iii.  19. 


192  ADAPTATION. 

1.  They  spoke  the  language  of  their  unrefined  hearers;  not  the 
words  and  phrases  that  were  pecuhar  to  a  cultivated  few,  or  to  men 
of  any  particular  vocation,  hut  the  language  of  the  common  people. 
Herein  their  example  ought  to  he  imitated  at  the  present  time. 

2.  They  always  preached  on  subjects  which  were  of  immediate 
personal  concern  to  their  hearers — subjects  which  they  took  every 
opportunity  to  apjtly  to  the  heart  and  conscience.  Their  applica- 
tions were  interstitial,  or  made  at  irregular  intervals,  after  the  man- 
ner of  attacks  in  running  fights.  So  intent  on  experimental  and 
practical  eftects  were  they 'that  they  indulged  in  digressions,  repeti- 
tions, parentheses,  ejaculations,  and  exclamations,  in  order  that  they 
might  make  those  ever  runnhig  and  ever-returning  applications.  Is 
there  anythmg  of  this  kind  in  uninspired  examples  of  eloquence, 
whether  sacred  or  secular,  that  is  so  worthy  of  our  imitation  in  this 
respect  ? 

3.  They  derived  their  similes,  metaphors,  illustrations,  and  images 
from  things  that  were  either  familiar  or  visible  to  their  hearers. 
The  works  of  creation,  the  arts,  occupations,  and  customs  of  common 
life,  well  known  historical  persons  and  events,  and  true  religion, 
idolatries,  and  things  usually  and  publicly  connected  M'ith  them 
were  the  sources  whence  they  borrowed  their  figures.  The  modem 
student  should  mark  and  digest  the  fact  that  they  never  drew  their 
imagery  from  such  mysteries  of  art,  discoveries  of  science,  or  such 
other  matters  as  Avere  or  could  be  known  only  to  the  learned  few. 
Agreeably  to  these  views,  the  sermons  of  Antony  of  Padua,  the 
most  popular  preacher  of  his  time,  and  those  of  Latimer  and  White- 
field,  are  illustrated  from  the  occupations  and  general  knowledge 
of  their  audiences. 

Besides  those  exterior  r.daptations,  which  they  share  in  common 
with  the  less  instructive  oratory  of  classic  antiquity,  these  inspired 
sermons  show  interior  ones  peculiar  to  themselves,  which  they  owe 
to  their  direct  and  vital  relations  to  the  Divine  Si:)irit,  who  not  only 
suggested,  proper  thoughts  and  words  in  every  emergency,  but  also 
taught  beforehand  the  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  religion. 

1.  As  they  who  spoke  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
were  "  holy  men,"  i.  c,  regenerate  and  more  or  less  sanctified,  their 
language  and  style  were  such  as  were  to  be  expected  from  their 
renewed  hearts  and  enlightened  understandings.  Even  the  unin- 
spired utterances  of  such  men,  when  they  spoke  on  a  religious  sub- 
ject, would  be  more  grave,  animated,  reverent,  clear,  and  forcible 
than  the  utterances  of  unregenerate  men  when  they  spoke  on  the 
same  subject.  Here,  therefore,  exterior  adaptations  were  held  in 
check  by  the  demands  of  interior  adaj^tations ;  in  other  words,  sane- 


ADAPTATION.  193 

tifying  grace  transformed  the  speech  of  these  men  of  God  so  that 
it  ceased,  in  some  respects,  to  be  conformed  to  the  speech  of  their 
unrenewed  hearers.  The  prophet  Isaiah  appears  to  have  felt  that 
the  prevailing  style  of  his  people  needed  to  be  reformed  before  it 
could  properly  embody  divine  revelations.^  And  it  is  reasonable 
to  infer  from  his  deep-felt  want,  and  the  assurance  he  received  of  a 
gracious  supply,  that  he  was  enabled  to  raise  his  style  far  above  the 
requirements  of  an  exterior  adaptation. 

2.  The  inspiring  Spirit  sometimes  exacted  such  an  adaptation  to 
himself  as  occasioned  aversion  or  surprise  in  hearers  who  judged  of 
speaking  according  to  common  desires  or  expectations.  Isaiah,  or 
rather  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  spoke  by  his  mouth,  was  wearisome  to 
some  critical  persons  by  reason  of  the  repetitions  and  want  of  con- 
nection they  detected  in  his  utterances.^  The  people  complained 
that  Ezekiel  spoke  parables.^  The  disciples  asked  our  Lord  why 
he  spoke  to  the  multitude  in  parables.^  Peter  was  in  doubt 
whether  a  certain  parable  was  intended  for  the  disciples  or  for  all.^ 
Our  Divine  Master  was  also  observed  by  the  Jews  to  speak  in  a 
different  manner  from  those  degenerate  prophets,  the  Scribes,  and 
by  Roman  officers  to  speak  with  more  than  human  eloquence.*^  The 
apostle  Paul  purj^osely  disregarded  the  rules  of  the  rhetoricians 
and  sophists  of  his  day,  and  exhorted  Timothy  to  avoid  their  con- 
tentiousness and  profane  and  vain  babblings.'^  And  yet  he  proved 
the  truth  of  the  saying  of  Pascal,  that  "  eloquence  is  the  contemjDt 
of  eloquence ;"  for  the  citizens  of  Lystra,  who  had  no  doubt  heard 
some  of  the  best  secular  orators  of  their  time,  were  so  carried  away 
with  the  preaching  of  the  apostle,  that  they  mistook  him  for  Hermes 
incarnate,  the  god  of  eloquence  himself 

These,  and  other  like  instances,  show  an  imperfect  adjustment,  if 
we,  the  imperfect,  view  them  merely  on  their  human  side,  and  test 
them  by  nothing  better  than  secular  standards  of  taste.  But 
if  we  could  view  them  on  their  divine  side  we  should  find  that 
there  the  adaptation  is  perfect,  and  that  it  is  our  depravity  or  our 
ignorance  that  prevents  a  perfect  accommodation  on  their  human 
side.  Nor  are  these  observations  without  their  modern  uses.  They 
inform  us  that  the  sermon  should,  first  of  all,  and  at  the  hazard  of 
transffressincj  the  laws  of  an  earth-born  taste,  be  conformed  to  the 
teachings  of  sacred  Scripture,  the  new  life  of  the  preacher,  and  the 
inspirations,  revelations,  and  teachings  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

1  Isa.  vi.  5-7.  2  isa.  xxviii.  9-13.        3  Ezek.  xx.  49.  4  Matt.  xiii.  10. 

5  Luke  xii.  41.        6  Matt.  vii.  29  ;  John  vli.  46. 

7 1  Cor.  ii.  4  ;  iv.  2;   1  Tim.  vi.  20;  2  Tim.  ii.  24,  25. 


194  ADAPTATION. 

The  study  of  these  interior  nriaptations  is  the  more  instructive 
when  we  reflect  that  they  were  the  work  of  Omniscience.  "  The 
Inditer  of  tliese  books,"  says  Lord  Bacon,^  "  knew  four  things,  whicli 
no  man  attains  to  know,  Avliicli  are  :  the  mysteries  of  the  kingdom  of 
glory,  the  perfection  of  tlie  laws  of  nature,  the  secrets  of  the  heart 
of  man,  and  the  future  succession  of  all  ages." 

The  kind  of  adaptation  we  here  maintain  and  inculcate,  must, 
liowever,  be  received  with  due  allowance  for  what  Ave  have  said  in 
the  Introduction,  and  in  the  chapter  on  Naturalness  concerning  the 
difference  between  copying  and  imitating.  At  the  same  time,  we 
admit  that  as  the  intellectual  and  spiritual  state  and  circumstances 
of  modern  men  differ  in  some  places  and  in  some  respects  from 
those  of  the  men  to  whom  the  inspired  preachers  first  spoke,  so 
the  style  of  modern  preachers  should  sometimes,  and  in  some 
respects,  be  unlike  that  of  the  Hebrew  and  Hellenistic  preachers. 
We  also  admit  that  many  passages  of  Scripture  had  a  local,  but  we 
deny  that  they  had  either  a  merely  local  or  a  merely  temporary 
application.  We  further  concede  that  the  character  and  mission  of 
some  of  the  Scripture  speakers  authorised  them  to  employ  a  mode 
of  address  which  we  cannot  adopt  without  irreverence  and  pre- 
sumption. 

This  position  is  not  essentially  different  from  that  taken  by  such 
rhetoricians  as  Schott  and  Theremin.  The  former,^  in  a  paragraph 
which  is  mainly  directed  against  those  who,  like  Stier,  cojvj  rather 
than  imitate  the  inspired  speakers,  and  quote  Scripture  excessively, 
propounds  it  as  a  rule  that  the  style  of  pulpit  eloquence  as  well  as 
the  substance  of  it  should  be  distinctly  Christian ;  that  although 
the  modern  preacher  may  write  in  a  more  systematic  manner,  and 
prepare  himself  more  elaborately  for  his  discourses  than  the  sacred 
penmen  chose  to  do,  still  he  should  make  fi-equent  use  of  their 
phraseology,  and  should  present  their  doctrines  in  the  form  whicli 
was  originally  given  them,  so  far  as  that  form  is  congruous  with 
the  uninspired  character  of  modern  writing,  and  with  the  necessities 
of  the  present  age.  The  votary  of  any  science  will  prefer  to  express 
himself,  if  he  can  do  so  with  perfect  propriety,  in  the  language  of 
those  who  originated  the  science ;  for  this  language  is  apt  to  have 
an  unequalled  freshness,  vivacity,  and  pertinence."  Theremin,^  writ- 
ing on  "  The  Law  of  Adaptation,"  gives  a  less  qualified  support  to 

1  Advancement  of  Learning,  B.  ii. 

2  Theorie  der  Beredsamkeit.    See  condensed  trans,  by  D.-.  Tark,  Bib.  Sac,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  38. 

3  Die  Beredsamkeit  eine  Tugenil,  D.v  Sliedd's  trans,  (revised  ed.\  p.  172. 


ADAPTATION.  195 

our  opinion.  "  I  ■would  recommend  to  all  sacred  orators  the  fre- 
quent employment  of  the  expressions  and  images  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures  as  a  highly  adapted  and  effectual  means  of  exciting  affec- 
tion, provided  only  they  be  not  brought  in  merely  to  fill  up  empty 
space,  but  are  fused  into  the  discourse,  retaining  their  whole  dignity 
and  force.  They  are  highly  adapted ;  for  the  language  of  the  Bible 
can  never  become  antiquated,  because  it  affords  so  many  deeply 
significant  expressions  for  the  manifold  conditions  of  human  life  and 
states  of  the  human  heart,  many  of  which  appear  as  proverbial 
phrases  in  the  language  of  common  intercourse ;  and  however  much 
religious  education  and  the  reading  of  the  Bible  may  have  been 
neglected,  the  orator  may  yet,  in  the  case  of  the  generality  of 
hearers,  reckon  with  certainty  upon  a  thought  being  understood 
sooner  in  a  Biblical  than  in  a  philosophical  dress.  But  the  great 
power  of  Bible  language  in  awakening  affection,  consists  princi- 
pally in  this :  that  in  it  the  expression  for  the  understanding  and 
the  expression  for  the  feelings  are  not  different,  as  in  merely  human 
rejDresentations,  but  are  always  one  and  the  same.  The  figures,  so 
frequent  in  the  Bible,  while  they  have  all  the  precision  of  an  abstract 
terminology,  at  the  same  time  transfer  the  idea  into  the  web  of 
human  relationshij^s,  and  clothe  it  with  all  that  can  have  an  influ- 
ence upon  the  mind ;  they  are  a  ray  which  unites  in  one  both  light 
and  heat,  and  passes  over  from  the  mind  into  the  heart,  thus  kin- 
kling  the  whole  maT-!."^  To  this  we  might  add  that  these  figures 
are  like  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  that  they  possess  a  photographic 
virtue ;  even  where  they  do  not  enlighten  or  warm  they  are  sure  to 
impress. 

All  preachers  have  not  the  same  natural  power  of  adaptation. 
Those  young  men  who  find  themselves  constitutionally  wanting  in  a 
safe  and  beneficent  versatility,  may  be  encouraged  by  the  thought 
that  the  temptations,  persecutions,  and  other  adversities  of  life,  will 
conspire  to  improve  them  in  this  particular.  Maturer  years  will 
perhaps  find  them,  like  Paul  the  aged,  hammered  into  Damask  hard- 
ness and  flexibility .2 

Both  these  qualities  are  now  demanded,  especially  the  former. 
Great  is  our  temptation  to  consult  and  provide  for  the  taste  of  our 
hearers  in  matters  that  are  far  from  indifferent.  Woe  to  the 
preacher  who,  as  to  the  matter  of  his  sermons,  adopts  the  maxim 

1  Cf.  Erasmus,  Eccl..  L.  iii.  ad  fin.;  Dr.  John  Edwards'  Preacher,  Pt.  1 ,  pp.  290- 
304  ;  Abp.  Sumner's  Ministerial  Character  of  Christ,  chap.  vi.  ;  Christian  Palmer's 
Homiletik,  5th  ed.,  pp.  470-508. 

2  See  l«Cor.  ix.  19-23. 


196  ADAPTATION. 

of  Hippocrates,  "  The  second-best  medicine  is  better  than  the  best 
if  the  patient  likes  it  best."  But  may  we  not  always  innocently 
adopt  the  prevailing  taste  as  to  style?  Believe  it  not.  Some  of  the 
great  Anglican  divines  of  the  seventeenth  century  would  have  been, 
more  useful  if  they  had  abandoned  the  Latinized,  formal,  and  lifeless 
style  then  in  fashion.  How  soon  would  Vieyra's  genius  have 
peri.shed  and  been  forgotten  if  he  had  not  forsaken  the  cstylo  culfo 
which  polished  away  the  strength  of  Portuguese  preachers  not  a 
few.  Herein  Satan  says  to  every  young  preacher,  "  Worship  me 
and  I  will  give  thee  the  world."  Blessed  is  he  that  can  in  the 
strength  of  the  Almighty  reply,  "  It  is  by  walking  over  thee  that  I 
am  to  vanquish  the  world." 

It  is  to  be  lamented,  is  it  not  ?  that  popularity  and  edification  can 
be  so  seldom  united  in  the  same  ijreacher.  'Nothing,'  says 
Chrysostom,! '  more  effectually  raises  a  man's  esteem,  not  only  among 
Gentiles  but  Christians,  than  a  copious  and  florid  eloquence.'  But 
this  popular  fecundity  is  scarcely  compatible  with  the  sober  and 
less  attractive  qualities  which  belong  to  the  successful  Christian 
teacher.  The  edifying  rural  pastor  is  too  wise  to  take  his  pattern 
from  the  popular  city  preacher  who  has  picked  a  great  congregation 
out  of  a  vast  community  of  changeful  residents  and  strangers,  where 
this  proverb  ever  holds  good,  "  Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together." 
Reinhard^  had  the  good  sense  to  confess  that  his  university  sermons 
were  not  suitable  for  mixed  assemblies  and  coimtry  congregations. 

It  demands  divine  wisdom  to  determine  the  emotional  tone 
proper  to  different  congregations.  An  enterprising,  commercial 
people,  like  Edward  Payson's  in  Portland,  did  not  need  many  con- 
solatory sermons.  Those  who  have  much  leisure,  persons  living  in 
opulence  and  retirement,  suffer  most  from  afiliction;  because  in 
them  a  tender  sensibility  and  a  powerful  imagination  often  create 
worlds  of  trouble  out  of  nothingness.  Evening  congregations  of 
young  people  do  not  always,  as  some  preachers  suppose,  desire, 
much  less  need,  a  tone  of  cheerfulness  which  occasionally  descends 
to  levity.  Everything  considered,  the  preacher  may  safely  follow 
Rjickert's  advice  to  the  minstrel : 


"  Wouklst  thou  seek,  williin  man's  heart 
To  slriUe  eacli  secret  string  1 
To  thy  song  sad  tones  impart, 
Not  strains  of  ghidness  sing. 

1  D3  Sacerdotio,  L.  v.,  C.  vii.     Cf.  St.  Jerome's  Comment  on  Eccles.  ix.  11. 

2  Confessions,  12lh  Letter.  • 


J 


ADAPTATION.  I97 

Many  a  man  bath  lived  on  earth 

Whom  joy  hath  seldom  blessed  ; 
None  but  bears,  from  earliest  birth, 

Some  grief  within  his  breast." 

The  Eev.  W.  W.  Skeat's  Translalion. 

But  quitting  these  more  general  considerations  as  to  the  adapta- 
tions of  the  Scrij^ture  matter  and  style,  to  men  of  every  nation, 
class,  and  condition,  Ave  find  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  this  ques- 
tion which  every  pastor  has  daily  to  meet :  What  are  the  different 
kinds,  and  what  are  the  varieties  of  spiritual  state  and  experience 
among  my  own  hearers  ? 

"  He  preaches  best,"  says  Jean  La  Placette,^  "  who  best  supplies 
the  spiritual  wants  of  his  hearers."  Now  in  order  to  accomplish 
this  grand  object,  it  would  be  well  for  the  young  preacher  to  keep 
before  him  certain  memoranda  or  commonplaces :  e.  r/.,  There  are 
among  my  hearers  three  general  classes  :  the  converted,  the  uncon- 
verted, whom  I  may  hope  to  lead  to  Christ,  and  the  hardened  sin- 
ners, to  most  of  whom  the  Gospel  seems  to  be  but  a  savour  of  death 
unto  death.  Among  the  first  class,  how  many  are  there  who  are 
evidently  regenerate,  but  have  troublesome  doubts  about  the  gen- 
uineness of  their  conversion  ?  How  many  have  a  comfortable  assur- 
ance of  their  gracious  state  ?  Who  are  among  the  backsliding  and 
the  fallen  ?  Who  are  afflicted  with  the  temptations  of  Satan,  and 
who  with  bereveaments  and  other  temporal  adversities  ?  Who  are 
evidently  neglecting  the  duties  they  owe  to  their  relatives,  to  their 
business,  to  the  Church,  to  the  poor,  to  the  sick,  or  to  works  of 
Christian  benevolence  ?  And  so  of  the  other  two  classes.  Then 
what  is  the  average  general  intelligence  of  my  congregation  ?  What 
the  kind  and  the  amount  of  Christian  knowledge  among  them  ? 
Are  any  of  them  ignorant  of  the  plan  of  salvation  through  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  ?  Or  of  any  of  the  distinctive  doctrines*  or  duties  of 
the  Gospel  system  ?  This  is  but  a  specimen  of  such  memoranda  ; 
and  it  would  be  well,  as  one  of  the  results  of  the  daily  study  of  the 
Bible,  to  place-over  against  such  items,  on  the  same  or  opposite  page, 
references  to  the  example  of  Christ,  the  apostles,  and  prophets  in 
handling  similar  cases.  To  carry  such  a  plan  into  execution  involves 
two,  or  rather  three,  things :  the  study  of  the  life  and  times  of  each 
inspired  preacher;  the  application  to  each  of  his  addresses  of  the 
maxim  of  Gregory  with  which  we  open  this  section ;  and  the  deter- 
mination of  the  kind  and  measure  of  its  adaptability  to  the  preacher 
and  his  congregation.     When  the  Scriptures  are  examined  rhetori- 

1  Avis  sur  la  Maniere  de  Precher,  Rotterdam,  1753. 


198  ADAPTATION. 

cally,  they  throw  on  the  preacher's  way  a  light  more  clear  and  more 
broad  than  that  which  is  emitted  by  a  criticism,  however  valuable 
in  itself,  that  ends  with  the  mere  interpretation  of  texts  and  words. 
As  we  have  already  said  more  on  this  subject  than  the  majority 
of  our  readers  will  thank  us  for,  Ave  hasten,  in  conclusion,  pointedly 
to  guard  the  classical  student  against  the  malign  effects  of  a  long 
habituation  to  the  study  of  classical  eloquence,  imless  he  shall  neu- 
tralise them  by  the  concurrent  study  of  the  sacred  and  insjiired 
oracles.  Truly  has  Tholuck  said  that,  "  it  is  by  no  means  unimpor- 
tant for  the  preacher  that  he  acquaint  himself  with  the  lever  by 
which  the  orators  of  the  old  world  have  moved  so  powerfully  the 
minds  of  men."  Let  him  study  their  speeches  and  welcome ;  but 
let  him  remember  that  if  he  rises  from  such  study  intellectually 
stronger,  he  as  certainly  rises  therefrom  spiritually,  if  not  morally, 
weaker:  if  the  fabulous  Antrous  received  fresh  energy  from  the 
earth  as  often  as  he  was  cast  down  upon  it,  he  also,  as  we  may  fancy, 
brought  up  to  each  new  struggle,  limbs  more  widely  besmeared 
with  clay,  or  more  deeply  embrowned  Avith  dust ;  and  he  is  slain  at 
last  by  a  more  erected  giant,  who  sought  no  such  cumbering  assis- 
tance. 


i 


PART  I. 

THE  MATTER  OF  SERMONS  AS  DETERMINED  BY  THEIR  OBJECTS. 


Aristotlei  makes  a  difference  between  the  ergon^  or  function  of 
the  orator,  and  his  telos^  or  final  purpose ;  his  function  being  to  con- 
vince, persuade,  or  praise,  and  the  object  he  aims  at  and  strives  to 
attain  being  expediency,  or  justice,  or  honour.  The  teleological 
aspects  of  public  speaking  in  general,  or  of  preaching  in  particular, 
we  do  not  think  it  worth  while  to  survey ;  of  the  final  causes  of 
the  various  kinds  of  preaching,  the  Scriptures  do  not  leave  us  igno- 
rant. As  this  system  is  practical,  intended  to  vitalise,  invigorate, 
and  train  the  young  preacher  for  actual  and  effective  service,  it  may 
be  pardoned  for  ignoring  all  abstract  speculations  on  the  ultimate 
ends  of  preaching.  This  .division,  of  our  work  (Parts  first  and 
second)  treats  of  those  subject-matters  which  subserve  the  immedi- 
ate objects  of  the  preacher.  On  some  occasions  his  several  immedi- 
ate objects  will  be  to  explain,  convince,  excite,  and  apply ;  at  other 
times  his  one  immediate  object  will  be  either  to  excite  or  to  apply, 
or  otherwise.  It  may,  indeed,  be  said  that  his  mediate  object  or 
objects  will  then  be  to  produce  the  moral  and  spiritual  effects  of 
explication,  conviction,  and  application.  Be  it  so ;  only  let  not  the 
reader  misapprehend  the  contents  of  this  part  of  our  system. 


1  Rhet.,  B.  i.,  chap.  iii.  ;  cf.  Rhet.  ad  Alex  ,  chap,  ii.,  sec.  vi. ;  Cicero  De  Oral., 
B  i.,  chap.  xxxi. ;  De  Partit.,  chap,  iii.;  De  Invent.,  B.  ii.,  chap.  v.  ;  Auct.  ad 
Herenn.,  B.  iii ,  chap.  iii. ;  Quint  ,  B  iii.,  chap  iv.,  sec.  14. 

199  14 


200  EXPLICATION. 

CHAPTER  I. 

EXPLICATION. 

The  mass  of  Scripture  texts  demands  neither  explication  nor 
confirmation,  but  simply  a  declaration  of  what  they  contain,  imme- 
diately followed  by  a  varied  and  thorough  application  of  the  same. 
Let  not  this  be  lost  sight  of  while  we  are  studying  this  chapter, 
much  less  while  composing  sermons.^ 

Sectiox  I. 

Explication  has  for  its  object  the  conveyance  of  clear  comprehen- 
sive and  impressive  ideas  of  the  text  or  subject  of  discourse.  It 
may,  therefore,  relate  either  to  the  words  or  to  the  matter  of  obscure 
passages  of  Scripture.  We  have  here  to  do,  not  with  the  principles 
of  interpretation,  but  with  the  manner  of  didactically  presenting  to 
the  hearers  the  results  of  studies  hemeneutically  conducted. 

The  examples  of  inspired  elucidation  are  not  very  numerous, 
for  the  obvious  reason  that  it  was  the  office  of  the  primitive  preach- 
ers to  reveal  the  truths  of  our  religion,  and  not  to  explain  them. 
And  we  may  add  that  they  revealed  these  truths  so  clearly  to  those 
Avho  first  heard  them  that  elucidation  was  but  seldom  necessary. 
We  have,  however,  in  the  Deuteronomy  of  Moses,  in  the  sermons 
of  Ezekiel  (chaps,  xvii.  and  xxxiii.),  in  Christ's  discourses,  and  in 
those  of  Peter,  Stephen,  Paul,  and  James,  a  few  instances  of  popular 
explication.  In  respect  of  these,  however,  we  must  consider  that 
their  elucidations  were  likewise  inspired ;  so  that  they  show  none 
of  those  marks  of  critical  inquiry  and  of  elaborate  discussion  which 
the  modern  uninspired  expounder  of  difficult  texts  is  sometimes 
forced  to  exhibit.  While,  therefore,  the  sacred  writers  and  speak- 
ers were  not  exposed  to  the  temptation  of  appearing  learned,  or  of 


1  It  is  well  to  teach  the  people  not  only  to  apprehend  such  texts  as  can  be 
explained,  but  also  what  is  more  diflicult,  to  relish,  admire,  and  reverence  such 
texts  as  they  cannot  comprehend.  The  ultra-practical  Francis  de  Sales,  after 
hearing  from  another  in  his  own  pulpit  a  sublime  sermon  that  greatly  delighted 
his  mountaineers,  asked  some  of  them  what  they  had  gained  from  it.  One  of  them, 
more  frank  than  the  rest,  replied:  "This  preacher  teaches  us  to  esteem  more 
highly  the  grandeur  of  the  mysteries  of  our  religion."  De  Sales  was  forced 
to  confess  that  this  man,  at  least,  had  profited  by  the  sermon  (Camus,  Pt. 
v.,  c.  iv. )  Those  states  of  the  adectiona  which  the  Spirit  of  Truth  inspires, 
are  notably  requisite  to  a  right  understanding  of  figures  (see  pp.  404,  40G,  418, 
420).  By  the  way,  in  the  Index  of  Figures  and  elsewhere,  we  liave  rendered 
Greek  letters  into  their  Roman  equivalents  after  the  manner  of  the  Latin 
lexicographers.  The  difference  between  the  diphthongs  (C  and  a,  where  thus 
printed  in  Italia,  is  too  apt  to  be  overlooked. 


EXPLICATION.  201 

needless  and  prolix  commenting,  they  nevertheless  furnish  us  some 
imitable  points  of  excellence. 

The  inspired  speakers  and  writer,3  were  not  the  slaves  of  mere 
words.  Our  Lord  and  the  apostles  quoted  freely  from  the  Septua- 
gint,  which  was  far  from  being  a  perfectly  critical  version  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures. 

They  do  not  endeavour  to  make  each  word  and  sentence  under- 
,  stood  as  soon  as  it  is  commimicated.  On  the  contrary  they  not 
unfrequently  teach  parabolically ;  they  speak  at  first  obscurely  but 
attractively,  in  order  that  they  may  at  once  excite  curiosity  and  fix 
attention;  that  they  may  follow  the  common  habit  of  thinking 
synthetically,  or  of  ascending  from  particulars  to  generals.  Their 
method  of  explication  is  substantially  that  of  Socrates.  "  To  Soc- 
rates," says  Aristotle,  "  we  may  unquestionably  assign  two  novelties 
— inductive  discourses,  and  the  definition  of  general  terms."  He 
aspired  to  create  earnest  seekers  and  analytical  intellects,  capable 
of  forming  conclusions  for  themselves  and  teaching  others.  After 
puzzling  novices  with  negative  questions  sufiiciently,  he  desisted 
from  embarrassing  them,  altered  his  tone,  and  addressed  to  them 
clear,  positive,  and  practical  exhortations.  The  general  resemblance 
of  the  Socratic  inductions  to  the  parables  of  our  Lord  may  be 
traced  by  an  examination  of  our  rhetorical  analysis  of  the  latter, 
which  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Style. 

They  conveyed  divine  knowledge  progressively.  According  to 
the  rules  of  a  sound  didactics,  the  teacher  is  not  only  to  let  himself 
down  to  the  capacity  of  the  leai'ner,  but  to  remember  that  the  laws 
of  the  human  mind  demand  that  it  should  receive  all  instruction 
gradually,  because,  as  Quintilian  says,i  disciples  are  like  narrow- 
necked  vessels  which  reject  a  great  quantity  of  the  liquid  that  is 
suddenly  poured  upon  them,  but  are  filled  with  that  which  is 
poured  into  them  by  degrees. 

They  do  not  make  explanation  a  formal  part  of  their  sermons,  but 
mix  elucidations  with  argumentative,  excitatory,  and  persuasive  mat- 
ter, without  regarding  any  other  method  than  that  which  the  Spirit 
of  Wisdom  inspires.  They  never  give  "  a  running  comment "  on 
holy  Scripture. 

Subsection  I. — In  explaining  texts  the  following  canons  may  be 
of  considerable  service : 

Certain  texts  have  a  "  double  sense,"  e.  //.,  Gen.  xxviii.  12  relates 
historically  to  Jacob,  but  typhically  to  Christ  (John  i.  51).     So  Psa. 

1  Inst.  Orat ,  L.  i.,  chap,  ii ,  sec.  28  ;  Sumner's  Ministerial  Character  of  Christ ; 
chap,  v.,  On  the  Gradual  Teaching  of  Christ. 


202  EXPLICATION. 

Ixxii.  has  for  its  subject  both  Solomon  and  the  jMessiah.  In  such 
cases  this  rule  of  Augustine  may  be  followed :  "  When  a  text  of 
Scripture  may  be  understood  in  two  senses,  we  are  permitted  to 
adopt  either,  provided  no  rule  of  faith  forbids." 

Other  texts  have  not  a  ''  double  sense,''^  but  a  double,  yes,  some- 
times a  manifold  application ;  c.  (/.,  Psa.  xcvii.  11 ;  Luke  xvi.  8. 

We  here  intend  those  texts  which  naturally  guggest  an  alternative 
or  disjunctive  division  of  a  subject. 

It  contributes  to  a  clear  understanding  of  many  a  text  to  state 
the  cause  of  difficulty  or  ground  for  doubtiug.  Nothing,  again,  is 
more  satisfactory  than  to  show  either  where  the  obscurity  rests,  or 
why  the  Divine  Spirit  permits  it  still  to  remain.  Hence  the  exposi- 
tion in  the  same  sermon  of  two  or  more  texts  that  are  apparently 
contradictory  is  sometimes  advantageous.  (See  examples  of  this 
kind  in  the  works  of  Andrew  Fuller  and  Archbishop  Whately.) 

Ascertain  not  only  what  the  text  expresses,  but  also  what  it  i/n- 
plies.  Inferences  belong  to  the  application ;  implications  to  the 
exposition. 

Preachers  often  make  two  mistakes.  The  one  is  that  of  taking 
for  granted  that,  because  the  majority  of  their  congregation  have 
been  instructed  in  Sunday-schools,  Bible-classes,  and  families,  they 
must,  require  no  elucidation  of  texts.  The  other  is  that  of  presuming 
that  most  auditors  know  nothing  about  the  Scriptures,  and  that  con- 
sequently we  are  always  in  danger  of  preaching  beyond  the  com- 
prehension of  the  generality.  Those  who  make  the  first  mistake 
are,  for  the  most  part,  declaimers  on  topical  subjects,  and  in  their 
high-flying  disdain  of  critical  studies,  love  to  quote  the  old  adage, 
"  Aquila  non  capiat  muscas.''''  The  other  class,  ever  busy  with 
roots  and  etymologies,  grow  indifferent  to  principles,  systems,  and 
their  many  and  various  applications.  Finding  mountains  of  mean- 
ing concealed  under  every  part  of  the  received  version,  they  timidly 
creep  from  one  clause  of  the  original  to  another ;  and  while  they  are 
ferreting  out  critical  errors  here  and  there,  they  are  lost  sight  of 
by  the  common  auditors,  and  so  come  habitually  to  speak  as  the 
scribes,  and  not  with  authority. 

Read  and  read  a  passage  before  you  publish  from  tlic  pulpit  your 
dissent  from  the  common  acceptation  of  it.  Young  men  are  apt  to 
make  wonderful  discoveries  in  exegesis.  Gesenius  did  so  in  his 
earlier  career,  but  his  last  revisions  of  his  works  evince  that  he  had 
already  given  up  not  a  few  novelties,  and  was  gradually  returning  to 
the  more  orthodox  interpretations.  Even  Tischendorf  has  lately  re- 
tracted some  of  his  i*arlier  textual  criticisms.  "  Tlie  art  of  criticism  is," 
as  Longiiuis  somewhere  says, "  the  last  offspring  of  long  experience." 


EXPLICATION.  203 

Temptations  and  aflBiictions  are  the  best  commentators  on  experi- 
mental and  devotional  texts.  Baxter  says  that,  shut  up  to  sickness 
and  his  Bible,  he  discovered  more  in  one  week  than  he  had  done 
before  in  seventeen  years'  reading,  hearing,  and  wrangling.  And 
yet  let  us  beware  of  taking  it  for  granted  that  "  the  most  obvious 
sense  of  such  texts  is  always  the  true  sense." 

Do  not  imagine  that  every  sort  of  comment  on  the  context  will 
elucidate  the  text.  "  When  the  sentiments  of  the  context,"  says  Dr. 
Campbell,  "  do  not  happen  to  have  any  coincidence  with  those  em- 
ployed by  the  preacher,  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  to  take  any 
notice  of  the  context  at  all.  Nay,  it  often  proves  in  fact  rather  a 
digression  from  the  subject  than  a  constituent  part  of  the  discourse." 
Study  the  Scriptures  rhetor icalhj .  Some  cf  the  blunders  of  Biblical 
critics  and  commentators  have  resulted  from  a  lack  of  the  knowl- 
edge or  of  the  application  of  the  rules  of  rhetoric. 

Suhscctio7i  11. — In  the  elucidation  of  objects  or  events  we  may  eA- 
ploy  description  and  narration.  Description  is  proper  in  explainino- 
material  objects  existing  in  space,  or  spiritual  objects  which  may  be 
conceived  of  under  relations  analogous  to  those  of  space ;  in  brief, 
all  objects  or  acts  which  may  be  regarded  irrespectively  of  the  idea 
of  time.  A  "  description,"  says  Schott,  "  may  be  2vosaic,  designed 
merely  to  give  to  the  intellect  a  clear  idea  of  the  events  or  acts 
described ;  or  it  may  be  ^joetical,  designed  to  bring  these  acts  or 
events  into  our  ideal  presence,  and  to  excite  the  imagination  and 
feelings ;  or  it  may  be  oratorical,  designed  to  influence  the  whole 
soul  and  especially  the  will."  It  is  very  evident  that  prosaic  de- 
scription is  to  be  chosen  rather  than  either  of  the  other  two  sorts 
for  purposes  of  mere  explication.  Narration  is  the  explanation  of 
material  or  mental  objects  or  events  in  their  relation  either  to  suc- 
cession of  time  or  of  cause  and  effect.  Theremin  admits  narration 
into  discourses,  but  entirely  excludes  description  as  being  destruc- 
tive of  rhetorical  progress.  Schott  thinks  that  narration  is  better 
adajJted  to  sermons  than  description,  but  admits  the  latter,  provided 
it  be  not  such  a  vivid  delineation  of  circumstances  as  to  divert  the 
hearer's  attention  from  the  main  subject,  and  do  not  "  allow  him  to 
lose  himself  among  pictures  when  he  ought  to  be  occuj^ied  with  the 
great  reality."  Thus  much  is  manifest,  that  description  is  better 
placed  in  the  explication  than  in  the  discussion  or  in  the  applica- 
tion, seeing  that  oratorial  progress  or  movement  is  not  so  much  de- 
manded here  as  at  more  advanced  points.  The  public  addresses  of 
Moses,  and  some  of  those  of  the  other  Hebrew  prophets,  are  com- 
posed largely  of  narration.  The  same  may  be  said  of  some  of  our 
Lord's  discourses,  and  those  of  Peter,  Stephen,  and  Paul. 


204  EXPLICATION. 

Even  in  refutation  biography  is  often  the  best  weapon.  Truly 
has  Dr.  A.  C.  Tait^  said,  '•  It  might  at  first  sight  appear  strange,  if 
dangerous  errors  were  prevailing  amongst  ourselves,  that  the  answer 
to  them  should  be,  not  any  directly  polemical  attack  on  the  argu- 
ments of  the  false  teachers,  nor  any  distinctly  explanatory  state- 
ments, like  the  Apologies  of  old,  of  that  truth  which  its  antagonists 
first  misrepresented  and  then  denied,  but  a  history  of  those  holy 
men  by  whom  the  truth  we  love  was  taught;  yet  observe  that  with 
the  difference  of  its  being  a  history  of  the  Lord,  and  not  of  any  holy 
men,  that  lies  before  us,  this  is  the  very  form  by  which  the  Spirit 
of  God  guided  St.  John  to  resist  error." 

Subsection  III. — In  the  explication  of  ideas  or  subjects,  we  may 
adopt  one  or  more  of  several  processes. 

We  may  elucidate  by  exemplification.  General  truths  may  be 
explained  by  j)articular  truths,  as  a  general  j^rinciple  of  conduct  by 
an  individual  act,  abstract  notions  by  such  as  are  concrete,  general 
facts  by  particular  instances,  a  genus  by  a  species,  etc.  The  Scrip- 
ture parables  furnish  many  specimens  of  happy  exemplification. 
The  preacher  may  also  sometimes  (1)  personify  an  idea,  or  (2) 
appeal  to  the  experience  of  some  hearers,  or  (3)  by  association  for- 
mally in  speaking  for  himself  when  he  in  effect  speaks  for  others  or 
for  all.    (See  Vinet,  Pt.  i.,  sec.  ii.,  chap,  i.) 

We  may  likewise  cause  an  idea  to  be  comprehended  by  means 
of  either  comparison  or  contrast,  either  direct  or  analogical.  ''  While 
in  exemplification^''  remarks  Mr.  Day,  "  a  more  generic  truth  or 
fact  is  explained  by  a  more  specific  or  an  individual  truth  or  fact 
embraced  under  it,  in  comparison  and  contrast,  a  truth  or  fact  is 
explained  by  another  of  the  same  class."  Here,  also,  the  parables 
of  Scripture  are  our  best  rhetorical  teachers.  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
in  his  37th  oration  (the  5th  on  Arianism),  while  illustrating  the 
Trinity,  shows  at  the  same  time  the  imperfections  of  all  his  com- 
parisons. 

Virtues  and  vices  may  sometimes  be  elijcidated  by  their  signs 
and  manifestations.  Ideas  may  be  explained  (1)  by  definitions,  as  in 
Heb.  xi.  1.  The  definitions  of  the  preacher  should  be  as  brief,  apt, 
and  rememberable  as  a  proverb.  Here,  as  elscAvhere,  he  should 
consider  that  he  handles  matters  that  are  'not  Aveighed  in  the 
sensitive  balances  of  the  goldsmith,  but  on  the  platform  scales 
of  piiblic  opinion.'2  Never  attempt  to  define  revealed  truths  by 
the  terms  of  philosophy.     (2)  By  propositions  which  by  known  and 


1  St.  John's  Gospel  the  Model  of  Controversy,  in  "Suggestions"  etc.,  p.  30. 

2  Cicero  De  Orat.,  B.  i.,  chap,  xxxviii. 


EXPLICATION.  205 

plain  language  convey  ideas  that  were  originally  couched  in  un- 
known and  obscure  terms.  (3)  By  distinctions,  if  not  too  exact  and 
too  numerous.  Luther  remarks,  that  he  who  can  distinguish  well  is 
an  able  divine.  Nor  are  obvious  and  useful  distinctions  unpopular. 
The  homilies  of  Aquinas  are  full  of  them,  and  yet  peasants  flocked 
and  crowded  to  hear  him.  (4)  Hence  by  an  analysis  sometimes,  not 
of  words  and  texts  alone,  but  of  ideas  as  well ;  e.  </.,  Mr.  Bowen  (in 
his  Daily  Meditations,  p.  102),  analyses  1  John  iv.  11,  as  follows: 
"  Two  sublime  arguments  here  present  themselves.  The  first  is 
this:  God  hath  loved  me;  therefore,  beloved,  I  must  love  you. 
The  second  is  :  God  hath  loved  you  /  therefore,  beloved,  I  must 
love  you."  (5)  By  questions  and  answers,  when  so  arranged  that  each 
answer  naturally  suggests  another  question,  until  the  subject  is 
clearly  and  fully  understood.  Or  the  scmie  question  may  be  re- 
peated with  different  answers.  (See  John  Foster's  4th  Lecture.) 
Or  again,  inquiries  may  concern  the  causes  of  things.  When  they 
introduce  reasonings  to  convince  men  that  the  causes  assigned 
really  produce  admitted  effects,  or  that  admitted  causes  are  ade- 
quate to  produce  the  effects  in  question,  then  they  are  of  the  nature 
of  arguments ;  but  in  cases  not  a  few  these  inquiries  are  only  in- 
tended to  assist  simple  investigation.  AVe  study  to  answer  many 
a  Scripture  "  Why  ?"  for  the  sole  purpose  of  gaining  a  clear,  distinct, 
comprehensive,  and  impressive  knowledge  of  a  text  or  subject.  (See 
Richard  Watson's  sermon  on  the  Grounds  of  Paul's  Confidence  in 
the  Gospel,  text  Rom.  i.  16,  17).  Lacordaire's  Conferences  are  full 
of  "views,"  consisting  of  forcible  statements  of  facts,  which  are 
finally  accounted  for  in  a  novel  and  brilliant  way. 

Explication,  when  demanded,  belongs  near  the  beginning  of  the 
sermon.  We  say  near,  for  the  Anglican  divines  and  many  New 
England  preachers,  as  Jonathan  Edwards,  too  often  devoted  their 
exordia  to  dry  explanations.  But  need  it  be  added  that  but  few 
texts  and  congregations  will  bear  this;  generally  those  sermons 
are  the  most  effective  wherein  the  unsealing  of  mysteries  is  reserved 
for  the  body  of  the  discourse ;  either  taking  the  place  of  or  joined 
with  illustrations,  proofs,  and  arguments.  When  a  sermon  is  ex- 
pository, the  exordium  should  very  seldom  be  composed  of  com- 
ment. 

As  Scripture  knowledge  which  has  been  forgotten  leaves  the 
minds  of  an  audience  as  much  unprepared  for  applications  as  if  they 
understood  it  not,  we  are  often  doing  what  is  rhetorically  equiva- 
lent to  explication  while  we  are  putting  them  in  remembrance.  The 
prophets  and  apostles  esteemed  it  no  unimportant  part  of  their 
work,  to  keep  their  former   instructions  passing   in  review ;    and 


206  EXPLICATION. 

especially  such  of  them  as  were  frequently  serviceable  for  excitation 
and  reproof  Did  our  space  give  us  leave,  we  could  prove  and 
illustrate  this  assertion  abundantly ;  beginning  with  the  teachings 
of  the  prophet  Moses,  and  ending  with  the  words  of  the  venerable 
John,  "  ye  know  that  our  record  is  true."  Clothed  with  divine 
authority  though  they  were,  they  nevertheless  often  spoke  as  hum- 
ble prompters,  and  as  witnesses  who  appeared  to  confirm  common 
reports,  or  to  repeat  their  o^ti  former  testimony — but  why  do  I 
give  to  these  mortal  men  the  honor  which  belongs  to  the  Divine 
Sj^irit  who  inspired  them,  and  who  condescended,  then  as  now,  to 
serve  as  a  remembrancer  ? 

It  must  be  accepted  as  a  fact  (and  we  commend  it  to  the  atten- 
tion of  those  who  cherish  romantic  ideas  concerning  human  nature) 
that  the  more  weak  and  ignorant  men  are  the  less  inclined  are  they 
to  receive  instruction,  unless  it  is  in  somewise  concealed  or  made  to 
pass  imder  another  name.  In  proof  of  this  we  need  only  mention 
the  incessant  return  of  the  phrase,  "  you  know,"  in  talk  and  corres- 
pondence. As  this  always  has  been  the  case,  and  jirobably  will  be 
for  a  good  while  to  come,  the  preacher,  and  especially  if  he  be 
young,  may  wisely,  as  often  as  he  can,  administer  doses  of  the 
didactic  in  the  vehicle  of  reminiscence. 

Take  heed  lest  your  habit  or  manner  of  exposition  convey  the 
impression  that  the  Bible  is  so  fraught  with  mysteries  and  difficul- 
ties that  it  does  not  permit  itself  to  be  understood  by  a  plain  imlet- 
tered  reader.  You  may  convey  this  impression  by  frequently 
choosing  hard  texts,  by  choosing  texts  foreign  to  your  subjects,  and 
then  "  explaining  them  away,"  and  by  indulging  a  propensity  to  find 
allegories  in  all  parts  of  Scripture.  Archbishop  Hort  says  of  those 
who  always  fetch  out  of  a  text  that  which  nobody  imagined  could 
be  in  it,  that  "  they  would  do  something  miraculous,  like  bringing 
water  out  of  a  dry  rock  in  the  wilderness,  in  order  to  surprise  their 
auditory."  This  temptation  is  esi^ecially  strong  to  those  who  con- 
sider it  their  duty  to  find  all  their  texts  in  "  the  lessons  for  the  day." 

This  discussion  of  Explication  naturally  concludes  with  an  exam- 
ination of  that  kind  of  religious  discourse  in  which  a  moiety  of 
space  at  least  is  usually  given  to  exposition — the  homilij. 

•  Section  II. 

The  ancient  Christian  homily  pi'obably  bears  some  reseml^lance 
to  the  septennial  expositions  of  the  Levites.  It  is  very  diiferent, 
we  need  scarcely  say,  from  the  homily  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
which  is  strictly  a  topical  discourse.  The  homilies  of  Chrysostom, 
which  are,  perhaps,  the  best  of  this  kind  of  discourse,  are  without 


EXPLICATION. 


207 


unity  or  method ;  the  first  half  is  usually  occupied  with  the  exposi- 
tion of  several  verses  of  Scripture;  the  latter  half  is  devoted  to  the 
"  Ethicon,"  or  moral  lesson,  .which  is  often  an  application  of  the 
rambling  kmd,  and  sometimes  totally  foreign  to  the  sense  of  the 
passage  explained ;  here  he  often  abandons  himself  to  his  feelings, 
or  rather  to  those  of  his  audience;  but  with  such  a  persuasive  effort 
as  to  confirm  the  maxim  of  Quintilian,  Pectus  est  quod  cUser turn  facit. 
But  they  are  much  mistaken  who  suppose  that  "  the  Christian 
Fathers  "  made  exposition  their  chief  business.  Chrysostom,  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen,  and  Augustine  had  been  thoroughly  taught  and 
disciplined  by  rhetoricians ;  and  hence  they  never  allowed  their 
interpretations  to  interfere  with  the  duty  of  adapting  the  matter 
and  form  of  their  sermons  to  the  capacities  and  wants  of  their 
various  audiences.  Nazianzen  commends  this  as  a  capital  excellence 
in  the  preaching  of  Athanasius  that  it  was  always  appropriate  to  the 
assembly  he  addressed,  whether  illiterate  or  learned. 

And  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  homily  had  a  wide  and  deep 
influence  during  the  fom-th  century ;  and  a  still  wider  and  deeper 
subsequently,  when  the  homilies  of  Chrysostom  and  some  of  the  other 
fathers  were  re.ad  as  lessons  in  many  churches.  One  reason  per- 
haps for  this  was,  that  both  Jews  and  Christians  had  come  to  re- 
gard it  as  a  discourse  that  was  distinctively  rehgious.  ''  Preaching," 
says  Lactantius,  the  Christian  Cicero  of  the  fourth  century,  "  is  a 
divine  institution,  to  the  end  that  the  simple  and  undisguised  truth 
which  is  itself  sufliciently  adorned,  may  shine  forth  more  brightly." 
But  he  and  others  of  his  time  were  content  with  narrow  and  indis- 
tinct views  of  the  ordinance  of  preaching. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  homilies.  The  first  is  a  running  com- 
ment on  a  chapter  or  the  lessons  for  the  day,  beginning  perhaps  with 
some  account  of  the  writer  and  his  scope,  wath  occasional  remarks 
and  applications,  or  else  concluding  with  a  brief  exhortation.  In 
this  kind  method  is  little  regarded.  Of  this  description  are  most  of 
the  early  homilies.  The  second  differs  from  the  first  chiefly  in 
this ;  the  latter  haif  is  devoted  to  applications ;  such  are  many  of  the 
homilies  of  Chrysostom.  The  third  reduces  a  chapter  or  one  of  the 
lessons  for  the  day,  as  some  large  portion  of  Scripture,  to  a  single 
proposition,  treats  the  whole  context  as  one  subject,  and  then  pro- 
ceeds to  comment,  reason,  and  apply  much  after  the  method  of  a 
topical  discourse.  Of  this  sort  are  Massillon's  homily  on  the  rais- 
ing of  Lazarus,  and  Bourdaloue's  on  "  Divine  Grace  as  shown  in  the 
Conversion  of  the  Woman  of  Samaria."  The  fourth  takes  for  a  text 
some  short  but  obscure  passage,  and  then  explains  and  applies  it. 
Here  unity  may  be  preserved  without  following  a  studied  arrange- 


208  EXPLICATION. 

ment.  A  good  example  of  this  kind  is  Abp.  Whately's  homily  on 
the  name,  Immanuel.  Another  sort  of  homily,  though  many  would 
prefer  to  call  it  a  Biblical  way  of  preaching,  consists  in  an  assem- 
blage of  the  principal  texts  that  relate  nearly  or  remotely  to  one 
subject.  This  suggests  matter  for  analysis,  comment,  argument,  re- 
flection, and  various  "  uses."  Rudolf  Stier's  sermons  in  his  Epistel 
Predigten  exhibit  striking  specimens  of  the  abuse  of  this  mode  of 
preparation ;  the  sermons  of  John  Bunydn,  on  the  other  hand,  show 
how  its  legitimate  use  may  enrich,  enliven,  and  prac'icalise  dis- 
course. Spurgeon's  sermon  with  seven  texts  belongs  to  the  same 
class. 

Subsection  I. — The  advantages  of  the  exj^ository  manner  of 
preaching,  as  set  forth  by  its  advocates,  may  be  briefly  stated  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  It  secures  the  greatest  amount  of  Scripture  knowledge  both 
to  preacher  and  hearer.  The  topical  preacher  passes  by  many 
texts,  because  they  do  not  suggest  matter  enough  for  an  entire  ser- 
mon, but  the  expovmder  does  not  neglect  such  texts. 

2.  It  is  well  fitted  to  communicate  the  knowledge  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  its  due  proportion,  relative  position,  and  real  connection. 

3.  It  gives  the  preacher  opportunities  to  inculcate  all  Scripture 
doctrines  and  duties.  We  may  fail  to  declare  all  the  counsel  of 
God  from  an  undue  fondness  for  some  part  of  it,  or  from  an  unwill- 
ingness to  lower  the  dignity  of  the  sermon  by  too  familiar  an  appli- 
cation, or  from  a  fear  of  offending  individuals  by  too  personal  an 
application.  "  But  in  homilies,"  says  Charles  Bridges,i  "  short  occa- 
sional hints  naturally  arising  from  our  subjects,  fall  with  a  weight 
of  conviction  for  which  our  hearers  are  often  wholly  unprepared. 
There  is  no  time  to  take  the  alarm,  and  to  fortify  the  mind  against 
conviction ;  as  when  the  main  subject  is  directly  levelled  against 
known  sins."  The  same  writer  says,  that  instruction  on  the  sub- 
ject of  divorce  would  not  perhaps  have  occurred  in  liis  village 
ministrations  except  in  a  regular  course  of  exposition  on  Mark  x. 
2-12,  in  which  he  somewhat  reluctantly  introduced  it,  but  with  un- 
expected effect.  In  such  cases  exposition  serves  as  a  low  but  need- 
ful diet  for  those  who  are  morally  and  spiritually  sick. 

4.  It  has  a  tendency  to  correct  the  errors  incident  to  the  topical 
mode  of  preaching,  among  which  are  the  choice  of  a  text  as  a  "  pre- 
text" or  motto,  the  wresting  of  texts  from  their  meaning  by  way 
of  accommodation,  want  of  Scripture  matter,  an  ignoring  of  the 
oracles  of  God,  and  the  secularisation  of  the  pulpit.     "  Those  times 

1  Christian  Ministry,  Pt.  iv.,  cliap.  v.,  sec.  4. 


EXPLICATION.  209 

are  past,"  as  Tholuck  happily  remarks,  "  when  the  Scriptures  were 
trodden  under  foot.  But  let  us  take  heed  lest,  in  our  modern 
agility,  we  leap  clean  over  them." 

5.  This  is  the  most  natural  way  of  conveymg  to  the  hearers  the 
import  of  the  oracles  of  God.  "  Suppose,"  it  is  said,  "  a  volume  of 
human  science  were  placed  in  our  hands  as  the  sole  and  standard 
text-book,  which  we  were  expected  to  elucidate  to  an  assembly ; 
in  what  way  would  it  be  most  natural  to  go  to  work  ?  Certainly 
not,  we  think,  to  take  a  sentence  here  and  there,  and  upon  these  to 
frame  one  or  two  discourses  every  week.  No  interpreter  of  Aris- 
totle, of  Littleton,  or  of  PufFendorf,  or  of  Paley  ever  dreamed  of 
such  a  method."  This  argument,  as  a  defence  of  exjDository  preach- 
ing, presupposes  that  exposition  is  the  principal  work  of  the 
preacher. 

6.  This  mode  of  preaching  is,  it  is  said,  adapted  to  make  the  truth 
and  not  the  preacher  the  principal  object  of  attention.  Here,  ac- 
cording to  Chrysostom,  God  speaks  much  and  man  little.  Summer- 
field  was  led  to  employ  himself  much  in  simple  exposition,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  popular  applause  his  sermons  had  elicited.  This, 
he  thought,  threw  the  preacher  more  into  the  shade,  and  more 
brightly  displayed  the  pure  truth  of  Scripture.  In  seasons  of 
awakening  grace  this  is  a  matter  of  no  inferior  concern,  as  every 
preacher  of  large  experience  knows. 

7.  It  is  best  adapted  to  some  hearers,  because  it  conveys  the  truth 
not  in  the  abstract  but  in  its  more  concrete  and  popular  forms.  It 
has  been  truly  observed  that  some  doctrines  are  abhorrent  to  a 
prejudiced  mind  when  they  are  set  forth  in  their  naked  theological 
form,  which  are  by  no  means  so  when  presented  in  their  Scriptural 
connection,  and,  we  may  add,  in  the  light  and  shade  and  colouring 
which  distinguish  the  Scripture  style.  When  so  presented  they 
often  become  more  acceptable  by  becoming  more  intelligible. 

8.  It  condescends  to  the  feebleness  and  vagrancy  of  an  undisci- 
plined attention.  Those  who  can  listen  uninterruptedly  to  a  topi- 
cal sermon  are  few.  The  greater  part  of  a  common  assembly  are 
compelled  to  allow  their  thoughts  a  wide  and  various  range.  If 
Ave  would  be  in  the  highest  degree  useful  to  wandering  minds,  we 
must  do  as  Rowland  Hill  acknowledges  he  did — "  wander  after 
them."  A  weak  capacity  may  take  in  an  entire  division  of  a  desul- 
tory homily — a  part  that  has  suffered  nothing  from  the  feeble 
mind's  failure  either  to  attend  to  or  to  understand  the  rest ;  where- 
as it  loses  all  parts  of  many  a  sermon  because  it  either  cannot  un- 
derstand or  cannot  give  attention  to  that  part  which  constitutes 
the  key  of  all  the  remainder. 


210  EXPLICATION. 

9.  This  mode  of  preaching,  beyond  any  other,  conveys  the  truth 
to  all  believing  minds  in  all  its  holy  freshness : 

Gratius  ex  ipso  fonte  hibimtur  aqiice\ 

Lord  Bacon  compares  the  systems  of  Scripture  knowledge  to  cis- 
terns, the  Scrijitures  themselves  to  springs :  the  former  are  more 
convenient,  the  latter  more  pure. 

10.  The  homily  is  Letter  remembered  because  it  affords  more  as- 
sistance to  the  faculty  of  association.  The  pious  hearer,  while 
reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  family,  the  Smida^-school,  and  the 
closet,  will  not  fail  to  recall  needful  interjjretatious  and  still  more 
needful  applications,  which  hang  as  so  many  inseparable  pendants 
to  passages  which  he  had  pondered  at  church. 

Subsection  II. — Such  are  the  advantages  of  expository  preaching. 
But  a  full  and  practical  examination  of  this  subject  demands  that 
we  should  now  look  into  the  background  of  our  picture  and  survey 
its  disadvantages : 

1.  Expository  discourses  are  not  countenanced  by  the  example 
of  the  primitive  and  ajiostolical  preachers.  Deuteronomy  is  not 
an  exposition  of  the  Law.  None  of  the  prophets  have  left  us  run- 
ning comments  on  the  Levitical  statutes.  When  in  the  days  of 
Nehemiah  (viii.  7,  8)  the  priests  and  Levites  read  the  law  publicly, 
they  did  little  more,  according  to  Havernick,  than  translate  the 
Hebrew  into  Aramaic.  Our  Great  Teacher's  first  sermon  at  Naza- 
reth was  not  an  exjaosition  of  the  sixty-first  chapter  of  Isaiah, 
Only  a  fragment  of  what  he  intended  to  say  remains ;  but  what  he 
did  speak  was  wholly  in  the  topical  strain,  stating  two  facts  as  an 
argument  from  analogy  in  support  of  the  proposition  that  "  No 
prophet  is  accepted  in  his  OAvn  country  " — a  proposition  evidently 
founded  on  the  words,  "  He  hath  sent  me,"  etc.  Most  of  his  sub- 
sequent sermons  evince  not  a  merely  didactic  intention,  but  an  aim 
that  is  earnest,  timeful,  and  practical.  Kead  his  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  and  his  discourse  at  the  close  of  the  Last  Supper ;  how  far 
are  they  from  expositions  of  any  kind  !  His  long  talk  to  his  two 
disciples  on  the  Avay  to  Emmaus  was  argumentative,  consisting  of 
proof  texts  "  from  Moses  and  all  the  prophets  "  in  support  of  the 
proposition,  "  Ought  not  Christ  to  have  suffered  these  things  and 
to  enter  into  his  glory  ? "  Need  we  add  that  the  addresses  and 
epistles  of  the  apostles  afford  as  little  support  to  the  custom  of  ex- 
pository preaching  as  do  the  sermons  of  Christ  and  the  Hebrew 

1  Water  is  drank  with  greater  pleasure  at  the  spring  itself.  (Ov'.d,  Eoist.  iv. . 
Ponto,  L.  iii  ,  Epist.  v.) 


EXPLICATION.  211 

prophets  r  A  better  argument  for  occasional  exposition  could  be 
framed  out  of  the  fact  that  the  sacred  writers  gave  so  little  space 
to  interj)retations.  Hence  we  may  infer  that  they  left  this  work 
for  us  to  do  for  our  own  age  and  people.  As  the  obscurities  of 
divine  revelation  are  relative  and  variable,  so  all  expositions  of  them 
must  be  more  or  less  of  a  local  and  temjoorary  value. 

As  to  the  expositions  of  the  Rabbins  in  the  old  synagogues,  they 
were  little  more  than  the  hemming  and  adorning  of  the  veil  of  tra- 
dition, which  to  this  day  blinds  the  eyes  of  the  Jews  whenever 
they  read  the  Scriptures.     Assuredly  they  are  no  patterns  far  us. 

"  O,  but  do  we  not  find  expositions  in  the  epistles  f  "  Not  one 
entire  epistle,  nor  any  large  portion  of  an  epistle,  do  we  find  de- 
voted to  the  exposition  of  one  passage  of  Scripture.  Neither  is 
there  a  running  comment  on  a  chapter  of  the  Old  Testament,  or  a 
considerable  part  thereof,  nor  elucidation  intended  for  the  promo- 
tion of  mere  Biblical  knowledge,  apart  from  its  applications,  nor 
yet  discussions  of  questions  in  Oriental  geography,  history,  chro- 
nology, manners,  and  customs,  for  the  sake  of  ministering  to  curi- 
osity and  a  mere  thirst  for  information.  In  how  short  a  time  and 
space  could  the  first  preachers  and  writers  of  the  new  economy 
have  cleared  up  many  a  mystery  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Ah, 
my  blessed  Master,  how  soon,  by  a  brief  comment  on  Genesis, 
couldst  thou  have  guarded  all  geologists  against  the  liability  of 
casting  stones  at  the  Cross !  and  thou,  Paul,  why  didst  thou  put  us 
off  with  the  remark  that  it  is  by  faith  that  Ave  understand  that  the 
worlds  were  framed  by  the  word  of  God  ?  Had  the  apostle  James 
lived  in  our  day,  would  he  have  been  satisfied  with  an  allusion  to 
the  patience  of  Job  without  any  mention  of  the  probable  time  in 
which  he  lived  ?  At  any  rate,  no  one  will  question  that  the  primi- 
tive preachers  quoted  and  explained  texts  with  a  direct  and  con- 
tinual view  to  doctrine  and  duty.  They  ever  proceeded  on  the 
principle,  Christ  in  the  Scrii^tures ;  not  first  the  Scnptnres,  and, 
secondly,  Christ;  or,  to  go  more  deeply  into  the  matter,  first  in 
themselves  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  only  infallible  interpreter  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  the  universal  giver  and  defender  of  u^iity  in  faith  and 
love. 

2.  At  what  time  the  homily  made  its  appearance  in  the  early 
churches  Ave  cannot  now  determine.  Thus  much  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  if  the  earliest  homilies  existing  did  not  teach  such  enor- 
mous errors  in  doctrine  and  practice  as  they  do,  and  Avere  they  not 
heard  with  so  much  applause  by  churches  that  had  more  or  less  de- 
parted from  the  primitive  faith,  they  Avould  be  more  deserving  than 
they  are  of  our  imitation.     Homilies,  as  original  compositions,  be- 


212  EXPLICATION. 

long  neither  to  the  best  periods  of  the  Church,  nor,  indeed,  to  the 
worst ;  for  in  the  latter  there  was  little  preaching  of  any  kmd  and 
that  partly  consisted  of  the  mere  repetition  of  the  homilies  of  the 
Christian  fathers. 

3.  "We  do  not  deny  that  expository  sermons  were  even  to  the 
apostate  churches  beneficial — yes,  beneficial,  just  as  certain  medi- 
cines may  be  to  a  man  that  is  known  to  be  incurable — especially  to 
the  catechumens  who  were  not  admitted  to  the  audience  of  ser- 
mons on  the  creed  and  mysteries.^  But  it  should  be  considered 
that  a  modern  expository  discourse  abounds  much  more  in  theo- 
logical terms  tlian  the  ancient  homily  did,  and  is  therefore  not 
adapted  to  neophytes.  Few  modern  expository  preachers  take 
time  and  trouble  to  define  the  many  theological  terms  they  em- 
ploy, so  that,  as  the  case  now  stands,  either  catechetical  training  or 
topical  preaching  is  in  fact  a  necessary  preparation  for  being  edified 
by  expositions.  One  of  the  things  which  make  expounding  so 
profitable  to  Scottish  hearers,  is  the  fact  that  when  they  were  chil- 
dren they  were  all  instructed  in  the  catechism. 

4.  When  in  any  church  exposition  becomes  the  rage,  to  the  neg- 
lect of  topical  sermons  and  catechetical  instruction,  its  tendency  is 
to  multiply  the  number  of  those  who  teach,  but  sadly  to  diminish 
the  number  of  those  who  leani  and  those  who  pray  and  exhort.  As 
superficial  expounding  is  a  very  easy  task,  many  set  themselves  up 
as  teachers,  and  many  more  make  a  merit  of  knowing  and  interpret- 
ing the  Scriptures.  In  the  primitive  church  at  Corinth  the  apostle 
Paul  had  to  correct  the  abuse  of  two  or  more  teachers  enlightening 
an  assembly  at  the  same  time ;  and  the  apostle  James  dissuades  his 
brethren  from  the  ambition  of  becoming  religious  teachers  on  account 
of  the  dangers  of  volubility,  and  the  reckoning  they  must  render  foi 
any  errors  they  might  disseminate.  Assuredly  the  present  age, 
abounding  beyond  all  parallel  as  it  does  in  comments  both  oral  and 
written,  has  cause  to  fear  "  greater  condemnation  "  than  any  that 
went  before  it. 

5.  Even  in  times  and  churches  which  most  applauded  homilies, 
they  were  not  the  objects  of  exclusive  admiration :  three  other 
kinds,  namely,  the  panegyrical,  the  festival,  and  the  doctrinal,  claimed 
their  proper  share  of  attention. 

G.  Much  and  frequent  expounding  creates  and  diflfuses  the  false 
impression  among  ignorant  people  that  the  Bible  is  a  very  ob- 
scure if  not  quite  incomprehensible  book — containing  a  revelation 

1  Bino;liam,  Eccl.  Antiq.,  B.  i.,  cliap.  iv.,  S3C.  8;  B.  x.,  chap.  v.  soc.  4.  Cf. 
Bunseu's  Ilippolytus,  vol.  iii.,  p.  14. 


EXPLICATION.  213 

in  name  but  not  in  fact ;  and  among  the  intelligent  that  exposition 
alone  is  able  to  "  make  them  wise  unto  salvation,"  whereas  none  but 
the  Divine  Spirit  received  in  answer  to  prayer  can  cause  them  to 
understand  the  Scriptures.  Learning  may  yet  do  a  great  deal ;  but 
the  one  Inditer  must  evermore  remain  the  chief  Interpreter. 

7.  "  Very  well ;  but  we  might  mention  preachers  who  are  by 
their  exjDositions  attracting  multitudes  to  hear  them."  Remark, 
however,  that  the  revivalists  who,  like  Summerfield,  adopt  exposi- 
tory addresses,  do  not  rely  on  them  but  on  their  subsequent  narra- 
tives and  appeals  for  carrying  their  point.  Or  they  preach  topically 
in  the  morning  and  exjiound  in  the  afternoon,  and  so  give  the  people 
a  pleasant  vai'iety.  Novelty,  too,  has  not  seldom  done  exploits  that 
were  mistakenly  attributed  to  supernal  powers.  Far  be  it  from  us 
and  from  all  to  set  small  store  by  the  rhetorical  maxim,  Non  nova, 
sed  nove ;  and  yet  novelty  is  proverbially  short-lived,  and  we  ought 
not  to  confound  the  transient  interest  awakened  by  a  change  from 
doctrinal  preaching  with  the  popular  effect  of  expository  preaching 
itself  as  a  regular  and  permanent  service.  Even  Chrysostom,  whose 
homilies  were  often  half  topical,  complained  that  the  peoj^le  would 
not  well  attend  his  daily  homilies,  while  they  came  m  throngs  at 
the  great  festivals.!  * 

8.  "  But  how  pure  and  refreshing  is  water  drank  at  the  fountain- 
head."  This  we  admit,  and  more  than  this :  it  is  sometimes  medi- 
cinal, especially  in  cases  where  the  people  have  been  misled  either 
by  false  doctrines  or  by  true  ones  unapplied,  or  where  there  is  a 
surfeit  of  that  dry  and  systematic  preaching  on  the  articles  of  faith, 
which  starves  the  imagination  and  the  heart,  and  leaves  the  life 
fruitless.  In  such  cases  the  effect  of  a  return  to  a  study  of  the 
Bible  has  been  compared  to  that  of  the  mineral  springs  of  Orezza 
in  Corsica,  which  are  popularly  believed  to  afford  a  sj)ecific  for  the 
malarious  fever  produced  by  the  stagnant  waters  on  the  j^lains 
below.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Creator  never  intended  that 
all  the  water  we  consume  should  be  drawn  directly  from  fountain- 
heads.  We  would  not  like  to  do  without  water  as  it  moistens  our 
daily  food  and  as  a  constituent  of  the  air  we  breathe ;  as  distilling 
in  dew  and  falling  in  showers ;  as  rising  in  perfumes  from  the  fur- 
row and  the  sw^ath,  the  garden,  and  even  the  wild  flowers  of  the 
wood.  And  do  not  all  relish  it  as  it  reappears  in  the  juice  of  the 
strawberry,  or  the  apple,  or  the  gi'ape,  or  the  peach  ?  Even  so  must 
we  mortals  always  desire  that  eveiy  great  revealed  truth  should 
come  to  us  through  the  living  individual  preacher,  conveyed  to  us 

1  Villemain,  Eloquence  Chifetien,  au  iv.  Siecle,  pp.  181,  182. 


214  EXPLICATION. 

in  the  vehicle  of  his  chosen  pecuharities,  not  merely  expounded,  but 
reasoned  upon,  deeply  contemplated,  and  viewed  in  all  its  present 
relations  and  current  applications. 

9.  Especially  is  exposition  to  be  shunned  when  it  is  the  refuge  of 
such  as  hate  doctrines  and  duties.  There  are  throngs  who,  being 
unwilling  either  to  exercise  an  evangelical  faith  in  the  cardinal  doc- 
trines of  the  Gospel  or  to  experience  its  power,  or  to  obey  any  of 
the  commands  of  the  Lord,  are  nevertheless  always  thirsting  after 
Scripture  knowledge.  They  could  sit  docile  all  their  life  long  at 
the  feet  of  an  able  expositor ;  alas,  "  ever  learning,  and  never  able 
to  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth."  Supremely  selfish,  they 
are  by  turns  greedy  of  filthy  lucre  and  of  divine  lore ;  and  in  many 
points  answer  the  description  given  of  similar  characters  by  Paul 
the  apostle.^     From  such  turn  away. 

10.  And  with  this  remark  another  should  be  connected.  When 
exposition  is  heard  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  kinds  of  preaching, 
it  has  a  tendency  to  form  such  characters  as  are  above  mentioned. 
Scripture  knowledge  without  faith  and  without  obedience,  or  Avith- 
out  the  preaching  that  fosters  and  invigorates  them,  works  in  the 
hearts  of  the  hearers  all  manner  of  evil  desires.  "  But  who,"  it  will 
be  asked,  "recommends  exposition  exclusively?  Nobody  approves 
that."  Is  Archbishop  Whately2  nobody?  What  is  his  mature 
conviction  and  emphatic  advice  ?  "  Our  first,  second,  and  third 
object  should  be  to  put  the  hearers  of  Scripture  as  nearly  as  we  can 
(entirely  we  cannot)  in  the  same  position  with  the  illiterate  multi- 
tude whom  the  ajiostles  addressed,  and  w^ho  w^ere  quite  familiar 
witli  many  things  that  are  made  out  by  diligent  study  of  the  learned 
among  us."  Other  authorities^  but  none  more  eminent,  on  this  side 
of  the  question,  might  be  quoted. 

11.  In  many  points  topical  sermons  are  superior  to  expository. 
They  are  better  for  nourishing  the  health,  strength,  and  activity  of 
the  mature  Christian.  Such' instruction  on  one  great  subject  as  is 
distinct,  complete,  and  comprehensive ;  the  keeping  abreast  of  the 
si^irit  of  religious  inquiry;  and  the  gratification  of  a  lawful  desire  to 
account  for  things  sequarl  vesthjla  rerwn,  which  often  leads  to  the 
deepest  and  most  lasting  impressions ;  the  thorough  discussion  and 
just  decision  of  important  questions;  even  the  expositions  which  are 
remembered  the  longest  and  are  the  most  profitable;  the  amplifica- 

1  2  Tim.  iii.,  1-7. 

2  Life,  vol.  ii.,  p.  331.  His  earlier  opinion  was  tliat  sermons  sliould  be  dilnclic 
— occupied  chiefly  in  explaining  Scripture,  with  a  very  little  direct  exhortation 
(Rhetoric,  Pt  ii.,  chap,  ii.,  p.  1,  note). 


EXPLICATION*  215 

tions  that  fill  the  imagination  and  kindle  the  feelings ;  the  persua- 
sives that  determine  the  stubborn  will  and  urge  dead-alive  powers  to 
action — all  these  demand  steady  and  protracted  attention  to  a  single 
theme.  Deprive  us  of  topical  sermons,  and  how  you  do  cripple  and 
disarm  our  pulpit  forces;  nay,  how  many  victories  and  triumphs  do 
you  wrest  from  us  and  give  to  skeptical  lecturers. 

12.  A  pastor  may  so  give  himself  to  exposition  as  to  grow  indif- 
ferent to  the  immediate  wants  of  his  flock.  By  studying  Biblical 
criticism  more  than  he  does  the  moral  state  of  his  people,  he  fails  to 
make  opportune  and  thorough  applications  of  Gospel  remedies  ; 
thereby,  as  of  old,  the  prophet  may  degenerate  into  the  mere  scribe. 

Exposition,  therefore,  is  not  to  be  preferred  exclusively,  always, 
everywhere,  and  by  all  preachers  and  hearers.  Much  will  here  de- 
pend on  the  ability  of  the  preacher  and  of  the  hearer,  as  well  as 
upon  the  portion  of  Scripture  expounded,  to  say  nothing  of  the  ob- 
servance of  the  law  of  proportion  and  the  necessity  of  some  variety 
in  the  ministration  of  the  Word. 

For  a  very  intelligent  flock  the  best  expositions  would  be  lectures 
on  the  principles  of  interpretation,  and  on  rules  for  applying  Scrip- 
ture to  all  the  varied  experiences,  duties,  and  providences  of  com- 
mon life.  Our  great  aim  should  be  to  enable  the  people  profitably 
to  search  the  Scriptures  for  themselves.  It  was  for  this  very  purpose, 
as  Chrysostom  says  in  his  first  homily  on  Matthew,  that  he  some- 
times presented  difficulties  without  solving  them.^ 

Though  the  ancient  homily  observed  no  rules,  and  the  modern  is 
bound  by  none,  yet  the  following  hints  might  be  of  considerable 
use  to  those  who  desire  to  excel  in  this  kind  of  preaching;  for,  as 
Vinet  declares,  it  certainly  is  more  easy  to  make  a  homily  than  a 
sermon,  but  a  good  sermon  is  made  with  more  facility  than  a  good 
homily. 

A.  In  imitating  the  excellences  of  the  best  ancient  homilies,  we 
ought  never  to  forget  the  times  in  which  they  were  delivered. 
Manuscripts  were  then  costly ;  but,  had  they  been  cheap,  very  few 
were  able  to  read  them,  and  consequently  catechising  and  preach- 
ing were  the  principal  means  of  conveying  Scripture  knowledge  to 
the  people.  As  the  Bible  is  now  possessed  and  read  by  all,  and 
as  the  majority  of  our  congregations  have  been  taught  in  Sun- 
day-schools or  Bible-classes,  our  Biblical  expositions  may  be  less 

1  In  treating  the  negative  aspects  of  the  subject,  as  it  will  be  seen,  we  have 
quoted  no  authorities  in  our  support.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  writers  with  whom  we 
are  acquainted  have  been  content  to  set  forth  the  advantages  of  expository 
preaching.  But  those  who  are  in  theory  against  us  are  for  the  most  part  practi- 
cally with  us.     (S33  Dr.  J.  W,  Alexander's  Thoughts,  pp.  272-313.) 

15 


216  *  EXPLICATION. 

juvenile  and  more  broad  and  deep  than  the  early  Christian  fathers 
could  advantageously  give. 

B.  And  hence  we  do  well  to  consider  how  many  verses  are  al- 
ready understood  by  an  ordinary  hearer.  As  the  ancient  horailist 
was  the  chief  source  of  all  Biblical  knowledge,  he  had  to  read,  ex- 
plain,  and  illustrate  every  passage  in  order  to  give  his  hearers  some 
general  information  as  to  every  part  of  holy  Scripture.  To  pursue 
the  same  course  now  would  appear  like  doing  what  Whately  says 
the  regular  paraphrase  does:  "It  applies  a  magnifying  glass  of 
equal  power  to  the  gnat  and  to  the  camel."  But  in  order  that  the 
Lord  himself  may  be  first  heard,  read  the  entire  passage  before  you 
expound  it. 

r.  On  the  other  hand,  Vv^c  ought  not  to  imagine  that  the  homily 
is  now  adapted  merely  to  the  exposition  of  the  most  difficult  pas- 
sages. 

/J.  It  will  be  found  profitable  to  give  an  analysis  of  the  contents 
of  the  passage  to  be  explained.  Indeed,  a  good  analysis  is  itself 
expository.  Thomas  Aquinas's  homilies  are  in  this  respect  worth 
studying,  if  not  imitating. 

E.  In  preaching  to  congregations  among  whom  the  homily  has 
from  any  cause  come  to  be  disliked,  it  may  be  prudent  to  follow 
the  advice  of  Archbishop  Seeker.  "  Instead,"  he  says,  "  of  takmg  a 
text  which  comprehends  within  itself  the  whole  subject  of  which 
you  would  treat,  it  may  often  be  useful  to  choose  one  which  has  a 
reference  to  things  preceding  or  following  it,  and  expound  all  the 
context."  Though  Campbell  condemns  this  method  because  the 
other  verses  are  thereby  "  awkwardly  ushered  into  the  discourse," 
yet  it  should  be  considered  that  it  prevents  the  needless  repetition 
of  long  familiar  jiassages,  and  that  where,  as  is  often  the  case,  the 
text  is  a  sententious  premiss  or  a  weighty  conclusion  of  the  rest 
of  the  paragraph  or  chapter,  it  is  necessarily  the  most  graceful  and 
engaging  method  of  ushering  in  the  whole  context.  Aversion  may 
sometimes  be  prevented  or  conquered  by  an  exordium  of  a  topical 
nature. 

Z.  The  kind  of  homily  which  is  limited  to  the  exposition  of  a 
single  difficult  verse  or  clause  may  have  most  of  the  excellences  of 
a  topical  discourse^,  while  it  gual'ds  against  the  objection  of  Am- 
mon,  that  the  homily  militates  against  unity^  by  handling  different 
subjects,  and  that  it  leaves  too  little  space  for  the  development  and 
application  of  a  particular  truth.  Some  of  the  discourses  of  Pa- 
ley,  Horsley,  Whately,  and  Trench  are  good  examples  of  this  kind 

1  Of.  Palmer's  Homiletik,  p.  453. 


EXPLICATION.  217 

of  homily.  Their  principal  fault  is  that  they  occupy  too  small  a 
space  with  the  application. 

//.  And  yet  it  is  the  neglect  of  unity  that  constitutes  one  of  the 
popular  attractions  of  the  homily.  The  transition  from  verse  to 
verse  and  fcom  one  subject  to  another  affords  that  variety  which 
always  chains  the  attention  of  undiscijilined  minds  an(i  of  those 
students  who  are  daily  employed  in  the  thorough  investigation  of 
subjects.  He  who,  in  these  respects,  takes  the  intellect  as  he  finds 
it,  may  hope  to  leave  the  heart  better  than  he  found  it. 

S.  There  may  be,  however,  such  quick  and  measured  transitions, 
and  such  an  easy  and  superficial  solution  of  each  verse,  as  appear 
intended  more  for  the  recreation  of  the  preacher  than  for  the  edifi- 
cation of  his  audience.  He  thus  resembles  one  of  those  street 
musicians  who  walk  from  door  to  door  so  rapidly  that  they  leave 
us  in  doubt  whether  they  are  playing  for  the  children  or  merely  for 
their  own  amusement.  , 

/.  The  expositor  should  carefully  avoid  pedantry  by  giving  the 
results  without  the  process  and  the  details  of  his  learned  investiga- 
tions.    Consider  this  well. 

A'.  The  application  should  never  consist  of  cold,  short,  and  general 
observations  and  reflexions.  It  should  rather  be  composed  of  prac- 
tical and  direct  inferences  and  remarks,  coming  warm  from  the  suc- 
cessive verses.  Here  uniform  or  continual  applications  are  best. 
But  in  making  them  the  preacher  should  vigilantly  guard  against 
an  affectation  of  feeling  and  of  earnestness.  "  Quick  transitions,"  as 
Campbell  says,  "  from  the  warmth  of  pathos  to  the  coldness  of 
criticism,  from  the  moral  and  persuasive  to  the  abstract  and  argu- 
mentative, or  inversely,  from  the  critical  to  the  pathetic,  and  from 
the  abstract  to  the  persuasive,  are  neither  natural  nor  easy."  It 
may  be  wise,  therefore,  to  make  up  the  uniform  or  continual  ajJi^li- 
cation  of  such  "  uses  "  (and  the  greater  number  are  of  this  kind)  as 
do  not  demand  transporting  passion,  reserving  as  far  as  possible  the 
more  pathetic  appeals  for  the  peroration.  We  say  as  far  as  pos- 
sible ;  for  the  pathetic,  being  often  spontaneous,  unexpected,  and  of 
short  duration,  is  not  always  subject  to  the  laws  of  arrangement. 
Yet,  after  all,  the  experience  of  every  preacher  of  tender  sensibility 
proves  that  such  transitions  are  more  natural  and  easy  than  Dr. 
Campbell  seems  to  suppose.  Besides,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  neither  the  homily  nor  the  lecture  is  required,  Uke  the  sermon, 
to  be  of  one  colour  and  tenor  throughout.  Add  to  this  the  impor- 
tant considerations  that  most  of  the  pathetic  parts  of  Scripture  do 
not  call  for  the  critical,  the  abstract,  and  the  argumentative — they 
speak  a  language  intuitively  and  rmiversally  understood — and  that 


218  EXPLICATION. 

they  are  frequently  found  in  places  where  the  homily  will  naturally 
conclude. 

A.  It  is  said  to  the  praise  of  Vitringa  that  his  explications  are 
short  and  his  applications  long.  He  felt  that  a  knowledge  of  human 
nature  is  necessary  not  only  to  a  proper  interpretation,  hut  a  faith- 
ful and  eflfective  application  of  Holy  Scripture.  To  attempt  exposi- 
tory preaching  without  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  human  nature, 
both  regenerate  and  unregenerate,  is  like  attempting  to  practise  the 
healing  art  with  a  knowledge  of  therajieutics,  but  in  ignorance  of 
pathology.  The  same  may  be  said  of  theology.  "  You  need,"  says 
Nitzsch  (Prac.  Theol.,  §99),  "a  knowledge  of  the  whole  system 
of  Biblical  theology  in  order  to  make  a  single  verse  of  Paul  mani- 
fest and  fruitful." 

M.  Beware  of  the  temptation  to  glide  too  soon  from  illustration 
to  reasoning.  The  trained  logician  or  debater  is  much  exposed  to 
this  allurement.  This  is  as  if  an  architect  were  so  intent  upon  pro- 
viding a  sufficient  number  of  columns  and  buttresses  as  to  shadow 
and  even  hide  objects  that  ought  to  have  stood  forth  in  clear  and 
central  light. 

i\".  Hence  the  counsels  of  the  Rev.  John  Mason  to  his  son  should 
be  heeded  by  young  ministers,  and  especially  by  our  young  but 
profound  Biblical  scholai'S :  "  Do  not  meddle  with  the  exposition  of 
the  Scriptures,  which  we  commonly  call  lecturing,  for  two  years  at 
least  after  you  have  appeared  in  a  public  character.  Meanwhile, 
prepare  yourself  for  it  by  diligent  reading  and  close  attention  to 
the  connections  of  Scripture.  When  you  begin  it,  select  such  pas- 
sages as  have  a  peculiar  fitness  for  fixing  impressions  upon  the  con- 
sciences of  hearers.  Let  this  be  your  practice  for  one  year.  After 
that  you,  may  expound  a  chai:)ter  or  a  book  as  you  may  think  most 
for  edification."  How,  then,  shall  the  young  preacher  thus  find 
matter  for  his  sermons  ?  We  will  tell  him.  Let  him  select  at  first 
the  most  important,  and  consequently  plainest  texts,  and  devote 
himself  to  their  application.  Herein  neai'ly  all  our  best  preachers 
are  the  most  frequently  weak  and  delinquent.  At  any  rate,  let  him 
save  himself  from  this  generation  of  youthful  expositors  who,  with- 
out holding  the  words  of  God  in  any  very  deep  reverence,  are  only 
intent  on  getting  at  the  core  and  seed  of  divine  things,  but  who 
really  suggest  to  us  a  vision  of  apes  that  having  found  a  flask  of 
water  lying  by  the  side  of  a  sleeping  traveller,  are  using  their  best 
endeavours  to  break  it  as  they  would  a  cocoamit,  and  quoting  for 
their  mutual  encouragement  this  maxim  of  Plautus,  ''  Qui  e  nuce 
nucleum  esse  volt,  frangit  nucem,"  whoso  wishes  the  kernel  out  of 
the  shell,  must  crack  the  nut. 


CONFIRMATION.— THE  PROPHETIC  LOGIC.  219 


CHAPTER  11, 
COl^'FIRMATION. 

Section  I. — The  Pkophetic  Logic. 

The  principles  of  the  oracles  of  God  are  not  against,  but  only 
above,  the  laws  of  general  logic.  They  are  best  understood  by 
considering  their  origin  and  their  end.  They  had  their  source  not 
in  human  reason,  but  in  the  Supreme  Mind,  or,  more  strictly  speak- 
ing, Heart ;  the  Author  of  all  truth  and  all  its  evidences,  the  Maker 
of  the  human  intellect  and  its  powers  and  modes  of  argumentation. 
Why  can  it  be  thought  strange  that  our  Heavenly  Father  should 
reveal  to  us  far-shining  assertions  instead  of  glimmering  syllogisms, 
and  loving  assumptions  rather  than  the  iron  processes  of  dialec- 
tics ?  And  then  we  should  recollect  that  the  ends  of  all  inspired 
reasonings  are  practical.  The  conclusions  of  this  higher  logic  are 
acts  of  obedience  such  as  lead  to  knowledge,  which  in  turn  leads 
to  more  complete  obedience.  "  The  sacred  writers,"  as  Diodati 
has  well  observed,  "  follow  the  method  of  prudence.  Often  in  a 
concealed  syllogism  they  begin  with  the  minor  proposition,  ^nd  in  an 
enthymeme  leave  us  to  supply  the  consequence ;  now  they  use  sev- 
eral mediums  of  arguments,  and  then  suddenly  break  into  rhetori- 
cal interrogations,  exclamations,  and  amplifications."  After  these, 
perhaps,  they  return  to  their  argument. 

As  faith  always  supposes  some  reason,i  so  also  does  the  divine 
logic ;  and  its  superiority  to,  does  not  require  it  to  calcitrate  against 
canons  of  rhetorical  reasoning.  So  far  from  it,  the  holy  prophets 
are  the  best  masters  in  the  school  of  popular  logic ;  yes,  and  of 
that  spiritual  logic,  also,  of  which  Stier2  writes.  "  There  is,"  says 
he,  "  a  higher  logic  of  the  renewed  spiritual  speech,  which  restores 
the  words  of  man  to  their  j^roper  order,  and  is  therefore  the  only 
logic  that  deserves  to  be  called  by  that  beautiful  and  deeply  sig- 
nificant name."  The  apostle  Paul's  method  of  reasoning  about  the 
cross  seemed  foolishness  to  the  Greek  philosophers,  and  Longi- 

1  Augustine,  Epist.  cxxii.  2  Keryktik,  p.  23. 


220  THE  PROPHETIC  LOGIC. 

nus,i  the  Neo-Platonic  sophist,  says  of  him  :  "  Paul  of  Tarsus  was 
the  first,  witliin  my  knowledge,  that  put  forth  his  opinion  without 
supporting  it  by  argument."  And  yet  Longinus  thinks  that  the 
name  of  Paul  is  worthy  to  he  added  to  those  of  the  eight  Greek 
orators  who  are  the  glory  of  all  eloquence.  Had  this  so25hist  read, 
or  heard  read,  the  epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the  Hebrews,  he 
would  probably  have  changed  his  opinion  respecting  the  apostle's 
skill  in  dialectics.  Chrysostom^  commends  St.  Paul's  reasonings  to 
the  imitation  of  the  Christian  priest,  and  his  inspired  logic  has  the 
approval  of  the  great  metaphysician,  John  Locke,  while  Dr.  Em- 
mons^  has  proved  that  he  was  an  argumentative  preacher. 

The  extent  to  which  the  Great  Teacher  appealed  to  the  reason 
of  his  hearers  and  proved  the  doctrmes  he  taught  has  been  very 
generally  underrated.  It  should  be  recollected  that  his  miracles 
were  of  the  nature  of  indisputable  proofs ;  that  he  was  clothed 
with  authority  as  the  Divine  Mediator  and  as  an  inspired  prophet 
who  spoke  instead  of  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost.  Xor  ought 
we  to  overlook  the  fact  that  almost  all  his  sermons  were  ethical 
rather  than  doctrinal,  and  that,  consequently,  trains  of  argument 
were  unnecessary.  To  have  attempted  to  inculcate  the  princijiles 
of  morals  on  the  people  by  means  of,  or  even  with  the  aid  of,  close 
and  dry  reasoning,  would  have  been  useless.  Here,  theretore,  his 
chief  business  was  to  illustrate  and  impress. 

But  we  may  go  farther  than  this,  and  take  positive  ground.  It 
cannot  be  questioned  that  the  Divine  Master  sometimes  gave  the 
reasons  on  which  his  commands  were  foimded  (Matt.  v.  34-36,  45, 
4G;  vi.  7.,  8,  19-21;  vii.  12;  Luke  xii.  15).  Nor  are  the  instances 
few  in  which  he  addresses  his  sermons  to  the  reason  of  his  hearers, 
but  always  briefly  and  popularly,  as  befits  the  preacher  (]\Iatt.  ix. 
12,  13;  xu.  3-C,  7,  8,  11,  12;  xvi.  2-4;  xix.  3-6;  xxui.  16-22; 
Mark  ii.  19,  20,  27  ;  iii.  4,  23-27 ;  viii.  34-36 ;  xii.  26,  27 ;  Luke  v. 
36-39;  xi.  11-13,  19,  20;  xu.  54-57;  xiii.  15, 16;  John  x.  35.  See 
Archbishop  NcAvcome's  Observations  on  Our  Lord  as  a  Divine  In- 
structor, Pt.  i.,  c.  ii.,  sec.  3,  4,  for  excellent  comments  on  these  pas- 
sages). 

In  the  following  section  on  the  various  kinds  of  arguments,  evi- 
dence may  be  found  that  the  arguments  thus  cm})loyed  by  the 
Great  Teacher  were  also  various  and  level  to  the  capacities  of  those 
for  M'hom  they  were  intended. 

Augustine,  in  his  De  iJoctrina  Christicuia  (L.  iv.,  c.  v.),  concurs 

1  Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  GicTC,  L.  iv. ;  cf.  Hu^'s  Intro.  N.  T.,  Pt.  ii.,  c.  ii. 

2  De  Sacerdotio,  L.  iv.,  c.  v.,  vi.  3  Sermon  on  Acts  xvii.  2. 


THE  PROPHETIC  LOGIC.  221 

with  Ciceroi  in  the  opinion  that  wisdom  is  to  be  preferred  to  elo- 
quence. We  call  attention  to  this  here  because  it  has,  we  believe, 
been  generally  overlooked  that  this  Christian  father  here  makes 
the  former  synonymous  with  sound  reasoning. 

Some  modern  writers  have  attempted  to  disparage  and  discredit 
the  use  of  abstract  reasoning  in  religious  matters.  Among  these, 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  is  Isaac  Taylor,2  who,  in  his  introduc- 
tory essay  to  Edwards  on  the  Will,  puts  forth  several  specious 
but  sof)histical  arguments  against  "  the  intrusion  of  logic  upon  the 
ground  of  theology."  He  ignores  at  the  outset  the  fact  that 
Edwards,  like  Augustme  and  his  disciples,  dichotomizes  the  under- 
standing into  heart  or  will,  and  mind  or  intellect.  Mr.  Taylor's 
genius  is  not  of  the  dialectical  type,  and  consequently  here  he  does 
injustice  to  his  own  reputation,  to  the  great  work  of  Edwards,  and, 
what  now  chiefly  concerns  us,  to  the  utility  of  logic  as  applied  to, 
divine  revelation.  Were  j)reachers  to  receive  and  carry  out  the 
conclusions  of  this  essay  they  would  expose  themselves  to  that  re- 
proach of  which  he  so  happily  writes  in  another  essay^  in  the  same 
volume :  "  When  ministers  of  religion  allow  themselves  to  accept 
freely  those  warm  testimonies  of  regard  which  their  female  hearers 
and  followers  are  so  prompt  to  render  them,  they  are  liable  to  pass 
into  an  ambiguous  mental  condition,  which  intercepts  the  free  ex- 
change of  thought  between  themselves  and  the  men — the  laymen — 
of  their  social  and  pastoral  circles.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  ser- 
mons are  composed  and  delivered  which  women  eagerly  applaud, 
but  which  men  listen  to  with  far  less  than  thorough  satisfaction : 
they  too  may  applaud,  for  the  preacher  is  eloquent,  and  they  believe 
him  to  be  sincere ;  yet  these  educated  laymen  come  out  of  church 
convinced  on  no  one  questionable  point ;  and  they  feel  that  while 
the  slender  and  soft  experiences  of  female  religious  life  are  under- 
stood and  are  duly  treated  by  the  preacher,  the  hard,  the  arduous, 
the  perplexing,  the  Titan  realities  of  incai^s  course  through  this  dif- 
ficult world — the  strong  things — are  either  not  grappled  with  at  all, 
or  they  are  always  misunderstood,  as  a  man  misunderstands  things 
which  he  has  never  seen  otherwise  than  at  a  distance,  and  through 
a  mist."  But  still,  on  the  other  hand,  a  preacher  may  be  so  addicted 
to  argument  as  to  be  very  bewildering  and  unedifying  to  most 
women.  May  I  say  it  ?  It  is  an  important  fact,  account  for  it  as 
we  will,  that  the  reasonings  of  Paul  which  made  Felix  tremble  gave 
no  noticeable  uneasiness  to  the  equally  guilty  Drusilla.  Of  the  in- 
tuitive conclusions  and  hasty  deductions  of  women  (with  which 

1  Da  Partitione,  Pt.  xxii.,  xxiii.  Logic  in  Theology.  3  Paula. 


222  THE  PROPHETIC  LOGIC. 

regular  arguments  seem  often  to  interfere),  Mrs.    Browning  has 
given  an  accurate  descri2)tion  in  ''  Aurora  Leigh  :" 

"  Yon  generalise 
Oh,  nothing  ! — not  even  grief.     Your  quick-breathed  heart, 
So  sympathetic  to  th.e  personal  pang. 

The  human  race 
To  j'ou  means  such  a  child,  or  such  a  man 
You  saw  one  morning  waiting  in  the  cold 
Beside  that  gate,  perhaps." 

Other  preachers  and  writers  deprecate  the  use  of  every  kind  of 
reasoning  in  matters  of  religion,  on  the  plea  that  they  are  thus  imi- 
tating the  practice  of  the  sacred  writers  and  the  insi:)ired  prophets, 
who,  say  they,  were  mere  witnesses.  Now  the  latter,  it  must  be 
yery  evident,  did  always  commend  themselves  to  the  reason  of 
their  hearers  and  readers,  not  always  indeed  by  chains  of  argument ; 
for  this  woidd  sometimes  have  been  very  improper  in  those  who 
professed  to  commimicate  revelations  from  heaven,  and  often  very 
foreign  to  the  matters  they  were  commissioned  to  make  known ;  but 
they  first  did  all  that  could  have  been  justly  expected  or  demanded, 
that  is,  they  demonstrated  their  divine  call,  and  then  not  xmfre- 
quently  they  showed  the  reasonableness  of  the  contents  of  the  mes- 
sages themselves. 

Not  only  does  Paul  reason  on  several  public  occasions,  and  in 
more  than  one  of  his  epistles,  but  he  directs  Titus  to  ordain  such 
elders  as  would  be  able  to  silence  and  convince  gainsayers  and  de- 
ceivers. Peter  exhorts  his  converts  to  *  be  ready  always  to  give  an 
answer  to  every  man  that  asked  them  the  reason  of  the  hope  that 
was  in  them.'  And  as  they  were  to  do  this  "  with  meekness  and 
fear,"  it  is  implied  that  these  excellent  graces  are  not  inconsistent 
with  the  vigorous  exercise  of  the  argumentative  powers.  Luther  in 
his  Table  Talk  says  that  the  preacher  ought  to  be  both  a  logician 
and  a  rhetorician. 

"  But  is  it  not  true,  after  all,  that  theology  lies  beyond  the  reach 
of  logical  demonstration  ?  "  In  a  certain  sense,  we  reply,  it  is  true. 
It  is  undeniable  that  the  fundamental  principles  and  facts  of  divine 
revelation,  upon  which  this  peerless  science  is  built,  cannot  be  es- 
tablished by  a  process  of  logical  proof  Supernatural  and  infinite 
realities  properly  address  themselves  to  our  belief  in  unimpeach- 
able testimony.  It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  it  is  (lie 
office  of  logic  to  demonstrate  the  truth  of  its  own  fundamental 
propositions — the  intuitions,  beliefs,  and  assumptions  Avith  which 
every  process  of  sound  reasoning  must  begin.     In  this  view,  as  Dr. 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS.  223 

Gerharti  has  proved,  theology  transcends  the  sphere  of  logic  no 
farther  than  does  any  other  science.  For  the  logician,  therefore,  to 
complain  of  the  ground  on  which  the  theologian  stands  is  virtually 
to  complain  of  the  ground  on  which  he  himself,  and  every  other 
scientist,  stand,  since  both  alike  plant  their  feet  on  the  assumption 
of  principles  or  the  belief  of  fundamental  facts.  In  all  respects 
theology  bears  the  same  relation  to  logic  as  every  other  science 
does.  True  logic  is  blind  to  the  quality  of  the  foundations  on 
which  it  so  solidly  builds.  Hence,  as  Dr.  Gerhart  has  admirably 
shown,2  an  illogical  theology  is  a  false  theology,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  logical  theology  is  not  necessarily  a  true  theology. 

Even  were  it  otherwise  with  any  theology  as  a  scientific  system, 
it  could  not  invalidate  the  conclusion  that  the  matter  of  divine  rev- 
elation, in  almost  all  its  homiletical  applications,  is  properly  within 
the  sphere  of  the  science  of  deductive  reasoning. 

Section  II. — The  Different  Kinds  of  Arguments. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  classify  arguments  accord- 
ing to  philosophical  principles,  with  a  view  to  simplify  the  subject 
of  rhetorical  reasoning ;  but  the  habit  of  philosophising  on  argii- 
ments  has  had  the  same  effect  as  philosophising  on  figures.  It  has  left 
the  student  ignorant  of  the  names  and  uses  of  many  of  his  rhe- 
torical tools.  For  practical  purposes,  therefore,  it  is  better  to  ac- 
quaint ourselves  with  the  nature  and  ofiices  of  the  several  kinds  of 
arguments  which  have  been  discussed  by  those  rhetoricians  who 
have  preferred  utility  to  profundity. 

As  all  recent  works  on  logic  have  omitted  matter  which  formerly 
served  as  a  bridge  from  that  science  to  rhetoric,  we  think  it  neces- 
sary to  begin  with  such  matter.  Let  us  first  define  and  illustrate 
some  of  the  meanings  of  the  term  cause: 

Causes  are  of  four  Vm.^^— final,  efficient,  material,  and  formal.^ 

The  Final  Cause  is  the  end  for  the  sake  of  which  a  thing  is. 
There  are  "  principal  ends,"  which  are  mainly  regarded,  and  "  ac- 
cessory ends,"  which  are  only  indirectly  considered.  That  which 
we  undertake  to  do  or  obtain  is  called  finis  cujus  gratia.  Thus 
health  is  the  end  of  medicine,  since  it  undertakes  to  procure  it. 
He  for  whom  we  labor  is  called  finis  cul.  Man  is  the  end  of  medi- 
cine in  this  sense,  since  it  is  for  him  that  it  seeks  to  obtain  a  cure. 


1  Intro,  to  Philosophy  and  Logic,  pp.  178-188.  2  Id.,  p.  187. 

3  Aristotle's  Metaphysics,  L.  i.,  c.  iii.,  sec.  1  ;  the  works  of  Thomas  Aquinas, 
passim,  Port  Ro.val  Logic,  translated  by  i\Ir.  T.  S.  Baynes,  Pt.  iii.,  chap,  xviii. ; 
B.  Keckernian's  Systema  Logicae,  de  Causa,  pp.  120-174. 


22-4  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

The  Efficient  Cause  is  that  which  produces  another  thing.  There 
are  different  kinds  of  efficient  causes.  God  in  creating  Adam  was 
the  "  total  cause,"  since  nothing  had  co-operated  with  him ;  hut  the 
father  and  the  mother  are  only  "jiartial  causes"  {con  causes)  in 
relation  to  theh-  child,  since  both  are  needed.  The  sun  is  a  "  prop- 
er cause"  of  light,  but  it  is  only  an  "  accidental  cause"  of  the  death 
of  a  man  killed  by  its  heat,  since  he  was  weak  before.  The  father 
is  the  "  proximate  "  cause  of  his  son.  The  grandfather  is  only  the 
"remote"  cause.  The  mother  is  a  "producing  cause;"  the  nurse 
only  a  "preserving  cause."  The  father  is  a  "vmiversal  cause  "in 
relation  to  his  children,  because  they  are  of  the  same  nature  with 
him.  God  is  only  an  "equivocal  cause"  in  relation  to  creatures, 
because  they  are  not  of  the  divine  nature.  A  workman  is  the 
"  principal  cause  "  of  his  work ;  his  instruments  are  only  the  "  in- 
strumental causes."  The  air  which  fills  an  organ  is  the  "  universal 
cause"  of  the  harmony  of  the  organ;  the  particular  disposition  of 
each  pipe,  and  he  who  plays,  are  the  "  particular  causes  "  which  de- 
termine the  "  miiversal."  The  sun  is  a  "  natural  cause."  Man  is  an 
"  intellectual  cause  "  in  relation  to  that  which  he  does  with  judg- 
ment. The  fire  which  burns  the  wood  is  a  "  necessary  cause."  A 
man  who  Avalks  is  a  "  free  cause."  The  sun  shining  into  a  room  is 
the  "proper  cause  "  of  its  light;  the  unbarring  of  the  windows  is 
only  a  cause,  or,  as  it  is  now  usually  termed,  "  condition,"  without 
which  the  effect  would  not  be,  conditio  sine  qua  non.  The  fire 
which  burns  the  house  is  the  "physical  cause"  of  the  conflagration ; 
the  man  who  set  it  on  fire  is  the  "  moral  cause."  The  "  exemjilary 
cause  "  is  the  model  according  to  which  a  work  is  made,  as  he  who 
sits  for  a  portrait,  or  as  the  plan  by  which  an  architect  erects  a 
building;  or,  in  general,  that  which  is  the  cause  of  the  objective 
existence  of  an  idea  or  of  any  other  image  M'hatevcr. 

The  Material  Cause  is  that  of  which  things  are  formed,  as  gold 
is  the  matter  of  which  a  golden  vase  is  made. 

The  Formal  Cause,  or  form,  is  that  whicli  renders  a  thing  what 
it  is,  and  distinguishes  it  from  others,  whether  it  be  a  thing  really 
distinguished  from  the  matter,  according  to  the  schoolmen,  or,  as  is 
held  by  more  modern  philosophers,  simply  the  arrangement  of  parts. 
It  is  by  the  knowledge  of  this  form  that  we  are  able  to  cxi)lam 
properties. 

It  is  common  to  derive  arguments  from  the  consideration  of  the 
"  final  cause,"  or  end,  either  for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  a  thing 
is  not  adapted  to  the  end  proposed,  or  in  order  to  show  that  a  man 
has  done  or  will  do  some  action  because  it  is  conformed  to  the  end 
whicli  he  is  accustomed  to  propose  to  himself,  or  to  show,  on  the 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS,  225 

contrary,  that  we  ouglit  not  to  suspect  a  man  of  such  an  action, 
since  it  would  have  been  contrary  to  his  purpose.  There  are  still 
many  other  ways  of  reasoning  from  the  final  cause.  We  may  de- 
rive arguments  from  the  "  efficient  cause  "  by  showing  that  an  effect 
is  not,  since  there  has  not  been  a  sufficient  cause,  or  that  it  is,  or 
will  be,  by  showing  that  all  the  causes  are  present.  If  these  causes 
are  "  necessary,"  the  argument  is  necessary ;  if  they  are  contingent 
and  free,  it  is  only  "  probable." 

There  are  as  many  different  effects  as  there  are  causes,  these 
words  being  reciprocal.  The  common  way  of  reasoning  from  effects 
is  to  show  that  if  the  effect  is,  the  cause  is,  since  there  can  be 
nothing  without  a  cause.  We  prove,  also,  that  a  cause  is  good  or 
bad  when  its  effects  are  good  or  bad.  This,  however,  is  not  always 
true  in  respect  of  accidental  causes.  These  distinctions  are  impor- 
tant and  still  employed ;  e.  (j.,  "  The  original  cause  of  the  justification 
of  a  sinner  is  the  absolute  mercy  of  God ;  the  meritorious  cause  of 
his  justification  is  redemption  by  Christ;  and  the  instrumental 
cause  is  faith  in  the  Redeemer  "  (Sermon  on  Rom.  iii.  25,  by  Rev.  B. 
W.  Noel).  They  are  also  useful  in  expounding  and  citing  as  proofs 
such  passages  as  Rom.  xi.  36. 

I.  Logic  and  rhetoric  possess  m  common  those  forms  of  reason- 
ing which  are  generally  called  sorites.  This  name  is  given  to  all 
such  syllogisms  as  are  composed  of  more  than  three  propositions. 
Of  these,  Arnauld  and  Nicole  distinguish  three  kinds — Gradation^ 
Dilemma,  Epicheirema. 

1.  Gradation  or  Climax  is  a  complex  argument,  in  which  the 
predicate  of  the  first  proposition  is  made  the  subject  of  the  next, 
and  so  on  to  any  length,  till  finally  the  predicate  of  the  last  of  the 
premises  is  predicated  of  the  subject  of  the  first ;  e.  g.,  avaricious 
men  are  full  of  desires;  those  who  are  full  of  desires  want  many 
things;  those  who  want  many  things  cannot  satisfy  all  their  desires; 
those  who  cannot  satisfy  all  their  desires  are  unhappy;  therefore 
avaricious  men  are  unhappy.  The  inspired  reasoners  employed  the 
Gradation  in  a  free  rhetorical  form.  See  Rom.  viii.  29,  30 ;  x.  13-15 
and  the  term  climax  in  list  of  figures. 

2.  Dilemma  is  a  compound  argument  in  which,  after  having 
divided  a  whole  into  its  parts,  we  conclude  affirmatively  or  nega- 
tively of  the  whole  what  we  had  concluded  of  each  part.  Our 
Lord  emi:)loyed  a  free  and  informal  Dilemma  on  the  occasion  nar- 
rated in  Matt.  xxi.  25-27 ;  again  xii.  25-28.  Dr.  F.  W.  Krummacher, 
in  his  lecture  on  the  Lamb  that  was  Slain  (text  Mark  xiv.  65),  dis- 
cusses his  subject  by  Dilemmas,  vide  chap,  on  Finns.  Another 
argument  of  this  kind  may  be  found  in  Bishop  Sherlock's  sermon 
on  Actsii.  22,  2d  head. 


226  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

3.  Einchciveiiia  is  an  argument  in  Avliicli  either  one  of  the  two 
first  proi^ositions,  or  both,  is  immediately  followed  by  proof 
When  we  advance  doubtful  propositions,  it  is  often  necssary  to 
connect  the  proofs  witli  them  in  order  to  restrain  the  impatience 
of  those  to  whom  we  speak.  The  inspired  preachers  frequently 
reasoned  in  this  manner.  An  admired  examj^le  of  this  kind  of  ar- 
gument is  quoted  in  the  Port  lloyal  Logic,  from  Augustine,  where 
'  he  is  proving  original  sin : 

"  Consider  the  number  and  greatness  of  the  evils  under  which  children  labour, 
and  how  the  fir.st  j-ears  of  their  life  are  filled  with  vanity,  with  afflictions,  with 
illusions,  with  fears.  Then  when  they  grow  up,  and  when  they  begin  even  to 
serve  God,  error  tempts,  in  order  to  seduce  them ;  labour  and  pain  tempt  to 
weaken  them  ;  lust  tempts  to  inflame  them ;  sorrow  tempts  to  cast  them  down  ; 
pride  tempts  to  lift  Ihem  up ;  and  w'ho  can  represent,  in  few  words,  all  the  vari- 
ous afflictions  Avhich  weigh  down  the  yoke  of  the  children  of  Adam  %  The  evi- 
dence of  these  miseries  compelled  pagan  philosoi)hers,  who  knew  and  believed 
nothing  about  the  sin  of  our  first  father,  to  say  that  we  were  born  only  to  suffer 
the  cliastisement  which  we  had  merited  by  crimes  committed  in  another  life,  and 
that  thus  our  minds  had  been  attached  to  corruptible  bodies  as  a  punishment  of 
the  same  nature  with  that  which  Tuscan  tyrants  {e.  (j.,  Mezentius  in  Virgil)  in- 
flicted on  those  whom  they  bound,  while  alive,  to  dead  bodies.  But  this  opinion 
that  our  minds  are  joined  to  bodies  as  a  punishment  for  sins  previously  commit- 
ted in  another  life,  is  rejected  by  the  apostle.  What,  therefore,  remains,  but  that 
the  cause  of  these  appalling  evils  be  either  the  injustice  or  the  impotency  of 
God  or  the  penalty  of  the  first  sin  of  man  1  But  since  God  is  neither  unjust  nor 
impotent,  there  only  remains  that  which  you  are  unwilling  to  acknowledge,  but 
which  you  must  acknowledge  in  spite  of  yourselves — that  the  yoke,  so  heavy, 
which  the  children  of  Adam  are  obliged  to  bear  frotn  the  time  in  which  their 
bodies  are  taken  from  their  mothers'  wombs  till  the  day  when  they  return  to  the 
womb  of  their  common  mother,  the  earth,  would  never  have  been,  had  they  not 
deserved  it  through  the  guilt  which  they  derive  from  their  original." 

This  kind  of  argument  is  in  one  respect  the  opposite  of  the  enthy- 
meme,  which  has  been  defined  a  syllogism,  perfect  in  mhid  but  im- 
perfect in  expression,  since  some  one  of  its  propositions  is  suppressed 
as  so  clear  or  so  well  known  as  to  be  easily  supplied  by  the  mind 
of  the  hearer.  In  the  epicheirema  the  propositions  are  so  doubtful 
that  it  is  necessary  to  subjoin  the  proofs  which  establish  them ;  in 
the  enthymeme,  on  the  contrary,  some  one  of  its  propositions  is  so 
evident  that  it  is  suppressed.  This  last  kind  of  argument  is  of  all 
others  the  nioi^t  rhetorical  and  the  most  common.  (For  discussions 
on  the  nature  of  the  Enthymeme,  r.  De  Quincey,  Essay  on  Rhetoric ; 
Sir  W.  Hamilton's  Logic,  sec.  20  ;  Cope's  Intro,  to  Aristotle's 
Rhet.,  p.  103.) 

II.  The  argument  <1  priori  may  be  defined  that  wliicli  proves  the 
efiect  from  its  cause — as  I  prove  that  the  Scripture  is  true  because 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS.  00 


'I'li 


it  is  the  word  of  God,  who  cannot  lie.  The  term  is  generally  ap- 
plied to  any  argument  drawn  from  an  antecedent,  or  forerunner,  or 
tendency,  and  to  any  truth  which  the  mind  possesses  before  and  in- 
dependent of  experience.  Archbishop  Whately  would  limit  the 
term  to  such  arguments  as  may  be  employed  to  account  for  or 
assign  the  cause  of  a  fact  or  a  principle,  supposing  its  truth  granted. 
He  calls  it  the  argument  from  Antecedent  Prohability,  since  we 
here  reason  from  what  is  plausible,  reasonable,  or  what  we  would 
naturally  have  expected.  Scripture  examples  of  this  kind  of  argu- 
ment may  be  found  in  Isa.  Iviii.  3-7  ;  Jer.  viii.  22 ;  Ezek.  xxv.  3-5  ; 
xxviii.  2-10;  xxxi.  10-14;  Matt.  xix.  26;  Acts  xxvi.  4-8,  9-11; 
Heb.  vi.  18.  (For  other  later  examples  see  Dr.  Barrow's  discourse 
on  the  Divine  Impartiality ;  Tillotson's  sermon  on  the  Reasonable- 
ness of  a  Resurrection ;  Joseph  Butler's  sermons  on  the  Love  of 
God;  John  M.  Mason's  sermon  on  the  Gospel  for  the  Poor.) 

III.  Arguments  a  2)OSteriori  infer  causes  from  effects — as  I  infer 
that  there  is  a  God  from  the  works  of  creation.  Tulloch's  invalu- 
able essay  on  Theism  is  an  elaborate  series  of  d  j^osteriori  arguments. 
They  have  also  been  termed  arguments  from  jSigh,  or  Condition,  or 
Symptom.  The  word  "  cause "  is  here  usually  employed  in  the 
sense  of  conditio  sine  qua  non,  or  necessary  occasion  or  circum- 
stance. "  A  fact  being  known,"  says  Dr.  Wm.  Spalding,  "  which  is 
conditioned  by  facts  unknown,  each  or  any  of  the  conditioning  facts 
may  be  inferred  "  (Isa.  ii.  4;  xli.  21-24;  Ezek.  xiii.  10-15  ;  Habak. 
ii.  9-16;  iii.  17-19 ;  Hag.  i.  9 ;  Matt.  vii.  16-20;  John  viu.  39-43  ; 
Acts  xvii.  29;  Heb.  iii.  17,  18;  xi.  5,  16;  Dr.  Barrow's  discourse 
on  the  Divine  Impartiality ;  Bourdaloue's  sermon  on  the  Passion  of 
Jesus  Christ,  text  Luke  xxiii.  27,  28  ;  Robert  Hall's  sermon  on 
Modern  Infidelity ;  Vinet's  sermon  on  text  Rev.  xiv.  6,  entitled  a 
Characteristic  of  the  Gospel;  Van  Der  Palm's  sermon  on  the 
Necessity  of  Divme  Grace  to  change  the  Heart,  text  John  vi.  44) . 

1.  To  this  class  belong  arguments  from  Testimony.  Here  the 
truth  of  what  is  attested  is  a  condition  of  the  testimony  having 
been  given.  Testimony  in  any  case  presupposes  that  the  fact  is  as 
it  is  testified  to,  otlienoise  the  testimony  would  not  have  been  given. 
This  argument  rests  upon  one  or  more  of  the  following  kinds  of 
moral  evidence :  The  testimony  may  relate  (1)  either  to  matters  of 
fact,  or  (2)  matters  of  intuition,  or  consciousness,  or  experience,  or 
(3)  matters  of  authority  or  of  opinion. 

As  the  argument  from  testimony  is  more  frequently  used  than 
any  other  by  the  preacher,  his  success  will  depend  not  a  little  on  his 
skill  in  adducing  this  kind  of  proof,  particularly  in  quoting  and  rea- 
soning from  Holy  Scripture. 


228  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

It  is  an  important  question,  How  ought  we  to  quote  tlie  Scrip- 
tutes  ?  (a)  Our  Lord,  the  prophets,  and  apostles  generally  quoted 
but  one  text  of  Holy  "Writ  in  proof  of  each  assertion  that  needed 
its  support.  And  yet  have  wc  the  example  of  the  apostle  Paul  in 
the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  for  quoting  two,  and  in  one  instance 
three  texts  in  confirmation  of  a  singh-  proposition.  (/>)  The  in- 
spired preachers  sometimes  quoted  ad  lifcrinn,  sometimes  ad  sen- 
snin.  (r)  They  not  unfrequently  added  to  their  quotations  such 
explanations  as  showed  their  meaning  or  their  application  to  the 
argument  used,  {d)  They  evince  no  small  vivacity  in  their  manner 
of  quoting.  They  introduce  texts  in  a  great  variety  of  ways; 
som^imes  in  the  form  of  animated  interrogation.  Instances  under 
these  several  heads  will  readily  occur  to  every  student  of  the  Bible. 
In  Dr.  J.  M.  Mason's  sermon  (Messiah's  Throne,  Pt.  i.),  there  is  a 
very  successful  imitation  of  the  interrogatory  way  of  quoting  Scrip- 
ture. See  paragraph  beginning,  "  I  cannot  find  in  the  lively 
oracles,"  etc. 

2.  The  argument  from  i  'oncarrcnce  of  Testluuvij/  seems  entitled 
to  a  separate  head ;  for  here,  as  Campbell  says,  the  probability  arises 
from  the  concurrence  itself,  it  being  morally  impossible  that  the 
fact  of  many  coinciding  in  their  testimony  should  spring  from 
chance.  This  has  been  called  a  "galaxy  of  evidence"  (Acts  iii.  2-4; 
X.  43 ;  Ileb.  xi.,  xii.  1,  2).  See  Bishop  Home's  Eighth  Discourse, 
The  Case  of  the  Jews,  Pt.  iv.,  text  John  i.  11.;  Davison's  Dis- 
courses on  Prophecy,  pp.  23,  266,  375,  396. 

3.  In  some  degree  resembling  the  last  is  the  argument  from  Pro- 
gressive Approach.  Here  the  combined  force  of  a  series  of  proofs 
results  from  the  order  in  which  they  are  considered,  and  from  their 
jyrot/rcfisive  tendency  to  establish  a  certain  conclusion ;  <.//.,  if  we 
project  a  ball  along  a  rough  surface,  its  motion  is  soon  stopped;  if 
along  a  smoother  surface,  its  motion  is  not  so  soon  retarded ;  hence 
we  infer  that  if  all  the  resistance  could  be  taken  away,  the  motion 
would  be  perpetual.  Dr.  Whately,  the  inventor  of  the  name  of 
this  argument,  remarks  that  great  use  may  be  made  of  it  in  arguing 
for  the  existence  and  moral  attributes  of  the  Deity  from  the  autho- 
rity of  men's  opinions,  so  far  forth  as  they  are  wise  and  well  in- 
structed. (See  Butler's  argument  from  the  necessary  tendency  of 
virtue,  Analogy,  Pt.  i.,  chap.  iii. ;  John  Wesley  s  sermon  on  the 
General  Spread  of  the  Gospel,  text  Isa.  xix.  11 ;  also  Vinet's  sermon, 
A  Characteristic  of  the  Gospel,  in  which  he  proves  that  of  all  reli- 
gions the  religion  of  Jesus  alone  has  a  necessary  tendency  towards 
universality  and  per])etuity.) 

IV.  Arguments  i'vom  Jicscmblance.     Under  this  general  term  we 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS.  229 

include  all  those  j^roofs  and  reasons  which  are  derived  from  a  conv 
parison  or  contrast  of  the  properties  or  relations  of  diiferent  ob- 
jects. By  Isocrates  and  his  disciples  arguments  of  this  class  are 
termed  prohable}- 

1.  The  argument  from  Example  is  one  in  which  we  "  consider  a 
known  object  or  instance,  of  a  certam  class,  as  a  fair  sample  in  re- 
spect of  some  point  or  other  of  that  class,  and  consequently  draw 
an  mference  from  it  respecting  either  the  whole  class,  or  other  less 
known  individuals  of  it."  The  preacher  finds  this  kind  of  argu- 
ments to  be  very  popular  and  eifective ;  but  he  should  never  over- 
look the  difference  between  examples  used  for  proofs  and  those 
which  are  merely  employed  for  illustration — a  difference  as  great 
as  that  between  a  column  and  a  window  of  a  cathedral  (Isa.  vii. 
21,22;  xhx.  20;  Amos  vi.  13).  Chrysostom  often  employs  this 
kind  of  reasoning. 

2.  The  argument  from  Induction  is  one  in  which  from  several  in- 
dividual cases  we  argue  to  the  whole  class,  or  to  a  general  conclu- 
sion. Paley's  Hora3  Paulinae  is  an  argument  of  this  kind,  and  so  is 
a  part  of  Dr.  Tulloch's  Theisim.  Of  this  nature  likewise  are  all  ar- 
guments from  Litidtion  ;  e.  g.,  if  from  the  natural  elements  of  our 
spiritual  constitution  we  infer  the  nature  and  perfections  of  God. 
Thus  Dr.  Tulloch  proves  that  the  Divme  Being  has  personality 
from  man's  intuitive  sense  of  his  own  personality ;  from  a  self  with- 
in we  are  carried  to  a  self  without  and  above  us.  From  the  human 
conscience  he  demonstrates  the  divine  righteousness;  and  from 
our  intuitive  apprehension  of  things  beyond  the  region  of  the  vis- 
ible he  argues  the  divine  infinitude.  (Cf  Dr.  M'Cosh  on  Intui- 
tions.) Of  like  description  are  arguments  from  Experience.  As 
proof  from  mtuition  so  proof  from  expei'ience  can  never  amount  to 
moral  evidence  except  when  it  is  an  induction  from  such  a  number 
of  cases  as  proves  that  the  experience  is  essentially  that  of  the 
whole  class,  and  not  of  one  or  two  individuals.  In  arguing  from 
Christian  experience,  the  major  proposition  is  that  Scripture  as- 
cribes certain  virtues  and  graces  to  the  Holy  Spirit.  To  this  class 
belongs  the  argument  fi-om  analysis,  or  that  process  of  reasoning 
whereby  we  establish  a  proposition  by  proving  it  by  one  of  the  several 
assertions  that  are  either  expressed  or  implied  in  its  terms.  (See 
example  m  Plans  and  Divisions,  by  Dean  Young.) 

3.  The  argument  from  Deduction  is  the  proving  by  marks,  condi- 
tions, or  criteria  the  character  of  a  person,  the  claims  of  a  system, 
the  truth  of  a  doctrine,  or  the  qualities  of  a  thing.     Here  the  pro- 


1  Rhet.  ad  Alex.,  chap,  vii.,  ^4-7. 


230  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  ARGUMENTS. 

eess  is  the  reverse  of  that  of  mduction;  e.  g.^  Rev.  Charles  Les- 
lie, in  his  Short  and  Easy  Method  with  Deists,  begins  his  demon- 
stration of  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion  by  laymg  down  such 
marks  as  to  the  truth  of  matters  of  fact  in  general^  that  where  they 
all  meet,  such  matters  of  fact  cannot  be  false.  He  then  shows  that 
all  these  marks  do  meet  in  the  raattei'S  of  fact  recorded  as  to  Moses 
and  Christ.  Many  popular  "searching"  sermons  and  treatises  are 
composed  on  the  same  general  method.  (See  Bourdaloue's  sermon 
on  the  Christian  Character,  text  Matt.  xxii.  42,  and  John  Wesley's 
sermon,  Marks  of  the  IN  ew  Birth,  text  John  iii.  8.)  Vinet,  in  his 
sermon  on  Imaginary  Perfection  (text  Col.  ii.  20-28)  shows  that  a 
false  perfection  is  characterised  by  the  appearance  of  a  voluntary 
worshii?,  the  apjjearance  of  humility,  the  appearance  of  a  holy  con- 
tempt for  the  wants  of  the  body,  while  the  reality  of  each  of  these 
things  is  essential  to  true  Christian  j)iety.  (See  Matt.  xi.  8,  9;  2 
Cor.  xi.  22-28.) 

This  process  of  determining  a  question  by  a  few  test  principles 
may  be  as  decisive  as  it  is  summary;  e.  r/.,  Charles  de  la  Rue,  in  his 
sermon,  The  Dying  Sinner,  proves  that  his  deferred  conversion  is 
liable  to  be  false,  firsts  from  the  disposition  of  God  towards  the 
sinner ;  secondly,  from  the  disposition  of  the  sinner  towards  God. 

The  argument  from  Induction  is  really  a  subordinate  process  of 
deduction,  since  it  always  begins  with  the  tacit  assumption  of  some 
principle. 

4.  The  argument  from  Analogy  is  reasoning  from  that  kind  of 
resemblance  which  involves  a  similarity  or  identity  of  relation. 
Resemblances  in  appearance,  according  to  Drs.  Copleston,  Whately, 
and  others,  in  incidental  circumstances,  or  even  in  properties,  form 
no  sufficient  basis  for  analogy.  But  Locke,  Butler,^  and  Mill  give 
a  wider  meaning  to  the  phrase  "argument  from  analogy,"  and 
employ  it  to  designate  an  argument  founded  on  resemblance  of  any 
kind.  Dr.  James  Buchanan^  takes  the  term  in  a  stricter  sense, 
"  not  as  denoting  any  kind  of  resemblance,  but  such  a  resemblance 
as  may  be  applied  in  argument  or  made  a  ground  of  inference.  It 
may  be  described  as  consisting  in  a  real  and  radical  likeness  between 
two  or  more  objects  of  thought,  which  is  made  manifest  to  us  by 
their  being  observed  to  possess  the  same  characteristic  properties, 
or  to  exhibit  similar  relations,  or  to  produce  the  same  or  similar 
effects."  He  prefers  this  description  of  analogy,  because  it  "  serves 
to  guard  equally  against  two  distinct  errors — the  error  of  those,  on 


1  Dr.  Angus's  ed.  of  But!er"s  Analogy^  p.  xvii. 

2  Analogy  as  a  Guide  to  Truth  and  an  Aid  to  Faith,  p.  6^ 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS.  031 

the  one  hand,  who  hold  that  it  consists  merely  in  a  resemblance  of 
relations,  and  implies  no  resemblance  between  the  objects  them- 
selves ;  and  the  error  of  those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  imagine  that 
any  aj^parent  resemblance,  however  superficial  or  miimportant,  may 
be  applied  equally  v,ith  every  other  to  the  purposes  of  argument  or 
proof" 

The  same  authori  shows  what  are  the  different  uses  of  analogical 
reasoning:  (1)  Where  it  affords  little  or  no  proof  it  is  often  suffi- 
cient to  neutralise  objections  and  remove  adverse  presumptions ; 
(2)  It  has  the  power  of  imparting  an  aspect  of  verisimilitude  or 
likelihood  and  congrulty  to  truths  which  might  otherwise  seem 
strange  and  even  incredible ;  (3)  Analogy  yields  in  many  cases  a 
2^resum2jtlon  or  a  probability  in  favour  of  certain  conclusions  such 
as  admits  of  every  variety  of  degrees ;  (4)  It  affords  in  some  cases  a 
valid  ground  of  inference,  and  produces  the  highest  certainty  of 
which  the  human  mind  is  capable,  except  in  the  case  of  demonstra- 
tive or  necessary  truth.^ 

The  yoimg  preacher  would  do  well  to  read,  in  connection  with 
this  work,  Albert  Barnes's  Introductory  Essay  to  Butler's  Analogy, 
in  which  he  very  ably  defends  the  doctrines  of  the  evangelical  sys- 
tem against  those  who  assert  that  these  doctrines  are  in  opposition 
to  the  established  principles  by  which  God  governs  the  world. 
Thus,  in  neutralismg  objections  against  the  doctrmes  of  total  de- 
pravity, of  a  Mediator  and  atonement,  of  regeneration,  of  the  Trin- 
ity, etc.,  he  appeals  to  facts  and  prmciples  already  learned  from  the 
constitution  and  course  of  nature. 

One  kind  of  analogical  proof  is  that  of  Congrulty?  Though  a 
very  effective  method  of  reasoning,  it  is  now  much  less  frequently 
used  than  it  was  formerly.  When  employed  negatively  it  is  some- 
times termed  argumentum  ad  inconvenlentl.  Thomas  Aquinas,^  ui 
his  homihes,  employs  it;  e.g.,  in  his  homily  on  Luke  vi.  36,  he  gives 
three  reasons  to  move  us  to  show  mercy :  (1)  Necessity;  (2)  Utility; 
(3)  Congruity.  Again,  in  his  homily  on  Matt.  vi.  24,  he  shows 
"  that  we  ought  to  serve  God  on  the  ground  of  congruity ;  for  all 
things  serve  him,  whence  it  is  sufficiently  congruous  that  man  also 
should  serve  him"  (Ps.  cxix.  91).  Davies,in  his  sermon  on  the  Dan- 

1  Analogy  as  a  Guide  to  Truth  and  an  Aid  to  Faith,  pp.  162-178. 

2  Prof.  H.  L.  Mansel  defines  ueasoning  an  act  of  comparison  between  two 
concepts  (Art.  Metaphysics  in  Encycl.  Britan.}. 

3  Dr.  Buchanan's  Analogy,  p.  170. 

4  Aquinas  does  not  here  emi)loy  the  term  in  the  restricted  sense  given  it  in 
the  scholastic  theology.  Since  the  above  was  written,  Professor  Potter  (Pastor 
and  People,  pp.  36,  37)  has  published  some  excellent  hints  on  congruity. 

16 


232  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

ger  of  Liikewarmness  (text  Rev.  iii.  15, 16),  considers  lukewarainess 
in  resj^ect  of  several  d ejects,  particularly  towards  God,  towards 
Christ  Jesus,  towards  a  future  state,  and  towards  the  duties  of  re- 
lif^ion,  showing  how  unsuitable  a  temper  it  is  towards  all  these 
objects. 

On  the  general  subject  see,  e.g.,  Isa.  i.  3;  v.  1-7;  xxviii.  2.3-29; 
liv.  9-  Jer.  iv.  3;  vii.  12-15;  xiii.  23;  xviii.  6;  Zech.  1.  2;  Malachi 
i,  G ;  Matt,  xviii.  21-35 ;  Heb.  chaps,  iii.  and  vii. ;  James  iii.  3-6,  etc. ; 
Howe's  sermon  on  Sleep,  1  Thes.  v.  6,  and  his  sermon  on  the  Vanity 
of  Man  as  a  Mortal ;  Hall's  sermon  on  Substitution ;  Jortin's  ser- 
mon on  Luke  xvi.  8 ;  Davison  on  Prophecy,  passim  ;  Yinet's  ser- 
mon on  the  Necessity  of  Becoming  Little  Children;  the  Force  of 
Congruity,  etc.,  in  Isaac  Taylor's  Restoration  of  Belief. 

5.  The  argument  from  Supposition  or  Construction  is  that  in 
which  dn  invented  case  or  a  conceivable  hyj^othesis  is  employed  as 
proof.  "  We  create,"  says  Vinet,  "  with  the  hearer's  consent,  a  fact 
apart  from  real  and  known  facts;  we  make  what  is  called  in  geom- 
etry a  construction;  we  are  assisted  by  this  dotted  line,  which  we 
instantly  erase,  in  testing  the  regularity  of  the  figure  Avhich  we  first 
traced."  Or,  to  use  the  language  of  Dr.  Whately,  "  this  mode  of 
reasoning  corresponds  to  a  geometrical  demonstration  by  means  of 
a  diagram,  in  which  the  figure  placed  before  the  learner  is  an  indi- 
vidual, employed,  as  he  soon  comes  to  perceive,  as  a  sign,  though 
not  an  arbitrary  sign,  representing  the  Avhole  class."  Some  of  the 
parables  of  our  Lord  are  of  the  nature  of  supposed  cases  employed 
either  for  impression,  conviction,  or  illustration.  (See  Bourdaloue's 
sermon  on  the  Birth  of  Christ,  near  the  close  of  Ft.  ii. ;  also  his 
sermon  on  an  Erroneous  Conscience,  Pt.  i.,  first  subdivision ;  Saurin's 
sermon  on  the  Worth  of  the  Soul,  near  the  end ;  Wolfe's  Remains, 
10th  and  11th  sermons — Wolfe  in  these  instances  appears  to  have 
followed  his  own  rule :  "  Throw  your  congregation  upon  arguing 
against  themselves."  Dr.  Chalmers  and  Dr.  Buchanan  have  effec- 
tually neutralised  objections  by  "hypothetical  solutions;'' — John 
Foster's  lecture  on  Access  to  God.) 

6.  Arguments  from  Contraries  are  founded  on  resemblance. 
To  arguments  of  this  class  the  term  enthymeme  was  applied  by 
Isocratcs  and  his  disciples.^     They  are  of  the  following  kinds : 

(1)  The  argument  «  fortiori,  or  a  niajore  ad  minus,  or  (.r  minus 
probabili  ad  magis,  proves  that  .some?  other  less  probable  proposi- 
tion is  true,  and  thence  concludes  that  the  original  proposition  is 
true  because  it  is  more  probable  than  the  former.     No  oratorical 

1  Mr.  Cope's  lutro.  to  Aristl.  Rhet.,  104-425. 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS.  233 

argument  is  more  poiDiilar.  The  prophets,  our  Lord,  and  the  apos- 
tles often  reasoned  in  this  manner  (Isa.  vii.  13 ;  Jer.  xii.  5 ;  Ezek. 
XV.  5;  xxxiii.  24;  MaL  i.  8;  Matt.  vi.  25-34;  vii.  11,  l2;  x.  25; 
xxvi.  30;  Luke  xxiii.  31 ;  John  x.  35;  Heb.  ii.  2,  3;  ix.  13,  14;  xii. 
25).  This  argument  was  a  favorite  one  with  Chrysostom.  (See  his 
3d  homily  on  the  Statues,  §18,  19;  3d  sermon  on  Lazarus,  §2;  5th 
on  Lazarus,  §1,  2;  Edward  Payson's  sermon  on  Job  xxii.  5; 
Augustus  Wm.  Hare's  sermons,  ^:)«s5/»i.) 

(2)  The  argument  ex  adoerso  opposes  one  fact  to  another  fact 
which  occurred  in  parallel  circumstances.  Thus  Pascal  in  his  14th 
Provincial  Letter  contrasts  the  maxims  of  the  Jesuits  on  homicide 
with  the  rules  which  legal  justice  follows  in  such  cases.  Under 
this  head  Vinet  places  arguments  founded  on  Contrast  and  Differ- 
ence, particularly  on  j)roofs  of  essential  differences  which  are  gener- 
ally overlooked,  and  of  essential  resemblances  where  we  are  wont 
to  perceive  only  differences  (Deut.  xxxii.  18;  Jer.  xiv.  22,  and  chap. 
XXXV. ;  Matt.  v.  46-48 ;  Saurin's  sermon  on  the  Advantages  of 
Revealed  Religion,  text  1  Cor.  i.  21,  Pt.  i.). 

(3)  The  argument  from  Ablation  shows  the  nature  of  one  thing 
by  the  nature  of  another  thing  which  is  opposed  to  it,  or  by  the 
effects  of  its  absence.  It  is  by  Schott  termed  the  apagogic  argu- 
ment or  demonstration,  which  proves  a  thing  by  showing  the  impos- 
sibility of  the  contrary.  It  is  in  such  cases  a  sort  of  redact io  ad 
ahsiirdum.  We  may  in  this  way  prove  that  a  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures  is  very  beneficial  by  showing  the  effects  of  our  being 
ignorant  of  them.  Thus  Massillon,  while  preaching  to  ecclesiastics 
on  the  necessity  of  setting  a  good  example,  dwells  chiefly  on  the 
results  of  their  being  bad  examples.  So  we  might  show  that  if  man 
can  save  himself,  the  death  of  Christ  is  not  to  be  justified  or 
accounted  for.  This  negative  way  of  reasoning  is  very  popular 
but  it  is  better  occasionally  to  pursue  the  opposite  course;  e.  g.,  to 
show  the  advantages  and  blessings  of  a  proper  observance  of  the 
Christian  Sabbath,  rather  than  to  show  the  evils  of  Sabbath  break- 
ing ;  and  so  it  is  better  to  preach  upon  Christian  beneficence  rather 
than  upon  covetousness.  Thus  Bourdaloue,  in  his  sermon  on  the 
Last  Judgment,  instead  of  dwelling  on  the  wrath  of  the  Judge  and 
the  terror  of  sinners  (as  he  might  Scripturally  have  done),  adopted 
the  equally  Scriptural  and,  to  "a  gospel  hardened "  audience,  the 
equally  effective  course,  of  proving  that  in  the  Last  Day,  God  will 
do  justice  to  himself  and  to  his  chosen.  Saurin  reasons  from  Abla- 
tion in  his  sermon  on  the  Judgment  (text  Heb.  ix.  27),  where  his 
first  argument  for  a  general  and  final  trial  is  drawn  from  the  pre- 
sent disorders  of  human  society.     (See  Walker's  sermon  en  the 


234  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

Desire  of  Pleasing  God,  Pt.  ii.,  1  Thes.  ii.  4;  Richard  "Watson's 
sermon,  Promises  obtained  through  Faith,  Heb.  xi.  33.) 

V.  The* argument  liednctlo  ad  absurdum  or  jycrhniyossihile  is  one 
by  which  the  truth  of  a  proposition  is  proved  by  showing  the 
absurdity  or  impossibility  of  the  contrary,  or  the  proposition  of  an  ad- 
versary is  in  like  manner  shown  to  be  absurd  or  impossible.  "When 
the  argument  provokes  laughter  it  is  sometimes  termed  argument 
a  cachinnatione.  Vinet  has  classified  the  various  methods  of  re- 
ducing a  proposition  to  an  absurdity.  This  may  be  done  (1)  by 
stripping  it  of  verbal  disguises ;  (2)  by  showing  the  principle  it  in- 
volves ;  (3)  by  exhibiting  its  consequences  (Isa.  x.  15 ;  xxix.  IG ; 
xl.  12-26;  xliv.  6-20;  xlvi.  1-7;  Iv.  2;  Jer.  x.  3-5;  xxii.  15; 
Malachi  i.  8.  See  Bourdaloue's  sermon  on  the  Resurrection  of  our 
Lord,  Pt.  i.,  3d  subdivision;  also  two  examples  in  the  sermons  of 
Tillotson,  "  "Will  chance  fit  means  to  ends,  and  that  in  ten  thousand  in- 
stances and  not  fail  in  one,"  etc.,  1st  sermon,  a'oI.  i. ;  "  Suppose  I  came 
a  Stranger  into  England,"  etc.,  21st  sermon ;  Bishop  Sherlock,  sermon 
on  Acts  ii.  22;  South's  sermon  on  Covetousness,  Pt.  ii.,  text 
Luke  xii.  15;  Saurin  on  the  Vanity  of  attempting  to  oppose  God, 
Prov.  xxi.  30). 

"  If  .prayer  did  not  actually  operate  as  means  of  procuring  divine 
favours,  then  it  would  be  as  proper  to  pray  for  divine  blessings 
after  as  before^''  etc.  (Dr.  Emmons's  sermon  on  the  Design  and  In- 
fluence of  Prayer,  text  Gen.  xxxii.  28 ;  Daniel  Baker,  sermon  on 
"Vain  Excuses,  third  excuse,  text  Luke  xiv.  18.) 

"VI.  The  argument  ex  consequent ibiis  is  that  by  which  we  prove 
a  principle  or  conclusion  to  be  erroneous,  absurd,  or  injurious,  by 
showing  its  logical  or  moral  consequences.  It  not  unfrequently 
takes  the  form  of  a  r<?f?;«c/;/o  ad  absurdimi  (Bishop  Sherlock's  ser- 
mon on  John  xx.  30,  31 ;  also  his  sermon  on  Matt.  xiii.  29;  Robert 
Hall's  sermon  on  Modern  Infidelity). 

VII.  Arrjianentwn  ad  verecundkini  is  one  by  which  we  bring 
forward  as  proof  the  opinions  of  wise  or  good  men.  Locke  does 
not  set  the  highest  estimate  on  this  argument,  for  the  reason  that  a 
man  may  from  modesty  or  out  of  respect  or  the  fear  of  being  ac- 
cused of  impudence,  or  any  other  consideration  except  tliat  of  con- 
viction, refuse  to  stand  out  against  approved  authorities.  But  it 
should  be  considered  that  this  argument  derives  its  value  from  the 
nature  and  amount  of  authorities  on  which  it  is  founded,  and  from  the 
character,  talents,  and  attainments  of  our  opponents.  That  preacher, 
however,  would  be  unliiithful  to  his  trust  who  should  not  himself 
entertain,  and  should  not  teach  others  to  entertain,  a  profound  rev- 
erence for  the  divine  authority.   Errorists  pursue  a  different  course 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS.  235 

They  endeavour  to  exaggerate  the  talents  and  acquirements  of  then* 
leaders,  and  then  demand  for  them  a  homage  as  profound  as  the 
images  they  have  set  up  are  tall.  Saurin,  in  his  sermon  on  the  En- 
emies and  Arms  of  Christianity,  text  Eph.  vi.  11-13,  answers  those 
"  objections  against  the  truth  which  derive  their  force  from  the  su- 
periority of  the  genius  who  proposes  them." 

VIII.  Argument  ad  ignorantiam  is  one  by  which  we  ask  an  ad- 
versary either  to  receive  what  we  bring  forward  as  proof,  or  him- 
self to  find  better  proof  The  same  term  is  aj^plied  to  any  argu- 
ment drawn  from  any  insufficient  medium  whatever,  and  yet  the 
opponent  has  not  the  skill  necessary  to  refute  or  answer  it.  The 
latter  is  often  no  better  than  a  sophism.  The  argument  has  its  le- 
gitimate uses,  particularly  in  rebuking  the  presumj)tion,  ignorance, 
and  self-conceit  of  the  adversaries  of  evangelical  religion.  The  ar- 
gument ah  silentio,  i.  e.,  from  the  silence  of  the  Scriptures,  may 
also  be  used  for  the  same  purpose  (Deut.  xxix.  29 ;  Isa.  Iv.  7-9  ; 
Hos.  iv.  6-11 ;  vii.  8,  9  ;  Amos  vii.  1-4;  Matt.  xi.  25-30;  John  iii.  7, 
8;  Bourdaloue's  sermon  on  the  Christian  Religion  ii.  (1);  Saurin's 
sermon  on  the  Incomprehensibility  of  the  Divine  Mercy,  text  Isa. 
Iv.  8,  9 ;  also  sermon  on  the  Deep  Things  of  God,  text  Rom.  xi.  33, 
and  on  Obscure  Faith,  John  xx.  29 ;  Chillingworth's  argument  prov- 
ing that  the  Bible  is  easier  to  understand  than  the  councils  of  the 
Church,  Relig.  Protes.,  chap.  ii. ;  Dean  Young's  sermon,  Of  Nature 
and  Grace,  Pt.  i. ;  Butler's  Analogy,  Pt.  i.,  chajD.  vii.,  Pt.  ii.,  chap, 
vi. ;  also  his  15th  sermon  upon  the  Ignorance  of  Man ;  John  Wes- 
ley's sei-mon  on  the  Imperfections  of  Human  Knowledge,  1  Cor. 
xiii.  9  ;  Robert  Hall's  sermon,  the  Glory  of  God  in  Concealing,  text 
Prov.  XXV.  2;  Richard  Watson's  sermon  on  Deut.  xxix.  29;  Vi- 
net's  sermon  on  the  Precautions  of  Faith,  text  Col.  ii.  8,  9,  and  the 
Gospel  Comprehended  by  the  Heart,  text  1  Cor.  ii.  9).  Dr.  Chal- 
mers (Works,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  286,  325)  has  employed  "  hypothetical  so- 
lutions "to  show  that  certain  difficulties  miglit  "be  satisfactorily 
accounted  for  were  our  knowledge  more  extensive  and  more  precise." 

IX.  The  argument  ad  hominem  is  founded  on  the  known  or  pro- 
fessed principles  or  opinions  of  those  with  whom  we  reason,  whether 
those  principles  or  opinions  be  true  or  false.  In  popular  language 
the  phrase  signifies  any  address  to  the  peculiar  circumstances,  char- 
acter, avowed  oj^inions,  or  past  conduct  of  any  individual  or  party 
(Jer.  iii.  1;  xxiii.  23-25  ;  Jonah  iv.  10,  11;  Matt,  v.  46,  47;  vii.  3, 
5;  Luke  xii,  54-57;  xiii.  15,  16;  John  iii.  12;  vii.  22,  23,  and  often 
elsewhere ;  James  ii.  14-26).  The  apostles  John  and  Paul,  as  Dr.  Taiti 

1  St.  John's  Gospel  the  Model  of  Controversy ;  the  first  of  five  discourses,  en- 
titled Suggestions,  etc. 


230  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

has  acutely  remarked,  met  errors  Ly  recognising  the  truths  wliich 
■were  mixed  up  Avitri  tliem,  and  by  entering  into  the  feelings 
•which  led  to  those  errors  (cf.  Liicke  on  John).  And  accordingly 
■we  should  remember  that  for  many,  as  Tholuck  says,  Shakespeare 
is  a  higher  authority  than  Paul,  and  a  smgle  distich  of  Goethe  has 
more  ■weight  than  the  -whole  epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the  Gala- 
tians.  F.  W.  Robertson  too  often  sought  and  magnified  the 
germs  of  truth  which  he  had  discovered  in  false  systems  of  religion. 
Satan  himself  has  great  vigilance,  industry,  etc. ;  but  no  preacher 
could  commend  these  virtues  as  exercised  by  Satan  (Vinet's  ser- 
mon on  Natural  Faith ;  Whately's  Errors  of  Romanism). 

X.  The  argument  from  reminisceiice  is  reasoning  from  the  hear- 
er's remembrance  of  former  thoughts  or  exjicriences.  It  is  of  the 
nature  of  the  argument  ad  Jiominon,  and  the  phrase  might  not  im- 
properly be  used  to  designate  all  arguments  founded  on  any  mate- 
rials that  are  treasured  in  the  memory  of  the  auditors,  ■whether 
derived  from  consciousness,  observation,  testimony,  or  even  from 
other  arguments.  The  Scriptures  abound  in  arguments  of  this  kind 
(Andrew  Fuller's  sermon  on  the  Remedy  for  Mental  Dejection,  Pt. 
ii.,  text  Psa.  xliii.  6). 

XI.,  The  argument  ex  conccssio,  or  e  co7iccssis,  is  one  by  ■which  a 
proposition  is  proved  upon  which  it  was  before  agreed  to  yield  the 
original  question.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  arguments  dra^^'n 
from  the  concessions  and  professions  of  an  adversary.  It  is  often 
confounded  with  the  argument  ad  hombieiii  (Jer.  xviii.  1-10; 
Mai.  i.  6;  John  i.  50,  51;  see  Bourdaloue's  sermon  on  Adver- 
sity and  Prosperity,  text  Matt.  viii.  23,  20 ;  John  Foster's  4th  lec- 
ture). 

XII.  Argument  adfideia  is  founded  on  things  believed,  or  on  our 
belief  in  testimony.  According  to  Aristotle  (L.  i.,  chap,  i.,  sec.  3), 
"  the  means  of  producing  belief  can  alone  come  within  the  sphere 
of  rhetoric;"  and  accordingly  this  argument  is  a  reasoning  from 
what  we  believe  in  order  to  remove  grounds  of  doubt.  For  faith 
always  supposes  some  reason;  for,  as  St.  Augustine  says,  we  could 
never  have  been  led  to  believe  that  which  is  above  our  reason  if 
reason  itself  had  not  persuaded  us  that  there  are  things  whicli  we 
do  well  to  believe,  though  Ave  are  unable  as  yet  to  comprehend 
them  (Port  Royal  Logic,  Pt.  iv.,  chap.  xii.).  This  argument  may 
sometimes  be  founded  on  that  interior  assent,  conviction,  or  trust 
which  is,  a'cording  to  St.  Bernard,  "  the  basis  of  our  reasonings, 
not  their  conelusions;  not  an  inference  from  our  investigations,  but 
in  itself  an  absolute  certainty." 

Do  not  attempt  either  to  illustrate  or  to  demonstrate  all  mattere 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS,  237 

of  faith.     That  old  artist  ^yent  too  far  who  represented  Jonah  look- 
ing out  at  a  window  m  a  side  of  the  whale. 

XIII.  The  argument  in  a  circle  is  one  in  which  the  premiss  im- 
plies the  conclusion.  It  has  until  lately!  been  regarded  as  a  kind 
of  fallacy — a  petltio  princlpil^  or  begging  the  question;  and  Aris- 
totle condemns  its  use,  although  he  sometimes  employs  it  unawares 
(De  Soph.  Elenc,  chap,  xxvii.).  In  some  rare  cases  an  inversion  of 
a  proposition  has  the  appearance  of  being  a  circular  argument  with- 
out being  necessarily  so  on  both  sides ;  e.  g.,  Plutarch  (De  Pyth. 
Orac.)  says  that  some  in  his  day  denied  that  the  oracles  were  in 
good  poetry  because  they  came  from  Apollo,  while  others  denied 
that  Apollo  was  the  author  of  some  oracles  because  they  were  com- 
posed in  bad  verse.  This  reminds  him  of  the  story  of  the  painter 
Pauson,  who,  having  received  an  order  to  paint  a  horse  rolling,  de- 
picted him  galloping.  His  patron,  seeing  it,  was  dissatisfied ;  where- 
upon Pauson  smilingly  turned  the  picture  the  other  side  up,  when 
the  horse  appeared  rolling.  So  again  Segnari  (Quaresimale  ser- 
mon 11th,  sec.  6):  "You  say  that  God  will  protect  you  in  death 
because  he  is  merciful ;  and  I  reply  that  because  he  is  merciful  he 
Avill  not  protect  you  in  the  hour  of  death." 

The  preacher  has  frequently  to  beg  the  question,  and  when  his 
auditors  are  believers  he  will  seldom  beg  it  in  vain ;  for  they  will 
observe  that  although  he  reasons  in  a  circle,  yet  it  is  a  circle  a  large 
segment  of  which  is  capped  with  clouds  of  mysterious  verity  (John 
V.  31-36).  To  prove  from  Scripture  the  inspiration  of  Scripture  is 
to  reason  in  a  circle. 

XIV.  The  argument  from  Common  Sense  is  based  on  such  know- 
ledge as  is  not  produced  by  experience  either  external  or  internal, 
but  on  cognitions  which  have  their  origin  in  the  thinking  principle 
itself  "  The  mind,"  says  Sir  William  IIamilton,2  "  has  the  power 
of  being  the  native  source  of  certain  necessary  or  d  priori  cogni- 
tions, which  cognitions,  as  they  are  the  conditions,  the  forms  mider 
Avhich  our  knowledge  in  general  is  possible,  constitute  so  many 
fundamental  laws  of  our  intellectual  nature.  The  criterion  of  ne- 
cessity, or  the  impossibility  not  to  think  so  and  so,  was  first  de- 
clared by  Leibnitz.  But  philosophers  do  not  concur  as  to  what 
cognitions  ought  to  be  classed  as  necessary  or  ultimate.  (See  Dr. 
M'Cosh's  "  Intuitions  of  the  Mind.") 

The  argument  from  common  sense  is  popularly  understood  to  be 
any  appeal  to  a  plam  understanding,  or  "  good   sense  "  applied  to 


1  Grote's  Aristotle,  vol.  i  ,  p.  255;  Mills's  Logic,  B.  iii.,  chap,  iii.,  sec.  2. 

2  Metaphysics,  Lect  xxxviii. 


238  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

common  and  familiar  things,  in  opposition  to  refined  reasonings 
founded  on  science  and  theory.  It  is  often  mistaken  for  arguments 
from  antecedent  probability,  from  concurrent  testimony,  from  re- 
semblance. In  strictness,  however,  it  is  an  argument  founded  on 
our  intuitions,  or  else  on  those  principles  Avhich  are  self-ecideuf — 
i.  €.,  not  to  be  proved  on  the  one  hand  nor  doubted  on  the  other 
(Isa.  V.  3-G;  x.  15  ;  xxviU.  24-28;  xxix.  IG;  xlv.  9;  xlix.  15;  Ezek. 
xsxiv.  2-31;  Amos  iii.  3-8;  vi.  12-14;  Matt.  xvi.  26;  Bourdaloue's 
sermon  on  the  Law  of  Christ,  Matt.  xvii.  5,  Pt.  i. ;  Tillotson's  ser- 
mon on  the  Wisdom  of  being  Religious  (near  the  end) ;  Robert 
Walker's  sermon  on  Psa.  xix.  18 ;  Dwight\s  Theology,  passii/i). 

XV.  The  argument  from  Conscience  is  that  which  reasons  from 
or  appeals  to  our  sense  of  moral  right  and  wrong.  Here  those 
arguments  are  the  most  weighty  which  are  drawn  from  the  con- 
sciences of  all  men,  or  the  universal  consent  of  mankind,  and  from 
the  consciences  of  those  who  are  the  most  intelligent  and  the  most 
active  of  Christians.  The  inspired  preachers  often  appealed  to  the 
moral  ficulty  in  their  hearers  (South's  sermon,  Natural  Religion 
without  Revelation  Sufficient  to  render  us  Inexcusable,  text  Rom.  i. 
20 ;  and  liis  sermon  on  the  Fatal  Imposture  and  Force  of  Words, 
Isa.  v.,  20). 

There  are  other  terms  to  designate  real  or  flmcied  arguments,  as 
the.  arfjumentum  ad  judicium,  or  proofs  drawn  from  the  nature  of 
things,  or  from  probability.  Locke  invented  this  term  to  distin- 
guisli  direct  arguments  addressed  to  reason  from  the  arguments  a<l 
verecundia//i,  ad  ifjnorantiain,  and  ad  Jiondnon,  which  may  be  ad- 
dressed more  or  less  to  the  feelings.  Some  motives  for  excitation 
or  persuasion,  and  even  fallacies,  have  passed  under  the  name  of 
argument ;  c.  //.,  argurnentum  ad  passiones,  an  address  to  the  pas- 
sions of  men;  and  aiujuracntum  ad  popnlam,  an  address  to  the  pas- 
sions or  prejudices  of  the  people. 

Never  employ  a  weak  argument,  remembering  that  the  strength 
of  a  chain  of  reasoning  is  the  .strength  of  its  weakest  link;  such  at 
least  is  the  popular  opinion,  which  ignores  the  fact  that  a  weak 
argument  can  never  real/i/  enfeeble  a  strong  one. 

Some  writers  on  homiletics,  as  Schott,  Yinet,  and  others,  treat 
of  what  they  term  indirect  or  lateral  proof  or  argumentation,  /.  e., 
reasf)ning  drawn  from  some  fact  or  principle  outside  of  the  nature 
of  the  object 'itself,  apart  from  causes  or  eflFects,  experience  or 
authority.  Others  call  proof  indirect  when  it  is  applied  to  the 
refutation  of  objections.  Professor  Potter,  Francis  de  Sales,  and 
Francis  Borglai  emplx)y  the  term  indirect  to  designate  a  peculiar 

1  Pastor  anil  P.-oplp,  by  the  Rev.  T.  J.  Potter  (Dubi;ii,  1869;,  pp.  117-36. 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS.  239 

method  of  answering  and  converting  heretics.  '  The  preacher  seems 
to  be  simply  engaged  in  explaining  and  sustaining  some  Catholic 
doctrine,  not  appearing  to  suppose  that  there  is  any  objection  which 
can  be  brought  against  that  doctrine,  thereby  leaving  the  impres- 
sion on  his  adversary's  mind  that  nothing  is  further  from  the  inten- 
tion of  the  preacher  than  such  a  wish  or  mode  of  proceeding. 
Thus  in  preaching  on  the  "  Real  Presence,"  instead  of  attempting 
directly  to  establish  the  proposition  that  "  Christ  is  really  and  truly 
present  in  the  Eucharist,"  he  is  to  conceal  his  design,  and  in  words 
full  of  sweetness  and  charity,  he  is  to  prove,  ostensibly^  that 
"  Christ  Jesus  has  shown  an  infinite  love  to  man  in  instituting  the 
adorable  sacrament  of  the  altar."  By  proceeding  in  this  manner 
the  preacher  can  actually  and  effectually  prove  every  point  of  the 
Catholic  doctrine  in  question ;  whilst  his  adversary  is  thinking  that 
he  is  wholly  taken  up  in  demonstrating  the  goodness  and  bounty 
of  Jesus  Christ.'  This  precious  precept  originated  with  the  degen- 
erate "  Society  of  Jesus,"  or  rather,  as  their  later  history  compels  us 
to  style  them,  the  Society  of  Judas.  It  is,  observe,  of  the  later 
Jesuits  that  we  say  this.  The  earlier  members  of  this  order  did 
not  sin  against  meridian  light;  nay,  in  many  instances  they  even 
adopted  the  reformed  kind  of  preaching,  and  that  too  so  success- 
fully as  to  regain  for  a  season,  and  in  some  countries,  the  ground 
that  Protestantism  had  won.  It  was,  as  Macaulay  says,  playing  over 
again  the  fencmg  match  in  Shakespeare  :  "  Laertes  wounds  Hamlet  ; 
then  in  scuffling  they  change  rapiers,  and  Hamlet  wounds  Laertes." 
The  subject  of  Refutation  is  not  undeserving  of  a  few  suggestions. 
Determine  the  meaning  and  appHcation  of  the  objection  to  be  re- 
futed. Very  seldom  attempt  to  answer  all  objections ;  but  when 
several  important  objections  are  raised  they  are  best  refuted,  either 
by  stating  them  one  after  another,  and  then  showing  that  they  all 
rest  on  one  or  more  common  principles,  which  we  finally  prove  to 
be  false ;  or,  what  is  more  oratorical,  by  answering  them  one  by  one 
in  an  animated,  rapid,  and  forcible  manner.  Single  objections  may 
be  refuted  by  showing  that  they  owe  their  apparent  weight  to  some 
omission,  addition,  or  misapprehension ;  by  denying  the  principles 
or  conclusions  on  which  they  rest ;  by  showing  that  if  admitted, 
they  would  prove  too  much ;  by  opposing  high  and  broad  principles 
to  low  and  narrow  maxims;  or  by  first  dividing  an  objection,  and 
then  refuting  in  succession  each  error  or  fallacy  it  contains.  The 
Jesuits  recommend  a  total  silence  as  to  objections.  Such  evasions 
are  Satanic.^  We  may  sometimes  turn  an  olyection  into  an  argu- 
ment contradictory  of  it  and  the  principle  on  which  it  is  founded. 

1  Gen.  iii.  1-5. 


240  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

It  is,  however,  liable  to  be  regarded  as  a  sign  of  weakness  when  we 
appear  too  ready  to  turn  a  defence  Into  an  attack.  State  objections 
fairly;  but  remember  that  some  unanswerable  objections  neither 
prove  nor  decide  any  question.  Let  obsolete  errors  alone,  and 
reason  against  such  only  as  are  great,  prevalent,  and  dangerous. 
Refute  in  a  frank  and  candid  manner,  and  keep  your  heart  and 
tongue  free  from  all  acrimony  and  imcharitableness.  It  may  be 
necessary  to  refute  erring  brctlircn ;  but  consider  that  while  in  a 
civil  war  victory  may  be  lawfully  won,  it  can  never  be  honourably 
crowned  vrith  a  triumph.  Never  raise  a  devil  you  cannot  lay.  To 
name  opposing  writers  and  leaders  of  sects  sometimes  has  the  effect 
not  to  pillory  but  to  enthrone  them.  Avoid  as  much  as  possible 
figurative  language  in  reasoning  with  unfair  and  miprincipled 
errorists.' 

An  imcultivated  congregation  may  comprehend  the  logic  of  the 
heart  and  the  logic  of  the  conscience,  but  it  very  rarely  compre- 
hends the  logic  of  the  intellect.  Therefore  teach,  excite,  and  exhort 
such  ;  but  unless  you  are  a  bold  man,  do  not  adventure  further.  It 
is  only  the  really  intelligent  and  cultivated  that  can  attentively  fol- 
low a  train  of  reasoning;  but  the  superficially  refined  and  fashion- 
able far  less  easily  than  plain,  hard-working  people.  Remember 
that  in  argumentation  you  should  give  not  only  rtVAs'o;/.^,  but  ilhistra- 
tlons  as  well.  Most  hearers  are  convinced  most  effectually  by  argu- 
ments that  are  informal  and  mixed  with  other  subject-matter;  and 
we  must  put  forth  our  reasons  in  a  very  meek  spirit,  or  else  they  will 
suspect  and  declare  that  we  would  blame  or  scold  them,  or  would 
seek  some  occasion  to  quarrel  with  them.  In  general,  therefore, 
keep  in  mind  the  distinction  Zeno^  was  in  the  habit  of  making  be- 
tween logic  and  rhetoric :  "  When  he  had  compressed  his  fingers  and 
made  a  fist,  he  would  say  that  dialectics  were  like  that;  but  when 
he  opened  his  fingers  and  expanded  his  hand,  he  would  say  that 
eloquence  was  like  his  open  palm." 

Every  argumentative  sermon  should  be  either  interspersed  with, 
or  concluded  by,  suitable  "  uses."  The  torch  of  logic  should  not 
only  reveal  and  consume,  but  should  betimes  chase  and  intimidate, 
<jCiiido  and  eucourajje. 


1  Among  those  who  excel  in  Refutation,  we  may  mention  Bourdaloue,  Massil- 
lon,  Saurin,  Vinet,  Tiliotson,  Sherlock,  Paley,  Horsley,  Andrew  Fuller,  Emmons, 
and  Chalmers. 

2  Cicero's  Orator,  c.  xxxii  ;  cf.  what  Thos.  Fuller  (Holy  State,  B.  ii.,  c.  v.)  says 
of  Campion. 


OF  APPLICATION.  241 


CHAPTER  III. 

OF  APPLICATIOiX. 

Uses  were  not  improperly  divided  Iby  the  old  writers  on  homi- 
letics  into  two  classes :  the  uses  of  Information  and  Refutation, 
which  were  called  theoretical,  and  the  uses  of  Reproof,  Exhortation, 
and  Consolation,  which  were  called  practical.  Under  these  five 
heads,  which  are  collected  from  2  Tim.  iii.  16  and  Rom.  xv.  4,  we 
may  conveniently  class  applications  of  every  possible  name.^  Though 
these  five  uses  have  been  assailed  by  Schott  and  others,  and  have 
been  ignored  by  all  recent  writers  on  sacred  oratory,  yet  a  thor- 
ough study  of  the  old  Latin  writers  on  this  part  of  homiletics,  and 
of  the  effect  of  the  present  neglect  of  uses,  must  convince  the  stu- 
dent that  it  is  worth  his  while  to  make  himself  familiar  with  their 
nature  and  varieties,  for  much  the  same  reason  that  he  acquaints 
himself  with  the  Topics  of  Claude,  namely,  because  they  serve  to 
suggest  untried  and  suitable  ways  of  bringing  home  a  text  or  sub- 
ject to  the  hearts  of  all  kinds  of  hearers. 

It  was  the  error  not  so  much  of  the  old  homiletical  writers  as  of 
their  disciples,  that  every  sermon  should  have  five  applications,  and 
that  all  these  should  be  systematically  reserved  for  the  conclusion 
of  the  sermon.  It  was  also  a  mistake  to  announce  them  with  for- 
mality, especially  the  use  of  exhortation.  After  all,  however,  their, 
elaborate  system  of  application,  and  their  unconcealed  way  of  mak- 
ing it,  renders  it  all  the  more  instructive  to  us.  Had  they  not  been 
guilty  of  some  of  the  errors  whereof  they  have  been  accused,  they 
would  not  have  been  able  to  bequeath  to  us  so  valuable  a  mass  of 
uses.  The  English  and  American  divines  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury justly  regarded  the  application  as  "  the  life  and  soul  of  a  ser- 
mon," and  therefore,  in  spite  of  a  few  faults  as  to  form,  they  have 
in  this  respect  sm-passed  all  other  preachers,  ancient  and  modern. 
We  have  not  quoted  any  examples  of  their  uses,  because  it  were 
better  to  omit  them  altogether  than  to  fail  to  give  an  accurate  and 
comprehensive  view  of  them — a  view  which  can  only  be  obtained 
by  reading  the  applications  of  such  i^reachers  as  Baxter  and  Man- 

1  See  also  Ezek.  xxxiv.  4,  where  the  Lord  rebukes  the  careless  shepherds  who 
neglect  the  different  modes  of  tending  the  flock. 


242  USE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

ton,  Bates  and  Flavel,  Charnock  and  Goodwin.  The  uses  of  these 
great  preachers  ought  to  be  studied  for  many  reasons,  especially 
for  their  pertinency,  originality,  and  method.  The  sermons  of  Bish- 
op Wilkins  are  remarkable  for  the  variety  of  the  phraseology  with 
which  he  introduces  the  parts  of  his  applications. 

These  and  other  illustrious  preachers  of  those  times  ever  kept  in 
mind  the  declaration  that  "  all  Scripture  is  profitable.''  Their  phi- 
losophy was  practical,  which,  as  Lord  Bacon  says,  soars  into  the 
clouds  like  the  hawk,  only  to  return  with  spoil,  while  the  philoso- 
phy of  not  a  few  modern  preachers  is  speculative,  which  the  same 
author  compares  to  the  lark,  because  she  mounts  into  the  sky  with 
sprightly  song  indeed,  and  circling  flight,  but  descends  with  noth- 
ing for  her  young. 

As  every  plan  of  a  sermon  should  be  as  practical  as  the  end  pro- 
posed will  allow,  it  is  advisable  to  make  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
general  heads  of  discourse  heads  of  application.  Thus  Samuel 
Davies,  in  a  sermon  on  Heb.  xii.  14,  shows  secoiuJhj  what  means 
we  are  to  employ  to  obtain  holiness,  and  tlilrdbj  urges  the  use  of 
these  means  from  the  consideration  of  the  absolute  necessity  of 
holiness.     These  two  heads  are  "  uses."i 

Sectiox  I. — Use  of  Instruction". 

This  use  is  one  by  which  we  apply  the  doctrine  of  the  text  or 
the  principal  subject  of  discourse  for  teaching  or  confirming  some 
article  of  the  Christian  faith.     This  kind  of  application  will  natur- 

1  Here  it  may  be  well  for  the  youn^  writer  of  sermons  to  learn  to  enijiloy  dis- 
criminatingly the  following  terms :  By  a  lesson  is  commonly  meant  a  head  of  aj)- 
l)lication,  bnt  is  more  proporlj'  cither  a  use  of  doctrine,  or  a  use  of  refutation 
or  of  direction.  An  obscrmtion  or  remark  is  a  tliought  suggested  by  foregoing 
matter  and  embodied  in  a  single  sentence  and  its  amplitications.  It  generally 
follows  explanations,  but  is  sometimes  mingled  with  them,  and  in  didactic  lec- 
tures often  serves  as  a  conclusion.  An  inference,  or  "  consectary,"  as  the  Puritan 
preachers  occasionally  expressed  the  idea,  is  a  praetical  conclusion  drawn  from 
a  doctrine  or  proposition  previously  maintained.  In  applications  a  deduction  is 
synonymous  with  an  inference.  It  differs  from  an  observation  or  remaik  in  not 
being  suggested  by,  but  in  arising  out  of  the  subject.  An  implication  is  something 
involved  in,  thougli  not  directly  expressed  by,  a  text.  This  term  belongs  to  ex- 
plication and  conviction.  A  real  implication  has  the  same  authority  as  that 
which  is  directly  and  fully  exi)ressed.  A  reflection  is  a  use  the  object  whereof  is 
to  assist  meditation  on  the  subject,  or  on  our  experimental  or  practical  relations 
to  it.  It  is  sometimes  termed  recollection.  It  may,  as  in  Dr.  Watts's  sermons, 
take  the  form  of  an  aiMress  to  one's  own  soul  by  employing  the  ficrure  "  .Vssoci- 
ation."  ,Vs  it  is  by  reasoning  that  uses  are  found,  tlie  preaclier  .should  keep  in 
m'nd  tlio  dilfcrent  kinds  of  arguments. 


USE  OF  CONFUTATION.  243 

ally  find  a  place  in  many  expository  and  doctrinal  discourses.  Some 
of  the  old  Pm-itan  divines  included  in  their  idea  of  this  use  not 
only  credenda,  but  those  agenda  which  are  made  subjects  of  articles 
of  faith  and  the  practical  bearings  of  doctrines. 

The  most  important  maxim  as  to  this  use  is :  Never  make  any 
deductions  or  draw  any  inferences  that  are  remote  or  collateral, 
but  only  such  as  are  obviously  contained  in  the  text,  and  such  as 
are  necessary  to  a  clear  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  things 
that  are  to  be  believed ;  e.  r/.,  from  the  text  Micah  v.  2,  we  learn, 
1,  the  eternity  of  Christ;  2,  we  may  from  his  eternity  infer  his 
dbrinlty.  But  if  we  were  to  be  content,  first  and  solely,  to  deduce 
from  the  text  this  last  application,  we  would  depart  from  this 
maxim.  Charnock  furnishes  good  examples  of  this  kind  of  appli- 
cation. Though  the  Scriptures  never  introduce  this  use  in  a  for- 
mal manner,  yet  the  substance  of  it  is  found  in  passages  not  a  few : 
Ezek.,  chaps,  i.,  iii.,  x.,  xi.,  xvii.,  xx.,  xxxiii. ;  Matt.  v.  17;  vi.  1-24; 
John  iii.  1-21 ;  Heb.  x.  35 ;  xi.  In  this  application,  as  well  as  in 
every  other  part  of  a  sermon,  eschew  all  one-sided  views,  for  to 
these  Satan  and  all  his  ministers  and  synagogues  are  confined. 

In  this  use  be  not  greatly  afraid  of  iteration.  He  who  knows 
not  how  to  repeat  knows  not  how  to  teach. 

SECTio:Nr  II. — Use  of  CoNFUTATioiN'. 

By  this  kind  of  application  we  either  correct  erroneous  opinions 
or  refute  such  as  are  totally  false.  In  general  this  use  is  employed 
for  the  direct  removal  of  every  sort  of  delusion  and  prejudice. 
Scripture  examples  of  this  may  be  fo.und  in  Ezek.  xii.  21-28;  chap, 
xviii. ;  and  xxxiii.  17-20 ;  Matt.  v.  17-48 ;  xii.  25-30 ;  Acts  xvii. 
29-31.  Our  Lord  not  unfrequently  began  his  addresses  with  refu- 
tation, and  so  prepared  the  way  for  teaching  the  principles  of  his 
religion,  e.  g.,  Matt.  xv.  1-14;  xxii.  23-32;  and  chap,  xxiii. ;  Luke 
vi.  7-9 ;  xi.  37-44.  Let  the  pastor  herein  imitate  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, who  watched  his  sheep  by  night  in  order  that  he  might  feed 
them  on  the  followmg  day. 

But  shun  as  a  pestilence  the  example  of  those  spoilt  children  of 
the  Church  who  admire  much  but  believe  little ;  who  out  of  one 
corner  of  their  mouth  magnify  the  virtues  of  their  orthodox,  ances- 
tors, and  out  of  the  other  first  misrepresent  and  then  ridicule  the 
creed  of  the  same ;  who  accord  with  the  Church  while  she  sings  of 
the  strength  and  beauty  of  her  adorable  Jesus,  except  when  she 
makes  melody  of  the  words,  "  His  mouth  is  most  sweet ;  ...  his 
lips  like  lilies  dropping  sweet  smelling  myrrh."     They  do  indeed, 


244  USE  OF  EXCITATION. 

for  the  sake  of  the  music,  vocalise  this  part  of  the  canticle ;  but  how 
can  they  heartily  extol  the  mouth  and  lips  of  "  the  chlefest  among 
ten  thousand  "  while  they  either  doubt  or  deny  his  professions  ? 

Object  not  that  we  set  too  much  store  by  dogmas  and  creeds. 
The  articles  of  our  belief  are  the  necessary  fences  of  the  Church, 
and  as  such  should  always  be  kept  in  good  repair,  and,  above  all, 
confined  to  the  boundaries ;  for  though  thornbushes  make  an  excel- 
lent hedge,  yet,  alas  for  the  field  that  is  all  grown  over  with  thorns. 
Nor  is  it  necessary  to  strip  the  hawthorns  of  their  leaves  and  honey- 
suckles. This  were  to  make  the  gardener  an  imitator  of  drouth  or 
winter  in  exhibiting  thorns. 

Under  the  head  of  Confirmation  may  be  found  some  suggestions 
for  composing  this  part  of  a  sermon.  Only  let  it  here  be  kept  in 
memory  that  when  confutation  is  made  a  jiart  of  an  application  it 
should  always  be  brief  and  animated,  and,  what  is  better  still,  ex- 
pressed with  unusual  meekness  and  gentleness.  "  I  have  perceived," 
says  Richard  Baxter,  "  that  nothing  so  much  hinders  the  reception 
of  the  truth  as  urging  it  upon  men  with  too  harsh  importunity,  and 
falling  too  heavily  on  their  errors;  for  hereby  you  engage  their 
honour  in  the  business,  and  they  defend  their  errors  as  themselves." 
Hence  we  should  not  often  attemjjt  to  expose  the  false  without 
exhibiting  at  the  same  time  the  true,  as  Paul  did  (1  Cor.  ii.  6-lG). 

On  some  informal  occasions,  as  on  the  evenings  of  lectures,  it 
might  sometimes  be  advisable  to  spend  much  time  in  answering 
questions  and  refuting  objections.  In  the  more  difficult  cases  the 
questions  and  objections  might  be  composed  beforehand,  and 
formally  stated  by  members  of  the  audience.  But  on  no  occasion, 
however  familiar,  take  any  notice  of  or  repeat  errors  that  are  blas- 
phemous or  indecent. 

"VVe  have  to  make  a  difference  between  the  doubts  of  those  who 
are  in  the  main  orthodox  and  the  dangerous  opinions  of  those  who 
love  to  disseminate  tares  by  night.  "  A  shepherd,"  says  the  Gulis- 
tan,  "  once  asked  his  father  to  give  him  a  maxim  worthy  of  liis  old 
agq: 

"  Use  gentleness,  he  said,  yet  not  so  much 
That  the  wolf  be  emboldened  thee  to  clutch.'  " 

Sectiox  III. — Use  of  Excitation. 

At  the  outset,  we  warn  the  reader  against  the  notion  that  excita- 
tion belongs  exclusively  to  the  application,  or  to  a  |)artioular  part 
of  it.  It  may  often  be  employed  advantageously  as  introductory  to 
explication,  or  confirmation,  or  to  the  use  of  information  or  consola- 
tion. 


USE  OF  EXCITATION.  245 

Under  this  head  we  may  include  all  those  uses  which  are  particu- 
lary  addressed  to  the  imagination  and  feelings,  without  aiming 
directly  to  i^ersuade  the  AvilL  Of  this  class  are  those  uses  which 
were  formerly  termed  Use  of  Meditation,  of  Recollection,  of 
Lamentation,  of  Commendation,  of  Congratulation,  and  of  Praise. 
We  find  the  word  Excltatio  employed  by  Solomon  Van  Tilli  to 
designate  that  part  of  exhortation  which  consists  in  urging  motives 
to  Christian  duty.  But  we  concur  with  Principal  CampbelP  and 
Professor  H.  ]^.  Day^  in  the  opinion  that  there  is  a  rhetorical  pro- 
cess which  is  less  intended  to  persuade  than  to  move  the  feelings, 
either  by  creating  some  new  emotion  or  by  awakening  one  that 
already  has  a  dormant  existence,  "  In  the  pathetic,"  says  Dr. 
Campbell,  "  properly  so  called,  the  rousing  of  suitable  affections  is 
apparently  the  ultimate  end."  Whole  sermons  may  be  devoted  to 
excitation ;  <?.  ^.,  sermons  on  the  Passion,  preparatory  to  the  Lord's 
Supper,  such  as  we  find  in  Krummacher's  Suffering  Saviour;  also 
panegyrical,  and  commemorative,  and  other  demonstrative  dis- 
courses. 

The  present  very  important  subject  may  be  conveniently  con- 
sidered in  its  relation,  first,  to  the  imagination,  and  secondly,  to 
the  feelings;  but  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  all  along  that  the 
Divine  Spirit  anticipates  sometimes  the  slower  operations  of  the 
mind  by  working  on  the  imagination  through  the  feelings,  and  then 
again  powerfully  affecting  the  heart  Avithout  addressing  the  imagi- 
nation. It  has  been  observed^  that  compound  abstract  words  such 
as  honor,  justice,  liberty  and  the  like,  excite  feeling,  not  by  a  picture 
of  the  thing  signified,  but  by  suggesting  affecting  associations,  and 
that  pathos  is  often  produced  by  displaying  the  effect  of  things  on 
the  mmd  of  the  speaker  or  the  hearts  of  others,  rather  than  by  pre- 
senting a  clear  image  of  the  things  themselves. 

Now  excitation  is  especially  serviceable  where  the  object  is  to 
produce  a  deep  impression  of  a  subject  either  before  or  after  con- 
viction. It  was  for  the  former  object  that  our  Lord  adopted  his 
peculiar  mode  of  teaching,  particularly  in  the  early  part  of  his  min- 
istry and  among  those  who  had  not  witnessed  his  miracles.  Thus 
in  his  Sermon  on  the  Mount  he  aimed  to  make  a  salutary  impres- 
sion, leaving  it  chiefly  to  his  subsequent  miracles  to  convince  and 

1  Metliodus  Concionandi,  chap,  xi  ,  p.  3. 

2  Lectures  on  Pulpit  Eloquence,  Lect.  xii. 

3  Art  of  Discourse,  Pt.  iii.,  chap  i.  ;  cf.  2  Pet.  iii.  1. 

4  Burke  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  Pt.  v.,  sec.  iv.,  v. 


246  •  USE  OF  EXCITATION. 

persuade.  1  "We  must  not,  however,  overlook  the  fact  that,  even  in 
those  earlier  sermons  of  his,  there  was  great  self-evidencing  power. 
But  with  us  excitation  will  be  found  of  most  frequent  ser\ice  at 
the  close  of  explanations  and  arguments,  when  the  hearers  are 
ready  to  confess  that  a  truth  has  been  well  illustrated  or  strongly 
established,  or  that  a  duty  has  been  defined  and  proved  obligatory, 
and  yet  they  feel  no  mterest  in  it,  have  no  relish  for  it,  and  see 
nothhig  desirable  in  it.  At  such  a  stage  in  a  sermon  we  should 
endeavour  to  show  that  the  matter  is  of  great  or  vital  or  supreme 
interest  or  concern.  And  when  excitation  has  thus  exhibited  the 
excellence  and  importance  of  the  subject,  the  work  of  application 
is  already  begim.  "It  must  be  always  remembered,"  says  Bishop 
Butler,^  "  that  real  endeavours  to  enforce  good  impressions  upon 
ourselves  are  a  species  of  virtuous  action." 

These  words  of  Bishop  Butler  were  written  by  him  to  qualify 
his  celebrated  remarks  on  "  passive  impressions '' — remarks  which 
have,  unhappily,  been  quoted  against  attempting  to  excite  feelmgs 
without  at  the  same  time  persuading  to  action.  Many  zealous  men 
are  but  too  apt  to  concur  with  Francis  de  Sales  in  saying  that  he  did 
not  find  that  a  sermon  was  good  unless  the  preacher  had  for  his 
purpose  "  the  building  up  of  some  corner  of  the  walls  of  Jerusa- 
lem.'' The  Port  Royalist  Xicole  subjoins  to  tliis  rule  some  strict- 
ures which  confirm  what  we  have  already  said  on  the  province  of 
excitation :  "  Xevertheless  it  is  a  fault  to  have  so  strict  a  piety. 
Christian  virtue  has  a  larger  extent.  .  .  It  is  sometimes  forgetful 
of  itself  in  order  that  it  may  be  raised  absolutely  to  God,  to  ad- 
mire him,  to  praise  him,  to  consider  his  mysteries  in  themselves, 
without  any  reflection  en  itself,  to  contemplate  the  works  of  his 
mercy  and  justice ;  to  rejoice  also  in  the  graces  he  has  bestowed 
on  his  saints."  Let  us  not,  however,  be  misunderstood.  We  de- 
cidedly favour  persuasion  where  it  is  admissible.  AVhat  we  main- 
tain is,  that  there  are  entire  discourses,  or  parts  of  them,  which  may 
be  properly  devoted  to  such  excitation  as  cannot  wisely  be  followed 
by  exhortation. 

The  capability  of  exciting  and  being  excited  is  not  the  same  in 
every  individual  and  in  all  classes  and  races  of  men.  Those  young 
preachers  who  are  naturally  sedate  and  cool-minded  are  sometimes 
advised  to  avoid  all  endeavours  after  skill  in  this  kind  of  eloquence, 
while  others  of  the  opposite  temperament  are  encouraged  to  aban- 
don themselves  to  ecstacies  and  paroxysms  of  the  better  passions. 
But  still  it  is  notable  that  self  discipline  has  in  many  cases  remedied 
these  defects  and  excesses.     "  Highly  valuable  are  the  men,"  says 

1  Paleys  Evidences,  Pt.  ii.,  cliap.  ii.  2  Analogy,  Pi.  i.,  chap.  v. 


OF  THE  IMAGINATION.  247 

PrcYOst  Spalding,  of  Berlin,  "  who  are  able  by  their  eloquence  to 
kindle  the  soul  into  a  flame  without  fanning  it  into  a  conflagration." 
Highly-cultivated  audiences  will  not  bear  much  passionate  preach- 
ing. Nor  should  we  ever  forget  that  the  Germans,  the  English, 
and  the  Anglo-Americans  are  the  most  efiectually  moved  by  such 
apj)eals  to  the  imagination  and  the  passions  as  are  drawn  from 
knowledge,  reason,  and  the  conscience.  There  is  little  of  the  extrava- 
gance of  fanaticism  in  the  preaching  of  Spurgeon,  Finney,  Edwai'ds, 
and  Wesley.  The  latter  has  been  justly  styled  "  the  quiescence 
of  turbulence ;"  and  the  models  on  which  he  confessedly  formed 
himself — South,  Bates,  Howe,  Dean  Young,  and  Jeremiah  Seed — 
were  none  of  them  fond  of  excitement,  or  sensational  in  style. 
Hence  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Italian  preachers  are 
dangerous  models  for  those  of  us  who  are  already  sufiiciently  ar- 
dent. Wesley  justly  opined  that  the  English  imitators  of  the  best 
of  the  French  j^reachers,  Massillon  and  Bourdaloue,  had  lost  their 
way.  We  should  also  mark  it  well  that  Italian  writers  on  homilet- 
ics  are  very  liable  to  misguide  us  here.  Thus  Borromeo  and  Seg- 
neri^  taught  their  disciples  that  as  the  blood  circulates  in  every 
part  of  the  body,  so  in  every  part  of  a  sermon  there'  should  be 
something  to  excite  the  feelings. 

After  all,  there  are  mysteries  in  the  art  of  excitation  which  one 
mortal  cannot  teach  another.  In  this  and  other  things  the  Divine 
Spirit  often  outwits  us.  He  may  cause  us  to  melt  the  hearts  of  oth- 
ers while  we  are  lamenting  our  lack  of  warmth,  and  at  the  very 
time  that  we  are  really  cold  and  shivering  servants,  we  may  be 
kindling  a  fire  for  our  Master. 

SunsECTiox  I. — Of  the  Imagination. 

It  appears  to  be  true,  as  Isaac  Taylor2  affirms,  that  the  imagina- 
tion is  no  separate  faculty,  but  it  is  an  exercise  only  of  its  rudimen- 
tal  power  at  the  impulse  or  under  the  guidance  of  a  i:»articular  class 
of  emotions  or  tastes  or  sensibilities.  In  the  j^rocess  of  excitation, 
therefore,  it  may  be  supposed  that  the  feelings  deserve  our  first  atten- 
tion. Indeed,  the  imagination  of  the  preacher  must,  other  thmgs 
being  equal,  owe  much  of  its  excellence  and  its  utility  to  the  state 
of  his  moral  sensibilities.  Herder,  for  example,  is  thought  to  have 
been  deeply  indebted  for  the  achievements  of  his  imagination  to 
his  deep  religiousness.     "  Herder,"  says  William  Humboldt,^  "  was 

1  Opere,  tome  iv.,  p.  990 (Milan,  1847).         2  The  World  of  Mind,  lee.  xv.,  ^  533. 
3  Hagenbach's  Church  History,  18lh  and  19th  centuries,  and  Humboldt's  Let- 
teiti  to  a  Female  Friend,  vol.  i.,  p.  232. 

17 


248  OF  THE  IMAGINATION. 

certainly  inferior  to  Schiller  and  Goethe  in  compass  of  mind  and 
poetical  talent,  but  in  him  there  was  a  blending  of  soul  and  imagi- 
nation, by  means  of  Avhich  he  accomplished  what  both  could  never 
have  done."  This  is  practically  true  in  many  cases,  and  yet  it  is, 
we  think,  more  philosophical  and  useful  to  treat  of  the  imagination 
in  the  first  place,  and  of  tl:ie  feelings  in  the  second. 

In  excitation  Ave  jirevail,  not  only  by  warmly  appealing  to  the 
reasoning  faculty,  but  also  by  addressing  either  emotional  imagi- 
nation, or,  as  some  may  prefer  to  say,  imaginative  emotions.  The 
imagination,  which  Sir  W.  Plamilton  has  safely  and  happily  termed 
the  "  Representative  Faculty,"  the  kind  of  imagination  with  which 
we  are  here  concerned,  does  not  operate  independently  of  some 
feeling  or  passion.  The  emotions  also  are  here  supposed  either  to 
be  born  of  or  to  beget  images.  But  it  is  necessary  to  make  some 
distinctions  as  to  the  difference  recent  writers  make  between  Imagi- 
nation and  Fancy. 

1.  The  difference  between  them  is  one  of  feeling.  Fancy  is  play- 
ful and  amusing,  or  if  ever  tender  and  pathetic,  it  is  so  from  caprice 
or  accident.  Imagination,  on  the  other  hand,  is  excited  by  and  ex- 
cites passion  and  strong  feeling.  It  speaks  the  language  of  the 
active  powers  and  invests  subjects  with  a  human  interest. 

2.'  They  commonly  differ  as  to  subject-matter.  Fancy  deals 
with  common  and  familiar  subjects,  Avith  small  and  evanescent  ob- 
jects, with  the  thoughts  Avhich  are  prompted  by  humour,  vivacity 
or  frivolity ;  but  imagination  exercises  itself  with  great  and  profound 
subjects,  Avith  objects  beautiful,  sublime,  and  glorious,  Avith  thoughts 
brought  forth  and  nursed  by  meditation. 

3.  Wit  and  conceits  are  the  offspring  of  fancy,  but  not  of  the 
imagination. 

4.  Fancy  admits  of  a  rapid  succession  of  incongruous  and  unre- 
lated images ;  imagination  either  dwells  on  one  image  or  rims  along 
a  succession  of  related  and  harmonious  images.  The  former  is  oflcn 
couteiit  Avith  juxtaposition  ;  the  latter  demands  combination. 

5.  Or  fancy  sports  Avith  tlie  near  or  remote  resemblances  of 
things,  Avhile  imagination  j^refers  analogies  founded  on  the  obvious 
nature  aui  qualities  of  things. 

0.  The  former,  again,  does  not  modify  nor  associate  its  images, 
but  lakes  them  a3  so  many  i^retty  sIioavs  passed  through  a  magic 
lantern.  The  latter  exaggerates  and  transforms  its  images,  modifies 
their  colours  and  shapes,  and  lifts  them  up  to  hold  communion  Avith 
shining  visitors  from  heaven. 

7.  Fancy  is  too  often  satisfied  to  hover  over  the  imperfect,  the 
local  and  the  temporal ;  imagination  is  always  longing  to  m.ouot, 


OF  THE  IMAGINATION.  249 

with  unhooded  eye  and  uncased  wing  towards  the  jjerfect,  the  im- 
mense, and  the  eternal. 

It  must  be  here  remarked  that  not  a  few  writers  formerly  not 
only  ignored  the  distinction  between  imagination  and  fancy,  but 
supposed  that  the  power  v,hich  they  called  by  either  of  these  names 
is  influenced,  not  by  passion,  but  by  mere  aesthetical  emotions  at 
best,  and  very  seldom  by  any  emotions  whatever.  Thus  it  is  said 
of  Robert  Hall  that  "  only  a  few  months  before  his  last  illness,  in 
classifying  the  diiferent  natures  and  respective  effects  of  the  elo- 
quence of  reason,  of  passion,  and  of  imagination,  he  selected  his 
principal  illustrations  from  Demosthenes,  and  endeavoured  to  show 
that  v/here  the  two  former  kinds  of  eloquence  existed  in  due  pro- 
portion, the  third  was  of  very  minor  consequence."  Here  imagi- 
nation is  used  almost  synonymously  with  fancy.  It  is  fancy  deal- 
ing with  important  subjects  indeed,  but  dealing  with  them  dispas- 
sionately and  coolly.  The  imagery  in  the  orations  of  Demosthenes 
is,  it  must  be  admitted,  a  slender  force  when  viewed  separately ; 
but  it  is  never  iiractically  separated  in  them  from  passion,  and  as  a 
necessary  ally  of  the  Demosthenic  passion  it  is  of  very  major  con- 
sequence. But  Hall  and  many  other  distinguished  men  are  wrong 
in  making  these  ethnic  orations,  fraught  as  they  are  Avith  legal  and 
political  matter,  the  standards  and  tests  of  the  eloquence  of  Chris- 
tian sermons,  which  has  much  to  do  with  those  spiritual  and  eter- 
nal objects  which  it  is  the  highest  province  of  the  imagination  to 
represent. 

Some  have  attempted  to  make  a  difference  between  a  rhetorical 
and  a  philosophical  imagination.  The  former  is,  accordmg  to  De 
Quincey,!  "  most  excited  by  mere  seeming  resemblances,  and  such 
as  can  only  sustain  themselves  under  a  single  phasis,  while  the  lat- 
ter rests  on  real  analogies."  True  as  it  is  that  rhetoric  is  often  sat- 
isfied with  a  single  point  of  resemblance,  yet  it  is  a  very  faulty  rhe- 
.  torical  imagination  which  is  most  excited  by  mere  seeming  resem- 
hlances.  He  appears  here  to  have  had  in  mind  Jeremy  Taylor, 
whom  he  so  much  admires ;  but  he  ought  to  have  recollected,  for 
he  could  scarcely  have  been  ignorant,  that  it  is  the  use  of  these 
*'  mere  seeming  resemblances  "  that  so  often  enfeebles  the  imagina- 
tion and  lowers  the  eloquence  of  Taylor.  An  example  of  this 
blemish  we  find  in  an  admired  passage  where  he  compares  the  de- 
clensions and  apostacies  of  old  age  to  the  canes  of  the  Nile,  which 
multiply  their  knots  and  joints  most  rapidly  at  the  end.  It  would 
be  easy  to  make  conundrums  of  this  and  many  other  such  similies  of 

1  Essay  on  Rhetoric. 


250  OF  THE  IMAGINATION. 

tills  great  preaclier;  we  say  great,  for  in  spite  of  this  weakness  Jer- 
emy Taylor  lias  left  us  very  many  illustrations  of  the  way  in  which 
the  imao-Lnation  may  be  productive  of  a  manly  and  effective  elo- 
quence. 

Many  exceptions  may  he  taken  to  these  as  to  all  other  (jcncrcd 
distinctions.!  Our  aim  has  been  to  be  as  discriminating  as  will 
serve  the  practical  purpose  of  this  work.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that 
few  men  possess  either  of  these  faculties  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
other,  and  that,  in  works  of  genius,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  fix  on 
the  point  where  fancy  ends  and  imagination  begins.  Whoever  wishes 
to  observe  how  they  may  act,  either  in  sympathy  or  rivalship,  will  do 
well  to  read  the  sermons  of  Ephraem  Syrus,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Cardi- 
nal Wiseman,  and  Spurgeon. 

A  good  deal  has  been,  and  promises  to  be,  written  on  the  differ- 
once  between  prose  and  poetry,  and  it  may  be  reasonably  expected 
that  we  will  not  pass  the  subject  in  silence.  The  whole  matter 
may  be  dispatched  m  few  words.  Poetry  is  distinguished  from  prose 
by  verse,"  and  by  verse  alone.  "  Fitness,"  says  Leigh  Hunt,  *'  fit- 
ness and  unfitness  for  sonfj  or  metrical  excitement  just  make  all 
the  difference  between  a  poetical  and  a  prosaical  subject ;  and  the 
reason  why  A'crse  is  necessary  to  the  form  of  poetry  is,  that  the 
perfection  of  poetical  spirit  demands  it ;  that  the  circle  of  enthusiasm, 
beauty,  and  power  is  incomplete  without  it.  I  do  not  mean  to  say 
that  a  poet  can  never  show  himself  a  poet  in  prose  ;  but  that,  being 
one,  his  desire  and  necessity  will  be  to  write  in  verse ;  and  that  if 
he  were  unable  to  do  so,  he  would  not,  and  could  not,  deserve  his 
title."2 

The  hazy  confusion  which  has  been  produced  by  writers  not  a 
few  in  respect  of  Hebrew  poetry  may  likewise  be  dissipated  with- 
out many  words.  The  Bible  itself  has  indicated  clearly  enough 
its  own  lyrics;  and  if  future  writers  on  this  fruitful  theme  will 
enter  upon,  and  keep  within,  the  field  which  the  Creator  Spirit  has 
himself  fenced  off,  they  will  be  most  likely  to  produce  treatises  of 
real  and  permanent  value.  There  can  be  no  practical  question 
among  those  who  have  no  philosophical  theory  to  maintain  as  to 

1  Introduction  to  tlio  Study  of  the  Greek  Classic  Poets,  by  Henry  Nelson 
Coleridge,  Esq.,  pp.  9-15;  Wordsworth's  Preface  of  liis  Poems;  Imagination  and 
Fancy,  by  Lcigli  Hunt;  Art.  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  for  April,  1842,  on 
Moore's  Poetical  Works. 

2  Various  futile  attempts  have  been  made,  particularly  by  French  and  German 
critics,  to  prove  from  Aristotle's  Poetic  (chaps,  i.  and  ii),  that  a  composition 
not  in  metre  may  be  a  poem.  It  will  here  suffice  to  warn  the  young  student 
against  the  ingenious  dogmatism  of  Hermann  and  Rittcr.  Usage  has  settle.', 
this  question,  and  from  usage  tljere  can  be  no  appeal. 


OF  THE  IMAGINATION.  251 

the  poetry  of  Solomon's  Song,  of  tlie  Book  of  Psalms,  and  of  the 
few  odes  which  we  find  in  the  prophetic  and  historic  compositions 
of  Scripture. 

There  is  no  feature  of  the  inspired  eloquence  more  clearly  and 
prominently  marked  than  that  of  deep-souled  imagination.  To  do 
justice  to  this  feature  by  quoting  examples  is  out  of  the  question. 
The  student  finds  it  every  where  in  Scripture,  and  he  must  read  and 
study  all,  if  he  would  gain  any  tolerable  ideas  of  its  nature  and  its 
pervasiveness.  He  must  give  his  days  and  his  nights  to  an  employ- 
ment which,  next  to  j)rayer  and  almsgiving,  is  of  all  others  the  most 
profitable  to  the  soul ;  and  when  slee|)  surprises  him  he  should,  to 
adopt  the  beautiful  image  of  St.  Jerome,  be  found  still  holding  fast 
the  sacred  volume,  and  its  holy  pages  should  receive  his  Aveary  head. 

Excitation  in  its  relation  to  the  imagination  has  been  psychologi- 
cally treated  by  Professor  Spalding.^  The  process  whose  laws  he 
lays  down  is  the  generation  though  language  of  such  images  as  ex- 
cite emotions  tending  towards  desire  or  aversion.  These  laws  are 
of  three  kinds  :  F'wst^  the  Laws  of  Personal  Kelation  or  Adapta- 
tion. In  the  attempt  to  excite  imagination  and  emotion  the  com- 
municator and  the  recepient  stand  on  difierent  ground  and  in  differ- 
ent positions.  Accordingly  the  speaker  must  have  not  only  imagi- 
native and  emotive  susceptibility,  but  also  power  and  skill  of  lan- 
guage enough  for  its  due  expression.  To  excite  others  to  feeling 
we  must  not  only  form  and  represent  images  intellectually,  but 
show  that  these  images  have  excited  in  our  own  minds  the  emotions 
we  desire  to  transfuse  into  the  minds  of  others.  Secondly^  the  for- 
mal doctrine  of  emotive  imagery.  Under  this  head  he  discusses 
the  laws  of  direct  and  indirect  representation.  His  speculations 
here  as  to  tropes  and  figures  are  neither  sound  nor  useful. 
Thirdly^  Laws  of  matter  or  choice  of  ch'cumstances  tending  to  ex- 
cite volition. 

It  may  here  be  well  to  examine  this  question  :  What  is  the  posi- 
tion of  the  imagination  in  its  relations  to  the  other  intellectual 
powers  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  passions  and  moral  sentiments  ou 
the  other  ?  The  answer  is  one  of  practical  importance.  Psycholo- 
gy teaches  us  that  the  imagination  is  mtermediate  between  the  other 
intellectual  powers  and  all  the  emotional  faculties,  or,  more  strictly 
speaking,  it  forms  that  part  of  the  intellect  which,  like  a  gallery  of 
art,  adjoins  and  opens  into  the  entire  department  of  the  emotions 
fi-om  the  lowest  animal  feeling  up  to  conscience,  revcrenco_,  and 
benevolence.  This  figure  might  be  amplified.  But  let  it  suffice  us 
here  to  remark  that  agreeably  to  this  view  the  proper  course  for 

1  Encyclo.  Britan.,  Art.  Hhetoric,  vol.  six  ,  ^th  ed.  with  additions,  1859, 


252  OF  THE  IMAGINATION. 

the  orator  to  take  is  to  excite  the  emotions  of  the  hearers  by  means 
of  images,  and  not  to  attempt  to  execute  any  images  in  the  mind 
of  the  hearer  by  means  of  his  emotions.  For  while  some  of  the 
passions  and  sentiments  apjiear  to  have  the  power  to  execute  images 
in  the  mind  independently  of  volition  and  the  judgment,  yet  it 
should  be  considered  that  as  the  orator  is  necessitated  to  address 
the  mind  of  the  hearer  in  accordance  Avith  its  common  and  normal 
operations,  he  cannot  count  upon  this  reflex  art  which  the  hearer 
may  indeed  practise  upon  his  own  imagination,  but  which  the  ora- 
tor cannot  reasonably  expect  to  practise  upon  it  except  incidentally 
and  casually,  and  therefore  with  no  uniform  results. 

Here  we  may  also  bring  forward  for  consideration  the  relations 
of  the  imagination  and  the  elaboratlve  faculty.  It  is  obvious  that 
they  may  and  not  unfrequently  do  act  almost  if  not  quite  indepen- 
dently of  each  other,  and  that  by  turns  each  may  be  and  often  is 
absolute  master  of  the  other.  Nor  is  it  less  evident  that  either  of 
these  mental  states  may  be  hurtful  or  beneficial  according  to  the 
subject  and  aim  of  the  orator,  the  character  of  his  audience,  the  oc- 
casion, and  other  such  circumstances. 

The  judgments  of  taste,  or,  as  they  are  novr  generally  called, 
sesthetical  judgments,  arise  from  the  joint  action  of  the  imagina- 
tion and  the  elaborativc  faculty.  It  has  been  always  regarded  a 
sound  rhetorical  maxim  that  while  a  discourse  should  not  offend 
against  the  laws  of  testhetics,  it  must  nevertheless  come  short  of  its 
proper  eifect  just  in  proportion  as  it  is  deservedly  or  undeservedly 
the  subject  on  which  the  audience  occupy  themselves  in  i>ronounc- 
ing  aesthetical  judgments. 

Nor  will  it  here  be  amiss  to  add  that  modern  speakers  and  hear- 
ers possess  imaginations  of  a  more  contemplative  kind  than  were 
known  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  IJomans.  And  this  remark 
holds  good  not  only  as  to  oratory  but  as  to  poetry  also ;  for,  as 
some  critic  or  other  says,  it  is  a  marked  "  distinction  between  the 
very  early  jjoetry  and  that  of  modern  days,  that  in  the  former  the 
creative  faculty  appears  generally  pure  and  naked,  and  absolutely 
unconnected  with  the  reflective.  In  all  modern  poets,  and  most, 
perhaps,  in  the  greatest  of  all — Dante,  Shakespeare,  and  Milton — 
thought  seems  to  struggle  with  imagination  for  the  mastery,  and 
the  one  and  the  other  produce  their  ettects  in  such  rapid  succession 
and  so  interchangeably  that  nothing  can  be  nioi'e  difficult  than  to 
assign  their  resijective  provinces."  The  cause  of  this  modern  sub- 
ordination of  the  imagination  to  reason  may,  we  think,  be  trared 
to  the  influence  of  the  imaginative  parts  of  the  sacred  Scrijitures, 
where,  more  than  anywhere  else,  we  behold  this  subordiuation  in 


OF  THE  IMAGINATION.  253 

its  i^roper  degree  and  its  legitimate  fruits.  Examples  of  this  are 
also  found  in  some  of  the  sermons  of  Jeremy  Taylor  and  Thomas 
Chalmers.  Here  the  imagination,  like  the  carrier  pigeon,  only  soars 
that  she  may  catch  a  far-off  glimpse  of  that  truth  which  is  the  point 
of  her  destination. 

The  imagination  has,  however,  not  unfrequently  been  perverted 
even  by  the  most  intellectual  preachers,  and  still  oftener  misinter- 
preted and  disparaged  by  the  most  intelligent  of  their  hearers. 
These  things  have  served  to  create  strong  popular  prejudices  against 
what  are  termed  "  fanciful,"  or  "  imaginative,"  or  "  poetical "  preach- 
ers— prejudices  which  are  industriously  fortified  by  the  sneers  of 
those  preachers  who  are  themselves  both  destitute  of  the  faculty 
and  blissfully  ignorant  of  its  nature  and  j^rovince.  Let  us  then 
briefly  review  some  of  the  real  and  more  common  abuses  of  this 
faculty : 

The  pursuit  of  the  ideal  for  the  pleasure  it  affords  is  one  of  the 
first  errors  into  which  the  young  preacher  is  liable  to  be  allured. 
Hence  the  frequent  quotation  of  such  poetry  as  either  has  but  a  re- 
mote connection  with  the  matter  in  hand,  or  is  wanting  in  that  clear- 
ness or  energy  or  practical  aim  which  is  proper  to  Christian  ora- 
tory.i  Hence  a  tendency  to  describe  heaven,  hell.  Christian  expe- 
rience, and  sin  poetically,  i.  e.,  after  the  manner  of  the  pastoral, 
epic,  and  dramatic  poets.  Not  that  the  spirit  and  letter  of  these 
are  always  to  be  excluded  from  sermons ;  it  is  against  the  habit  and 
not  the  single  act  that  we  are  now  levelling  our  censures.  But 
lyric  poetry,  both  inspired  and  uninspired,  sacred  and  secular,  may 
be  safely  and  largely  employed.  This  distinction  is  justified  by  the 
example  of  the  prophetic  orators  and  is  one  of  the  most  important 
that  they  furnish  us. 

It  may,  by  the  way,  deserve  mention,  that  it  is  wrong  to  say 
that  the  end  of  poetry  is  to  please.  This  is  indeed  the  end  of  some 
kinds  of  ancient  poetry.  But  the  plurality  of  poets,  ancient  and 
modern,  cither  professedly,  or  by  implication,  made  this  subordi- 
nate to  higher  and  more  important  ends.  The  old  epic,  the  dramatic, 
the  amatory,  and  convivial  kinds  were  for  the  most  part  content  to 
be  the  ministrants  and  attendants  of  j^leasure.  But  the  ancient 
lyric,  satire,  pastoral,  and  elegy  had  more  elevated  purposes.  And 
to  the  praise  of  Christianity  be  it  said,  that  wherever  it  has  had  any 
influence,  it  has  availed  to  make  poets  of  every  description  more 
earnest  and  practical  than  were  those  of  ethnic  antiquity.     We  may 

1  Aristotle  (Rhet.,  L.  iii.,  chap,  iii.)  forbids  the  orator  to  employ  epithets  po- 
etically, as  tendinjT  to  frigidity  and  uont-eiise. 


254  OF  THE  IMAGINATION. 

go  further,  and  maintain  ^vith  De  Quincey,^  that  the  term  poicer 
rather  than  jylcasure  best  designates  the  aim  of  the  epic  and  tragic 
poets — a  term  which  this  writer  thus  explains :  "  Now,  if  it  be 
asked  what  is  meant  l)y  communicating  power,  I,  in  my  turn, 
would  ask,  by  what  name  man  would  designate  the  case  in  which 
I  should  be  made  to  feel  vividly,  and  Avith  a  vital  consciousness, 
emotions  which  ordinary  life  rarely  or  never  supplies  occasions 
for  exciting,  and  which  had  previously  lain  imawakened,  and 
hardly  within  the  dawn  of  consciousness  (as  myriads  of  modes  of 
feeling  are  at  this  moment  in  every  human  mind  for  want  of  a 
poet  to  organize  them) — I  say  when  these  inert  and  sleeping  forms 
are  organized,  when  these  possibilities  are  actualised,  is  this  con- 
scious and  living  possession  of  mine  2'>0icer,  or  what  is  it  ?  " 

But  to  return  to  the  consideration  of  the  abuse  of  poetic  pleasure, 
so-called ;  we  should  not  hide  from  ourselves  the  fact  that  this  is 
not  merely  a  question  of  rhetoric  or  taste,  but  also  one  of  vital  con- 
sequence, even  of  salvation  sometimes.  For  it  is  appalling  to 
reflect  how  many  hearers  of  highly  imaginative  sermons  take  the 
visions  of  the  imagination  for  divine  manifestations,  and  its  higher 
transports  for  Christian  affections.  "  There  are  such  things  in  our 
Christian  religion,"  says  John  Smith,^  of  Cambridge, ''  when  a  carnal 
and  unhollowed  mind  takes  the  chair  and  gets  the  expounding  of 
them,  as  may  seem,  very  delicious  to  the  appetites  of  men ;  some 
doctrines  and  notions  of  free  grace  and  justification,  the  magnificent 
titles  of  sons  of  God  and  heirs  of  heaven,  ever-flowing  sti'eams  of 
joy  and  pleasure  that  blessed  souls  shall  swim  in  to  all  eternity,  a 
glorious  paradise  in  the  world  to  come,  always  springing  up  with 
sweet-scented  and  fragrant  beauties,  a  new  Jerusalem  paved  with 
gold,  and  bespangled  with  stars,  comprehending  in  its  vast  circuit 
such  numberless  varieties  that  a  busy  curiosity  may  spend  itself 
about  to  all  eternity.  .  .  True  religion  is  no  boiling  up  of  our  imag- 
inative powers,  nor  the  glorious  heats  of  j^assion."  It  was  the 
opinion  of  Turretin^  and  Jonathan  Edwards  that  it  is  only  by  the 
imagination  that  Satan  has  access  to  the  soul.  The  latter  accord- 
ingly remarks :  "  There  is  a  great  difterence  between  these  two 
things,  viz.,  lively  imaginations  arisinr/  from  strong  ajfcctions^and 
strong  affections  arising  from  Uccly  imaginations.^'^  This  second 
phase  of  experience  he  suspects,  ^.  e.,  when  the  affection  is  built  on 
the  imagination  as  its  foundation,  instead  of  a  spiritual  illumination 

I  Letters  to  a  Young  Man,  Letter  iii.  2  Select  Discourses^,  pp.  370,  371. 

3  Tlicolog.  Elench.  Loc.  vii.  27. 

4  On  The  Religious  Affectious,  Tt.  iii.,  sec.  4  ;  also  bis  Memoirs  of  Brainerd, 
chap,  ix.,  sec.  4. 


OF  THE  IMAGINATION.  255 

or  discovery.  Edwards's  son-in-law,  Brainerd,  in  liis  narrative  of  the 
work  of  grace  among  the  Indians,  says :  "  When  this  work  became 
so  universal  and  prevalent,  and  gained  such  general  credit  and  es- 
teem among  the  Indians,  as  Satan  seemed  to  have  little  advantage 
of  working  against  it  in  his  own  proper  garb,  he  then  transformed 
himself '  into  an  angel  of  light,'  and  made  some  vigorous  attempts  to 
introduce  turbulent  commotions  of  the  passions  in  the  room  of  genu- 
ine convictions  of  sin,  imaginary  and  fanceful  notions  of  Christ,  as 
appearing  to  the  mental  eye  in  a  human  shajDC,  and  in  some  particular 
postures,  etc.,  in  the  room  of  spiritual  and  supernatural  discoveries 
of  his  divine  glory  and  excellency.  I  have  reason  to  think  that  if 
these  things  had  met  with  countenance  and  encouragement,  there 
would  have  been  a  very  considerable  l\arvest  of  this  kind  of  converts 
here." 

It  may  not  be  improper  here  to  make  a  difference  between  these 
important  cautions  of  Edwards  and  the  doubtful  theory  of  Turretin 
which  is  interwoven  among  them.  A  more  Scriptural  and  more 
psychologial  view  of  the  matter  would,  we  presume,  be  something 
like  the  following :  Satan  generally  operates  on  the  human  mind, 
first,  through  the  medium  of  the  heart  or  active  powers,  and  there- 
by obsesses  and  manages  the  ideal  forms  and  combinations  of  the 
imagination.  This  distinction  is  the  more  important  as  there  is  an 
imagination  of  induction  or  of  abstraction  which  is  utterly  devoid 
of  passion  and  feeling,  and  as  the  Scriptures  represent  Satan  as  put- 
ing  an  evil  purpose  into  the  heart,  and  filling  it  with  such  jDurpose."- 

Another  abuse  of  the  imagination  in  preaching  is  suggested  by 
the  last  remark.  It  is  the  excessive  employment  of  this  faculty 
upon  abstract  subjects  and  subtle  resemblances.  The  imagination 
as  exercised  by  the  schoolmen  of  the  middle  ages,  by  the  mathe- 
maticians of  atheistical  France,  and  by  not  a  few  metaphysicians 
and  naturalists  of  our  day,  is  unfriendly  and  hostile  to  all  feeling 
except  animal  feeling.  The  same  must,  we  fear,  be  said  of  the  ha- 
bitual exercise  of  this  faculty  on  the  mere  metaphysical  parts  of 
Christian  theology,  and  on  questions  that  naturally  arise  in  the 
preparation  of  psychological,  experimental,  and  ethical  sermons. 
The  propensity  which  some  men  still  indulge  of  allegorising  the 
historic  and  parabolic  Scriptures,  is  likewise  antagonistic  to  passion 
and  emotion. 

We  must  beware,  again,  of  dwelling  too  long  or  too  frequently 
on  ideals  of  moral  excellence  apart  from  every-day  life,  and  partic- 
ularly the  life  of  Immanuel.     The  consequence  will  be  that  we 

1  John  xiii.  2  ;  Acts  v.  3  ;  Zech.  viii.  17. 


256  OF  THE  IMAGINATION. 

shall  be  in  danger  of  acquiring  a  malevolent  and  misanthropic  re- 
finement, of  all  things  the  most  discordant  Avith  the  patience  and 
composure  proper  to  the  preacher.  One  antidote  to  this  is  the  ex- 
ercise of  tlie  imagination  on  material  anil  human  rather  than  on 
mere  abstract  and  romantic  objects. 

Nor  should  we  allow  ourselves  to  exercise  the  fanci/  to  any  con- 
siderable degree  in  our  preaching.  Hence  wit  and  humour,  which 
are  often  suggested  by  it,  are  very  seldom  admissible  in  sermons. 

Do  not  dwell  on  gloomy  images  beyond  what  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures warrant  and  require.  Let  it  not  be  thought,  however,  that 
Ave  may  dwell  on  such  images  less  than  the  Bible  does.  "  The  im- 
agination stands  most  in  need  of  restraint,"  says  James  Beattie,^ 
"  when  it  runs  into  one  or  the  other  of  the  oj^posite  extremes  of 
levity  and  melancholy." 

Carefully  discriminate  between  the  true  and  the  false  grotesque ; 
the  true,  as  Ruskin  says,^  arises  from  the  healthful  play  of  the  im- 
agination in  times  of  rest,  and  from  the  confusion  of  this  faculty 
by  the  prosence  of  truths  which  it  cannot  wholly  grasp.  The  false 
arises  from  the  irregular  and  accidental  contemi)lation  of  terrible 
things,  or  evil  in  general. 

But  except  Avhere  the  true  grotesque  determines  otherwise,  our 
imagination  should  compose  its  ideals  out  of  things  as  they  appear 
to  common  observation,  avoiding  for  the  most  part  whatever  is  mi- 
nute or  novel,  or  is  the  result  of  jirofound  scientific  inquiry.  Be- 
attie  makes  an  important  difference  between  liveliness  and  correct- 
ness of  imagination,  and  remarks  that  both  are  equally  conspicuous 
in  Homer,  but  that  Spencer  and  Ariosto  are  not  inferior  iu  the 
first  quality  but  extremely  defective  in  the  second.^ 

The  author  quoted  last  also  warns  us  against  the  danger  of  an 
indistinct  apprehension,  observing  that  "  sometimes,  when  one's  im- 
agination is  lively,  and  regulated,  too,  by  an  acquaintance  with  na- 
ture, one  may,  notwithstanding,  contract  habits  ot  indolence  and 
irregularity  in  one's  studies,  which  produce  a  superficial  medley  of 
knowledge." 

But  good  sense  will  stand  the  young  preacher  instead  of  many 
cautions  on  this  head.  Only  let  him  not  too  readily  adopt  this  two- 
fold error :  that  he  will  act  according  to  it  naturally  without  con- 
sulting it,  and  that  it  is  not  capable  of  growing  in  strength  and 
activity  by  regular  exercise. 

1  Dissertation  on  the  Imagination,  chap.  v. 

2  Modern  Painters,  vols.  iii.  and  iv.,  cl)ap.  viii.;  SloncS  of  Venice,  vol.  iii  ,  on 
Uie  Grotesque  Renaissance. 

3  See  also  Raskin's  Mod.  Painters,  vol.  iii.,  chap,  vii.,  on  the  Naturalistic  Ideal. 


OF  THE  IMAGINATION.  257 

Richter,  borrowing  a  metaphor  from  Plato,  says  of  Herder's 
imagination,  that  its  guiding  or  steering  feathers  were  not  of  a 
power  proportional  to  the  mighty  feathers  of  its  pinions.  It 
should  nevertheless  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  imaginations  of 
the  most  of  hearers  are  not  powerful  enough  to  sail  far  away  or 
soar  very  sublimely  for  many  minutes  together.  Let  any  one  who 
is  not  naturally  of  an  imaginative  turn  of  mind  read  through  with- 
out intermission  some  one  of  the  most  grand  books  of  Homer  or 
of  Milton,  and  he  will  feel  that  the  faculty  has  been  overtaxed. 
Agreeably  to  this  view,  Ruskin^  has  said  of  the  imagination  that 
"it  is  eminently  a  loeariable  faculty,  eminently  delicateand  incapa- 
ble of  bearing  fatigue  ;  so  that  if  we  give  it  too  many  objects  at  a 
time  to  employ  itself  upon,  or  very  grand  ones  for  a  long  time  to- 
gether, it  fails  under  the  effort,  becomes  jaded,  exactly  as  the  limbs 
do  by  bodily  fatigue,  and  incapable  of  answering  any  farther  appeal 
till  it  has  had  rest."  It  would  therefore  be  advisable  for  some  very 
imaginative  j)reacher3  to  invent  all  the  matter  of  each  sermon  at 
one  sitting,  otherwise  they  will  enshrine  too  many  images  within  the 
space  allotted  to  a  single  discourse.  Those  preachers,  on  the  other 
hand,  v/hose  natural  turn  of  mind  is  didactic  or  logical  will  have  to 
guard  against  the  delusion  that  they  can  oj^erate  on  the  imagination 
by  concise  propositions  and  general  statements.  Images  are  some- 
times produced  by  circumstantiality  which  frequently  demands  a 
copious  amplificatio'i.  We  may  subjoin  the  observation  that  in 
general  those  sermons  of  the  prophets  are  the  shortest  which  are 
the  most  imaginative. 

Of  the  abuses  of  the  imagination  in  preaching  we  cannot  here 
treat  with  any  fulness.  The  good  sense  of  the  preacher,  along  with 
what  we  here  throw  out  incidentally,  will  suffice.  The  history  of 
the  French  Protestant  pulpit  affords  one  or  two  warnings  for  us. 
It  was  the  practice  of  the  eal'lier  preachers  to  exercise  their  imagi- 
nations in  delineating  characters,  in  order  to  represent  more  viv- 
idly and  profitably  the  vices  of  the  world  and  the  opposite  evan- 
gelical virtues;  but  their  successors,  very  imhappily,  indulged  in 
delineations  for  the  purpose  of  displaying  a  sparkling  and  biting 
style.  They  sought  aj^plause  for  ingenious  fancies,  a  delicate  wit, 
and  keen  satire. ^     Something  of  this  is  visible  in  Taylor  and  Donne. 

In  exposition  and  discussion,  again,  we  are  liable  to  the  danger 
of  soaring  too  high,  or  at  least  of  attempting  loftier  flights  than  the 
matter  in  hand  will  warrant.     Beattie^  has  pointed  out  some  facts 

1  Modern  Painters,  Pt.  iv.,  chap,  x  ,  vol.  iii. 

2  P.  Roques,  in  his  Pasteur  Evangelique,  pp.  355-479. 

3  In  a  letter  to  Hon.  Charles  Boyd, 


258  OF  THE  IMAGINATION. 

which  go  to  show  the  incompatibility  of  the  philosophical  and  po- 
etical genius.  lie  thinks,  if  we  remember  rightly,  tliat  even  good 
Milton  nods  when  he  allows  liis  characters  to  debate  in  blank  verse. 
But  still  we  should  remember  that  herein  the  imagination  which 
Tlies  not  Jdgh  may  nevertheless  fly  fa;-,  just  as  the  empty  down  Avill 
Goar  much  higher  than  that  Avhicli  is  ballasted  with  a  precious  seed 
which  it  is  commissioned  to  plant  in  a  very  distant  field. 

The  uses  of  the  imagination  are,  perhaps,  not  to  be  numbered  ; 
at  least  by  any  man  of  this  generation.  The  future  will  undoubt- 
edly reveal  some  fimctions  of  this  faculty  that  are  as  yet  hidden 
ii-ora  metajihysicians,  and  many  of  the  most  excellent  of  its  uses 
will,  we  presume,  remain  to  be  studied  and  admired  through  ages 
everlasting.  "We  may  nevertheless  glance  at  a  few  of  such  as  are 
obviously  related  to  sacred  oratory. 

For  one  thing,  it  brings  the  distant  near,  and  summons  the  reali- 
ties of  the  past  and  of  the  future  into  the  living  and  visible  pres- 
ent. Apostrophe,  vision,  personification,  and  all  the  forms  of  hyp- 
otyphosis  are  deeply  indebted  for  their  efiiciency  to  the  imagina- 
tion of  speaker  and  hearer.  Dugald  Stuart  has  remarked  that  in 
dreaming  and  madness  we  ascribe  to  the  objects  of  the  imagination 
a  real  existence,  and  that  we  feel  and  act  as  if  we  believed  that  the 
objects  of  our  attention  were  real.  Almost  as  much  Tuay  be  al- 
leged of  the  imagination  Avhen  it  is  jjossessed  with  the  images  of 
true  eloquence.  The  services  of  imagination,  as  an  ally  of  reason 
in  actualising  the  distant  in  time  and  space,  have  been  justlv  and 
forcibly  described  by  Lord  Bacon  •}  "  If  the  affections  in  them- 
selves were  pliant  and  obedient  to  reason,  it  were  true  there  would 
be  no  great  use  of  persuasions  and  insinuations  to  the  will,  more 
than  of  naked  proposition  and  proof-5.  But  in  regard  of  the  con- 
tinual mutinies  and  seditions  of  the  affections,  reason  would  become 
captive  and  servile  if  eloquence  of  persuasions  did  not  practise  .and 
win  the  imagination  from  the  affection's  part,  and  contract  a  confed- 
eracy between  reason  and  the  imagination  against  the  affections. 
For  the  affections  themselves  carry  ever  an  ajipetite  to  good,  as 
reason  doth ;  the  diff'erence  is  that  the  affection  beholdeth  merely 
the  present — reason  beholdeth  the  future  and  sum  of  time.  And 
therefore  the  jiresent,  filling  the  imagination  more,  reason  is  com- 
monly v.anquished ;  but  after  that  the  force  of  eloquence  and  per- 
suasion hath  made  things  future  and  remote  appear  as  j^rescnt,  then 
upon  revolt  of  the  imagination  reason  prevaileth."  Accordant  with 
this  view  is  his  excellent  definition  of  the  office  of  rhetoric  :  '"It  is," 

1  Tho  Advancement  of  Leaniinji. 


OF  THE  IMAGINATION.  259 

he  says,  "  to  apply  reason  to  imagination  for  the  better  moving  of 
the  will." 

For  another  thing,  the  shapings  of  the  imagination  being  always 
more  complete  and  attractive  than  those  of  art  and  literature,  it  is  by 
the  assistance  given  them  by  the  preacher  that  they  are  enabled  to 
allure  the  hearer  forward  in  the  way  to  moral  excellence  and  per- 
fection. The  imagination  is  ever  beckoning  on  the  heart  from  what 
is  to  what  shall  be,  and  ought  to  be,  and  what  must  be.  It  com- 
j)rehends  the  absolute  beauty  and  the  universal  good.  It  is,  therefore, 
not  only  the  beginner  and  the  finisher  of  philosophy,  but  in  some  sense, 
also,  of  theology  itself;  for  it  is  at  once  the  guide  of  the  discoverer 
and  the  perfecter  of  the  thing  discovered.  And  hence,  as  Aristotle^ 
says,  "Poetry  is  more  philosophical  and  deserving  of  attention  than 
history ;  for  poetry  speaks  more  of  imiversals,  but  history  of  par- 
ticulars." Of  the  same  opinion  was  Sir  Philip  Sidney,^  who  declares 
that  it  is  a  commendation  peculiar  to  poetry,  and  not  to  history,  to 
exalt  virtue  and  punish  vice,  to  set  the  mind  forward  to  that  which 
deserves  to  be  called  good.  .  .  "  As  if  your  journey  should  lie 
through  a  fair  vineyard,  at  the  very  outset  the  j)oet  doth  give  you  a 
cluster  of  grapes,  that,  full  of  that  taste,  you  may  long  to  pass  far- 
ther." Lord  Bacon^  gave  to  the  world,  ten  years  later,  an  amplifica- 
tion of  Sidney's  idea,  in  the  words  following :  "  There  is  agreeable 
to  the  spirit  of  man,  a  more  ample  greatness,  a  more  exact  goodness, 
and  a  more  absolute  variety  than  can  be  found  in  the  nature  of 
things.  Therefore,  because  the  acts  or  events  of  true  history  have 
not  that  magnitude  which  satisfieth  the  mind  of  man,  poesy  feigneth 
acts  and  events  greater  and  more  heroical ;  because  true  history 
propoundeth  the  successes  and  issues  of  actions  not  so  agreeable  to 
the  merits  of  virtue  and  vice,  therefore  poesy  feigns  them  more  just 
in  retribution,  and  more  according  to  revealed  providence ;  because 
truG^  history  representeth  actions  and  events  more  ordinary  and  less 
interchanged,  therefore  poesy  endueth  them  with  more  rareness, 
and  more  unexpected  and  alternative  variations ;  so  as  it  appeareth 
that  poesy  serveth  and  conferreth  to  magnanimity,  morality,  and 
delectation.  And  therefore  it  was'  ever  thought  to  have  some  par- 
ticipation of  divineness,  because  it  doth  raise  and  erect  the  mind  by 
submitting  the  shews  of  things  to  the  desires  of  the  mind  ;  whereas 
reason  doth  buckle  and  boAV  the  mind  to  the  nature  of  things."  The 
relation  of  these  admirable  words  to  oratory,  and  particularly  to 
sacred  oratory,  is  so  direct  that  it  does  not  need  to  be  indicated. 

1  Poetic,  chap.  ix.  2  The  Defence  of  Poesj-. 

3  The  Advancement  of  Learning. 


k. 


260  OF  THE  IMAGINATION. 

A  further  use  of  the  imagination  is  in  making  comprehensible 
the  mysterious  si)iritual  and  eternal  things  of  divine  revelation. 
The  themes  and  tlioughts  with  -which  the  preacher  has  to  deal  often 
lie  beyond  the  confines  of  the  material  and  the  temporal.  They 
can  only  be  conveyed  from  his  imagination  to  that  of  the  hearer  in 
such  words  and  figures  as  the  imagination  teaches.  Here  abstrac- 
tions only  make  the  darkness  more  visible,  and  at  the  same  time 
are  liable  to  inculcate  much  practical  heresy.  By  depriving  of  its 
concrete  life  many  a  passage  of  holy  Scripture,  it  renders  them 
powerless,  if  not  positively  death-dealing.  Creeds,  or  confessions 
of  faith,  are  necessary  for  fortifying  the  truths  of  Scripture  over 
against  the  assaults  of  their  correlate  errors,  and  catechisms  are  im- 
portant aids  in  Christian  instruction.  Still  we  should  in  our  preach- 
ing most  vigilantly  guard  ourselves  against  the  habit  of  reducing  all 
the  undisputed  parts  of  holy  Scripture  to  theological  principles  and 
the  dry  and  compressed  statements  of  abstract  science — a  habit 
we  are  almost  certain  to  contract  unless  we  keep  the  imagination 
not  only  in  daily  exercise  but  in  continual  sympathy  with  those  of 
the  inspired  speakers  and  writers.  A  strain  of  preaching  that  is 
dryly  didactic,  like  that  of  Paley  and  Whately,  or  coldly  logical, 
like  that  of  Isaac  Barrow  and  Joseph  Butler,  may  in  some  sense 
indeed  convey  religious  knowledge  and  defend  sound  doctrines,  but 
it  ought  to  be  seriously  considered  whether  it  does  not  imprint  and 
engrave  on  the  minds  of  common  and  habitual  hearers  the  most  erro- 
neous and  the  most  dangerous  ideas  and  views  of  divine  things.  A 
purely  imaginative  strain  of  preaching,  on  the  other  hand,  Avould  un- 
doubteilly  do  great  injustice  to  the  teachings  of  divine  revelation,  ani 
mislead  the  hearers  into  harmful  opinions.  But  the  la*ter  could 
not  in  any  case  be  of  so  evil  a  tendency  as  the  former.  The  com- 
j)arative]y  bad  influence  of  these  two  classes  of  preachers  may  be 
illustrated  by  that  of  the  old  pagan  poets  and  philosophers :  the  po- 
ets inculcated  a  great  deal  of  superstition,  but,  as  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney maintains,  "  they  did  much  better  than  the  philosophers,  wlio, 
shaking  off  superstition,  brought  in  atheism." 

For  the  rest,  we  may  say  that  our  enumeration  of  these  ad\an- 
tages  would  be  incomplete  were  we  to  omit  to  add  that  this  faculty 
acts  the  principal  part  in  rhetorical  invention.  The  foregoing  hints 
render  this  very  evident.  James  Beattie,  the  poet  and  philosoj)her 
whom  we  have  already  quoted  more  than  once,  regarded  this  fac- 
ulty as  discharging  an  important  office  in  arrangement.  "  By  im- 
agination," says  he,  "we  invent ;  that  is,  produce  arrangements  of 
ideas  and  objects  that  were  never  so  arranged  before."  He  might 
have  Pai<l,  moreover,  that  imagination  is  a  pathfinder  and  explorer. 


OF  THE  IMAGINATION.  261 

It  assists  not  only  the  poet  but  the  rhetorical  inventor,  by  suggest- 
in-  hypotheses,  by  asking  sagacious  questions,  by  proposing  difler- 
en"  solutions  of  moral  problems,  and  by  piecing  out  and  symme- 
trisino-  the  fragments  of  known  ideas  and  principles.  It  may  seem 
to  us'that  now  intuition  and  now  deduction  is  foremost  on  the  track 
of  discovery ;  but  if  we  look  far  ahead  we  espy  imagination  gomg 
forward  a  great  distance  in  advance  of  all  the  rest.  Sir  David 
Brewster  compared  the  offices  of  this  power  to  light  troops  who 
are  sent  out  to  ascertain  the  strength  and  position  of  the  enemy. 

Why  the  imagination  is  not  allowed  the  same  liberty  m  the  pul- 
pit that  it  enjoys  and  exercises  everywhere  else,  we  need  not  go 
out  of  our  way  to  answer.     Deplorable  it  is  to  observe  how  such 
poets  as  Hildebert  of  Tours,  Edward  Young,  Jr.,  Ralph  Erskme, 
and  John  Keble  have  refused  to  permit  their  sermons  to  answer 
their  o-enius.     Of  all  flames,  that  of  the  imagination  should  be  the 
last  to  be  allowed  to  sink  down  and  expire  in  treating  and  apply- 
ing the  beautiful,  glorious,  and  infinite  themes  of  the  religion  of 
Christ.     Jeremy  Taylor,  John  Bunyan,   Samuel  Rutherford,  and 
Reginald  Heber  have  demonstrated  by  their  example  that  the  plam 
homa-e  of  the  shepherds  of  Bethlehem  was  not  more  sincere  nor 
more'acceptable  than  the  gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh  of  the  wise 
men  whom  a  star  had  guided  from  the  East.     Nay,  to  those  very 
shepherds  also  nothing  is  so  captivating  as  the  sight  of  the  Magi 
following  the  new  star  and  depositing  their  rich  tribute  at  the  feet 
of  the  infant  King  of  the  Jews.     To  suppose  that  the  sermons  of 
preachers  truly  imaginative  cannot  be  acceptable  to  the  common 
people  is  to  ignore  the  whole  history  of  homiletics  and  of  poetry. 
"The  creed  of  poetry,"  says  Bishop  Reginald  Heber  i  "is  the  creed 
of  the  vulgar.     The  lofty  strains  of  Pindar  resounded  through  the 
streets  of  EUs  and  Corinth,  and  amid  the  promiscuous  and  crowded 
solemnities  of  repubUcan  festivals.     Menander  was  the  darling  ot 
the  Athenian  stage;    and  the  hymn  which  placed  Harmodms  m 
the  o-reen  and  flowery  island  of  the  blessed  was  chaunted  by  the 
potter  at  the  wheel  and  enUvened  the  labours  of  the  Pirrean  man- 
ner"    By  what  orders  of  people  are   Christian  hymns  most  h-e- 
quently  and  most  devoutly  sung  in  their  families  and  their  places 
of  daily  occupation?     Not  certainly  by  those  who  are  distmguished 
for  their  intellectual  cultivation.     These,  like  the  Athenians  of  old, 
show  a  very  decided  preference  for  philosophical  discussions.     No ; 
it  is  among  people  of  middle  and  low  degree,  where  the  intellect 
has  not  yet  reached  its  youthful  prime,  that  we  oftenest  find  the 

1  Bampton  L?ctures,  A.  D.  1815,  p.  410. 


262  OF  THE  FEELINGS. 

imagination  in  the  strength  and  skill  of  maturity.  True,  in  a  few 
exceptional  cases,  intellectual  discipline,  perfected  by  means  of 
text-books  written  in  the  style  so  necessary  in  handling  scientific 
subjects  (the  dry  style  of  Aristotle  and  Thomas  Aquinas)  has,  so 
far  from  using  up  the  faculty,  rather  served  to  invigorate  and  every 
way  improve  it;  but  these  cases  are  so  scattered  that  no  university 
preacher  who  sought  "  the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number  " 
would  venture  to  adapt  his  sermons  to  their  taste  and  capacity. 
lie  would  as  soon  undertake  to  peddle  jewelry  at  the  door  of  a 
Friends'  meeting-house. 

SunsECJTON  II. — Of  the   Feelings. 

Under  the  term  Feeling  we  comprehend  all  the  active  powers 
of  the  mind ;  both  the  pathos  or  passions,  and  the  ethos  or  moral 
sentiments  of  the  old  classic  rhetoricians  and  moralists ;  also  in  their 
best  Scriptural  sense  and  Christian  exercise,  wonder  and  reverence, 
love  and  hatred,  esteem  and  contempt,  hope  and  fear,  joy  and  sor- 
row. "We  give  this  subject  the  second  place  because  in  the  j^rocess  of 
rhetorical  excitation  (not  that  of  ministerial  inspiration)  we  suppose 
that  feeling  commonly  originates  in,  or  else  is  intensified  by,  an  in- 
tellectual image.  The  real  finality  of  the  matter  appears  to  be  that, 
according  to  the  rhetorical  method,  no  feeling  reaches  its  highest 
deffree  until  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  imagination,  when  it  is 
changed  by  a  natural  process,  not  altogether  unlike  that  by  which 
vapour  is  converted  into  rain,  as  Dante  describes  it : 

"  Well  knowest  thou  how  in  the  air  is  gathered 
That  tumid  vapor,  which  to  water  turns 
Soon  as  it  rises  where  the  cold  doth  grasp  it." 

— LongfeUoio. 

Whoever  would  excel  in  excitation  should  not  despise  the  fol- 
loAving  precepts,  many  of  which,  though  not  original  in  substance, 
are  of  such  high  value  that  they  deserve  to  be  a  hundred  times 
repeated : 

First  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  human  heart.  Aristotle  occu- 
pies about  one-half  of  his  treatise  on  rhetoric  with  an  examination 
of  the  nature  and  uses  of  the  passions:  what  he  says  on  this  subject 
may  be  read  with  the  more  advantage  because  it  is  rather,  practical 
than  metaphysical'.  Not  that  we  would  have  the  young  ])reacher 
undervalue  a  metaphysical  knowledge  of  the  passions  ;  this  is  now 
almost  indispensable.  But  it  should  by  all  means  be  coupled  with 
much  practical  information  of  this  kind,  otherwise  it  may  ]irove  a 


OF  THE  FEELINGS.  263 

hindrance  to  rhetorical  success.  A  thorough  acquaintance  with 
Biblical  psychology  will  be  of  considerable  service,  while  the  study 
of  holy  Scripture  as  a  history  of  the  human  passions  will  be  still 
more  valuable.  We  may  also  read  with  no  small  profit  Dr.  Watts's^ 
treatise  on  the  Passions,  and  his  discourses  on  the  Love  of  God 
and  the  Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Passions  in  Religion.  It  is  one  of 
their  excellences  that  they  are  pervaded  with  such  Biblical  views  of 
the  subject  as  are  equally  correct,  clear,  and  profound.  This  Scrip- 
ture knowledge  of  the  human  heart  will  be  our  most  trustworthy 
guide  through  the  labyrinths  of  our  own  hearts  and  those  of  our 
hearers. 

We  should  also  learn  the  language  which  the  different  passions 
use  in  different  states  and  circumstances.  For  this  purpose  the 
Bible  is  more  serviceable  than  all  other  known  books  collectively. 
The  Spectator  (No.  405)  shows  how  much  the  English  language  is 
indebted  to  the  Hebrew  for  its  pathetic  phrases. 

We  shall  hence  learn  by  what  means  the  j^assions  are  awakened,  and 
what  various  rhetorical  purposes  they  subserve.  "  All  passions," 
says  Dr.  Campbell,^  "  do  not  produce  the  same  effect.  Some  are  natu- 
rally inert  and  torpid ;  they  deject  the  mind  and  indispose  it  for  enter- 
prise. Of  this  kind  are  sorrow,  fear,  shame,  and  humility.  Others,  on 
the  contrary,  elevate  the  soul  and  stimulate  to  action.  Such  are  hoj^e, 
patriotism,  ambition,  emulation,  anger.  These,  with  the  greatest  facil- 
ity, are  made  to  concur  with  arguments  exciting  to  resolution  and 
activity ;  and  .are,  consequently,  the  fittest  for  producing  what,  for 
want  of  a  better  term,  I  shall  henceforth  denominate  the  veheniait. 
There  is,  besides,  an  intermediate  kind  of  passions,  which  do  not 
congenially  and  directly  restrain  us  from  acting,  or  incite  us  to  act ; 
but  by  the  art  of  the  sjDeaker  can,  in  an  oblique  manner,  be  made 
conducive  to  either.  Such  are  joy,  love,  esteem,  compassion. 
Nevertheless,  all  these  kinds  may  find  a  place  in  suasory  discourses, 
or  such  as  are  intended  to  operate  on  the  will.  The  first  is  proj)er- 
est  for  dissuading ;  the  second,  as  hath  been  already  hinted,  for  per- 
suading; the  third  is  equally  accommodated  to  both."  Others, 
as  Ostervald,  distinguish  the  strong  emotions  from  the  mild ;  the 
former  being  soon  awakened  and  soon  allayed,  as  pity  :  the  latter 
being  raised  by  slow  degrees,  and  constant  in  their  exercise,  more 
lasting  in  their  effect,  as  love  and  penitence.  They  also  treat  of 
what  they  denominate  the  sloio  passions,  or  such  as  are  more  con- 

1  Works  in  9  vols.  (Leeds,  1812),  vol.  ii.,  pp.  443-614.  Also  Provost  J.  J. 
Spalding,  of  Berlin,  on  tlio  Value  of  the  Feelings  in  Religion. 

2  Rhet.,  B.  i.,  chap.  i. 

18 


2(54  OF  THE  FEELINGS. 

eealed  and  silently  influential,  or  such  as  dwell  in  the  heai't  longer 
than  others,  as  avarice  and  revenge.  Theremin, i  again,  makes  a 
distinction  between  passion  and  affection.  Passion,  according  to 
this  writer,  is  that  passive  and  transient  movement  which  is  excited 
in  the  mind  by  an  external  object  or  the  representation  of  it.  This 
condition  of  soul  supposes  the  inactivity  of  reason  and  the  higher 
spiritual  powers.  Affection  is  that  active  and  constant  excitement 
of  the  mind  which  owes  its  origin  to  an  idea — an  idea  Avhich  lias 
become  a  living  consciousness,  has  appropriated  to  itself  all  tiie 
powers  of  the  soul,  and  set  them  in  motion  in  one  direction.  It 
supposes  the  highest  activity  of  reason,  which  is  the  parent  of  ideas. 
Affection  does  not,  like  passion,  divide  the  mind  into  two  con- 
tending parties,  but  unites  all  its  powers  in  harmony  with  rea- 
son and  the  moral  sentiments.  The  warmth-  of  passion  is  obscure 
like  a  dimly  burning  fire  ;  affection,  on  the  contrary,  is  to  be  com- 
pared to  the  sun  light  which  brings  with  it  less  warmth  than  clear- 
ness. Theremin,  as  he  himself  acknowledges,  here  uses  the  term 
affection  (affekt)  in  a  peculiar  sense,  and  he  might  have  added  that 
he  also  employs  the  term  passion  in  its  lower  and  narrower  import. 
It  must  nevertheless  be  conceded  that  this  psychological  distinction 
of  his  is  very  important.  He  sets  rather  too  high  an  estimate,  indeed, 
on  Dx?mosthenes  as  an  example  of  affection,  and  yet  to  his  praise  be 
it  said,  he  considers  our  Divine  Master  as  without  any  fellow  in  this  . 
regard :  "  Every  one  who  has  ever  come  before  the  people  filled 
with  a  great  idea,  has  spoken  with  affection ;  but  with  the  greatest 
affection,  by  far.  He  who  gave  utterance  to  the  greatest  ideas,  namely, 
Christ.  This  Light  of  the  "World  reveals  eternal  truth  with  an 
abiding  inspiration,  which  is  at  one  time  mild  and  gentle,  at  another 
with  thunder  and  crash  ;  a  great  example  for  every  sacred  orator, 
and  one  that  Avarrants  him  in  dispensing  with  all  so-called  philoso- 
phical calnmess,  and  lays  him  under  obligation  to  speak  with  similar 
affection." 

We  must  not  here  omit  to  mention  what  the  French  denomi- 
nate onctloji  (unction).  The  idea  which  this  word  expresses  ap- 
pears to  have  been  originally  derived  from  1  John  ii.  20.  St. 
Bernard  and  other  early  French  writers  kept  it  mainly  within 
Scripture  limits.  But  the  term  which  was  at  first  employed  in  the 
sense  of  that  illuminating  grace  which  it  is  the  honour  and  privilege 
of  all  true  believers  to  receive,  came  at  length  to  signify  gravity 
and  Marmth  of  manner  in  the  preacher,  flowing  from  a'  heartfelt 
sense  of  the  importance  of  his  theme  and  an  earnest  desire  that  it 
may  make  a  deep  impression  on  the  hearts  of  his  hearers.     Maury 

1  Eloquence  a  Virtue,  Book  ii.,  Dr.  Sliedd's  trans. 


OF  THE  FEELINGS.  265 

calls  it  Christian  pathos ;  hut  Vinet  says  that  "  it  is  from  its  oppo- 
site that  we  obtain  a  distinct  notion  of  it.  .  .  There  are  things  in- 
compatible with  unction,  such  as  wit,  an  analysis  too  strict,  a  tone 
too  dictatorial,  logic  too  formal,  irony,  the  use  of  language  too  sec- 
ular or  too  abstract,  a  form  too  literary ;  finally,  a  style  too  com- 
pact and  too  hard;  for  unction  supposes  abundance,  overflow,  fluid- 
ity, pliableness."  It  is  remarkable  that  the  Scriptural  unction  is  of 
most  service  in  exposition,  and  the  French  onctlon  in  excitation, 
exhortation,  and  consolation. 

The  removal  of  such  emotions  as  are  not  conducive  to  the  pur- 
pose of  our  discourse  will  often  be  necessary  to  the  awakening. of 
such  as  are  favorable  to  that  purpose.  The  methods  of  doing  this, 
as  stated  by  Spalding,  are  three :  First,  The  allaying  of  the  emo- 
tion may  be  attempted  by  the  representation  of  the  object  in  an 
aspect  which  does  not  tend  to  excite  the  unfavourable  emotion,  and 
the  contemplation  of  which,  therefore,  is  inconsistent  with  the  con- 
tinued intensity  of  the  emotion.  Secondly,  The  diversion  of  the 
emotion  may  be  attempted  by  the  representation  of  some  other 
object,  which  tends  to  excite  the  unfavorable  emotion,  and  on  which, 
therefore,  it  may  be  expended  harmlessly.  Thirdly,  By  the  extin- 
guishing of  the  emotion.  This  may  be  attempted  by  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  object  in  such  an  aspect  as  tends  to  excite  some 
other  emotion  irreconcilable  with  the  emotion  which  is  to  be  removed. 

"  Consider  carefully,"  says  Dr.  Blair,  "  whether  the  subject  admit 
the  pathetic  and  render  it  proper;  for  it  is  evident  that  there  are 
subjects  which  admit  not  the  pathetic  at  all." 

The  same  author  bids  us  "  avoid  interweaving  anything  of  a  for- 
eign nature  with  the  pathetic  part  of  a  discourse,  and  beware  of  all 
digressions  which  may  interrupt  or  turn  aside  the  natural  course 
of  the  passion  when  once  it  begins  to  rise  and  swell." 

Remember  that  deep  feeling  cannot  pervade  every  part  of  a  ser- 
mon, and  that  the  attempt  to  express  it  throughout  the  discourse 
must,  of  necessity,  be  unnatural,  aflected,  and  insincere.  Jle  who 
would  be  always  pathetic  is  never  pathetic.  "  Young  students  in 
divinity,"  says  Ostervald,  "  are  apt  to  indulge  this  fault — the  desire 
of  always  raising  some  great  emotions." 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  feelings  are  not  under  the 
direct  control  of  volition,  and  therefore  if  we  would  move  the 
hearers  we  must  do  something  more  than  prove  to  them  that  it  is 
right  or  reasonable  to  be  moved.  To  every  propensity,  feeling,  or 
sentiment  the  Creator  has  adapted  a  corresponding  object,  which  it 
is  the  business  of  the  speaker  to  represent  to  the  mind  as  the  sub- 
ject or  occasion  requires. 


266  OF  THE  FEELINGS. 

Let  it  not  be  hence  inferred,  however,  that  we  are  never  to  shoio 
that  it  is  rifjlit,  reasonable,  proper,  or  (food  to  exercise  and  cherish 
particular  feelings  or  sentiments.  "  If,''  says  Dr.  Blair,  "  we  ex- 
pect any  emotion  which  avc  raise  to  have  a  lasting  eftect,  Ave  must 
be  careful  to  bring  over  to  our  side,  in  the  first  place,  the  under- 
standing and  judgment.  The  hearers  must  be  convinced  that  there 
are  good  and  sufficient  grounds  for  entering  Avitli  warmth  into  the 
cause.  They  must  be  able  to  justify  to  themselves  the  passion 
■which  they  feel,  and  remain  satisfied  that  they  are  not  carried  away 
by  a  mere  delusion."  (See  also  Campbell's  Ilhet.,  B.  i.,  chap,  vii., 
seq,  4.) 

This  suggests  and  in  part  answers  the  question.  To  -what  part  of 
a  sermon  does  the  pathetic  properly  belong  ?  When  the  above- 
mentioned  reasonings  are  introduced,  very  evidently  after  and  not 
before  them  is  the  place  for  the  pathetic.  Beyond  this  no  general 
rule  can  in  all  cases  hold  good. 

For  the  timing  and  placing  of  the  pathetic,  and  indeed  of  all 
kinds  of  affections,  we  know  no  better  practice  than  that  which 
Cotton  Mathen  recommended :  "  Do  you  lay  one  sentence  and  then 
another,  and  so  a  third  of  your  Bible  before  you.  .  .  Be  not  at  rest 
until  you  find  your  heart-strings  quaver  at  the  touch  upon  the  heart 
of  the  writer,  as  being  brought  into  unison  with  it,  and  the  two 
souls  go  up  in  a  flame  together." 

A  very  moderate  amount  of  good  sense  dictates  that  we  should 
never  give  -warning  that  we  are  about  to  be  pathetic.  But  it  has 
been  nniversally  overlooked  that  here  we  should  make  a  distinc- 
tion between  what  is  meant  as  an  exhortation  to  duty,  or  any  other 
part  of  the  application,  and  what  is  intended  as  a  mere  address  or 
appeal  to  certain  feelings.  The  latter  should  never  be  set  apart  as 
a  formal  head,  nor  announced  as  such.  But  the  former  may,  and 
indeed  often  must  be,  announced.  The  very  text  frequently  no- 
tifies the  hearers  of  our  purpose  to  preach  a  hortatory  or  practical 
discourse;  In  judicial  and  deliberative  addresses  the  case  is  other- 
wise. Here  deep  feeling  is  generally  deemed  unfavourable  to  the 
impartial  decision  of  the  question  at  issue.  But  as  to  all  matters 
of  moral  and  spiritual  concernment,  the  majority  of  hearers  are 
ready  to  confess  to  their  oa\ti  consciences  and  to  their  friends,  that 
their  feelings  come  painfully  short  of  the  just  demands  of  the  sub- 
jects offered  to  their  consideration.  And  it  is  notorious  that  al- 
most all  those  hearers  who  are  seeking  repentance  and  Christian 
maturity  resort  to  those  sermons  that  consist  in  great  part  of  appli- 
cations and  avowed  appeals  to  the  moral  sentiments;    and  that 

1  Manuductio,  Lect.  xiv. 


OF  THE  FEELINGS.  267 

preachers  wlio  have  even  studied  to  be  pathetic  have,  with  few  ex. 
ceptions,  been  not  merely  the  most  popular,  but,  to  the  mass  of  the 
impenitent,  the  most  useful  also.  But  still  we  should  remember 
that  it  is  never  advisable  to  say, "  I  am  about  to  describe  an  affecting 
scene,"  or  to  herald  the  pathetic  in  the  language  of  Shakespeare, 
"  If  ye  have  tears,  prepare  to  shed  them  now."  John  Foster,  in 
the  partition  of  his  53d  lecture,  priidently  omits  every  mtimation 
of  his  purpose  to  appeal  to  the  heart  and  conscience. 

And  yet  the  best  orators  are  not  without  an  unaffected  tearful- 
ness. Herein  Demosthenes  was  feared  by  his  adversaries :  Dinar- 
chus  and  yEschines  warn  the  judges  not  to  allow  themselves  to  be 
unduly  moved  by  his  tears  and  wailmgs.  In  general  tears  are  of 
two  kinds ;  the  first  may  be  compared  to  the  rain  or  the  dew, 
which  soon  ceases  to  fall,  and  evaporates  soon ;  the  second  to  those 
fountain- waters  which,  though  they  may  frequently  abate,  or  for  a 
season  even  disappear,  are  certain  to  return  and  flow  as  abundantly 
as  before.  But  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  of  these  two  sorts  there 
are  many  varieties.  Hence  all  general  remarks  concerning  tears 
are  apt  to  mislead  us.  Few  sayings  of  the  old  rhetoricians  have 
been  so  frequently  quoted  as  that  of  Apollonius  Molon  of  Ala- 
banda:  "Nothmg  dries  quicker  than  a  tear"— a  saying  that  was 
twice  borrowed  by  Cicero,  and  once  with  the  additional  phrase, 
"  especially  at  the  misfortunes  of  others,"  imesertim  in  aUenis  ma- 
lls} He  is  here  writing  about  appeals  to  pity  in  courts  of  justice. 
This  maxim,  however,  is  not  of  universal  application  to  judicial  tri- 
bunals, much  less  to  persons  of  deep  religious  sensibility,  like  David 
and  Jeremiah,  and,  above  all,  the  Man  of  Sorrows. 

Yet  not  a  few  have  been  much  mistaken  as  to  the  moral  value 
of  tears.  Among  the  early  Syrian  monks  laughter  was  the  source 
and  indication  of  all  wickedness,  sorrow  of  all  virtue.2  And  the 
monks  of  the  dark  ages  were  very  desirous  to  obtain  of  God  m 
answer  to  the  intercession  of  the  saints,  "the  gift  of  tears"  in  the 
Church,  so  that  they  might  weep  at  mass  or  certain  solemn  vigils.3 
Nor  are  all  modern  Protestants  disabused  of  similar  notions.  One 
preacher,  in  a  letter  of  advice  to  his  own  brother,  holds  the  follow- 
ing language  on  this  point:  "If  you  cannot- make  them  weep 
di?ectly%ake  them  laugh,  and  then  make  them  cry.  The  distance 
between  a  laugh  and  a  cry  is  very  short,  and  the  transition  very 
easy.     Smiles  and  tears  go  in  company  as  harmoniously  and  legiti- 

1  Cicsro,  D3  Partitioue,  c.  xvii. ;    De  Invent.,  L.  i.,  c.  Iv. ;  Rhet.  ad  Herenn.,  L. 
ii ,  c.  xxxi.  ;  Quint.,  L.  vi.,  c.  i.,  sec.  27. 

2  Milmao's  Hist,  of  Christianity  from  the  Birth  of  Christ,  etc.,  B.  iii.,  c.  ix, 

3  Digby's  Mores  Catholici,  vol.  iii ,  p.  313. 


268  OF  THE  FEELINGS. 

mately  as  sunsliiiie  and  showers  in  spring-time."  To  play  thus 
with  the  superficial  emotions  of  an  audience,  as  nurses  sometimes 
amuse  themselves  witli  the  sensibilities  of  infants,  is,  to  say  the 
least,  unfriendly  to  the  making  of  any  holy,  deep,  and  abiduig  im- 
pression. The  laugh  that  has  pioneered  for  a  tear  is  exceedingly 
apt  to  return  and  claim  the  path  as  its  own  rightful  property,  and 
make  it  toll-free  only  to  the  families  of  levity  and  frivolity.  '•  There 
is  a  style  of  preaching,''  says  an  anonymous  Avritcr,i  "  which  pro- 
duces a  great  many  tears  but  little  rei)entance.  '  I  am  tired,'  said 
an  adept  in  this  style,  '  I  am  tired  of  weeping.  I  want  to  see  the 
deep  turnings  of  heart  and  the  substantial  fruits  of  repentance.' 
Bunyan,  in  his  Holy  War,  very  properly  represents  ]Mr.  Wet-eyes 
as  an  unsuccessful  agent  in  the  application  to  Prince  Emanuel  for 
pardon."  The  tears  of  godly  sorrow  and  of  a  Christ-like  compas- 
sion can  only  be  made  to  flow  by  that  j^reaching  which  is  accom- 
panied by  the  wonder-working  grace  of  God.  They  are  not  to 
be  eUcited  by  any  human  art.  Moses  may,  to  be  sure,  smite  the 
desert  rock,  but  the  Almighty  alone  can  rend  it  and  open  the 
earth's  central  reservoirs  and  set  their  waters  in  motion.  Augus- 
tine- was  convinced  of  this  when,  after  having  molted  the  people 
of  Cajsarea  into  penitence  because  of  their*  bloody  and  unnatural 
Cateiwa  fights,  he  thanked  God  for  the  grace  that  had  made  his 
sermon  efiectual ;  and  eight  years  later  the  permanency  of  the  re- 
form gave  him  unmistakable  proof  that  the  Lord  Jesus  had  indeed 
been  propitious. 

Next  to  divine  grace  in  the  hearers,  nothing  is  so  moving  as  that 
grace  in  the  speaker.  The  rule  that  has  been  a  thousand  times  re- 
peated is :  If  you  would  adect  others,  be  yourself  affected.  As 
Chrashaw  says,  *'  the  wounding  is  the  wounded  heart.''  And  yet 
it  is  not  to  be  denied,  as  another  poet  says,  that  "  false  tears  true 
pity  move."  Nevertheless,  liere,  as  in  all  true  eloquence,  more  de- 
pends on  the  known  or  reputed  character  of  the  speaker.  Isocra- 
tes'^  was  the  first  of  the  ethnic  rhetors  who  taught  that  real  good- 
ness was  the  source  of  true  eloquence.  lie  declared  that  a  true,  le- 
gitimate, and  judicious  speech  is  the  image  of  a  good  and  iiiithful 
mind.  Aristotle,  Quint ilian,  and  otiiers  have  inculcated  a  similar 
opinion.  The  former  teaches  that  the  orator  should  claim  credit 
not  only  for  integrity  but  also  for  good-will  towards  those  whom 
he  would  persuade.  If,  therefore,  the  preacher  has  a  character  for 
benevolence  ami  hinnanit y,  tliis  will  greatly  assist  him  in  all  Ills  aj>- 

1  Biblical  Repository,  vol.  ii.  p.  423  (second  series^ 

2  Do  Duct.  Christ.,  L.  iv.,  c.  xxiv,        3  Nicocles,  seD  Suasoria  Oratia,  in  Oi>era. 


OF  THE  FEELINGS.  269 

peals  to  the  feelings  of  his  hearers.  But  the  reputation  for  acts  of 
charity  is  not  sufficient ;  he  must  be  really  and  deeply  good :  "  A 
good  man  out  of  the  good  treasure  of  his  heart  bringeth  good 
things."  Nor  is  it  enough  for  us  to  have  a  quick  and  tender  sensi- 
bility, such  as  will  weep  with  them  that  weep ;  we  must  have  a 
genuine  Christian  love  pervading  our  character  and  hfe.  This  last 
is  of  priceless  value,  and  lends  to  sensibility  all  its  persuasiveness. 
Augustine  tells  us  in  a  letter  to  Alypius^  that  w^hile  yet  a  priest  he 
was  appointed  by  his  aged  bishop  to  preach  against  riotous  feasting 
on  solemn  days.  He  earnestly  besought  his  hearers  by  the  igno- 
minies and  sorrows,  by  the  blood  and  death  of  Christ,  not  to  de- 
stroy themselves — to  pity  him  who  sj)oke  to  them  with  so  much 
affection,  and  to  show  some  regard  for  their  venerable  old  bishop, 
who,  out  of  tenderness  to  them,  had  commanded  him.  to  instruct 
then\  in  the  truth.  "  I  did  not,"  says  he,  "  make  them  weep  by 
first  weeping  over  them ;  but  while  I  preached,  their  tears  antici- 
pated mine.  I  own  that  then  I  could  not  restrain  myself  After 
we  had  wept  together  I  began  to  entertain  great  hopes  of  their 
amendment." 

But  in  order  to  move  the  most  powerfully,  it  is  not  enough  to 
have  and  exhibit  feeling ;  we  must  likewise  know  how  to  restrain 
it.     Oftener  quoted  than  understood  are  these  words  of  Horace  : 

Si  vis  me  flere  dolendum  est 
Prjiuum  ipsi  tibi. 

It  has  been  acutely  remarked  by  Vinet,^  that  "  Horace  does  not 
sajjlendauij  but  dolendian  est — "  Reserve  has  great  force."  In  one 
of  his  essays  he  amplifies^  this  thought  as  follows  :  "  This  devout 
and  holy  sobriety  of  expression  is  not  merely  a  disciplme  worthy 
of  being  reverenced  for  its  motive ;  it  is  a  wise  and  Avholesome 
economy.  Feeling  is  exhausted  by  the  expression  of  feeling. 
Never  without  an  evident  and  impracticable  miracle  can  the  words 
of  the  poet  resijecting  a  magic  cup  be  spoken  of  the  soul : 

'  And  still  the  more  the  vase  pour'd  forth 
The  more  it  seem'd  to  hold. '4. 

.  .  .  Reserved  men,  when  that  reserve  is  not  the  mark  of  sterility, 
preserve  the  strength  of  their  soul  just  as  temj^erate  men  preserve 
their  bodily  vigour.  Nay,  their  very  reserve  is  usually  a  pledge  and 
a  foundation  of  mental  strength.  .  .  Nothing  moves  us  so  deeply 
as  a  single  word  from  the  heart  of  one  Avhose  words  are,  from  a 

1  Epist.  xxix.,  sec  7.  2  Homiletics,  p.  219. 

3  Etudes  sur  Blaise  Pascal,  p.  349.  4  Ovid's  Metamov.,  L.  v.,  v.  681,  682. 


270  OF  THE  FEELINGS. 

sense  of  duty,  few."  With  tliis  agrees  the  remark  of  PUny  (vre 
have  not  his  letter  at  hand),  that  it  is  our  duty  to  be  affected  by 
sorrow,  and  yet  to  ojiposc  its  excess. 

This  reserve  is  particularly  demanded  in  reproof  and  commenda- 
tion. In  praising  men  we  are  apt  to  exaggerate  what  is  true  and 
good ;  in  l)laming  them,  to  magnify  what  is  false  and  evil.  Now 
if  we  look  through  a  microscojje  at  a  stain  of  oil  on  a  piece  of  jew- 
elry we  may  fail  to  discover  any  blemish ;  but  if  we  hold  it  under 
the  naked  eye  and  in  a  proper  light  it  is  clearly  seen.  The  prov- 
ince of  rhetoric  is  not  to  magnify,  but,  as  the  schoolmen  defined  it, 
to  color  speech  :  "  Rhetorica  verba  colorat." 

Of  this  reserved  force  Luther  was  a  distinguished  example. 
Richter^  attributes  it  to  spiritual  peace :  "  Luther,  thou  art  like  the 
Rhine  falls!  How  mightily  thou  stormest  and  thunderest  ajong! 
But  as  iipon  its  foaming  waters  the  rainbow  hovers  unmoved,  so 
in  thy  breast  reposes  imdisturbed  the  gracious  bow  of  peace  with 
God  and  man.  Thou  shakest  vehemently  the  earth,  but  not  tbe 
heaven  within  thee."  This  quality  is  valuable  even  in  delivery; 
here  the  player  may  for  once  teach  the  preacher :  "  He  uses  all 
gently,  for  in  the  very  torrent,  tempest,  and  (as  I  may  say)  whirl- 
wind of  his  passion,  he  must  acquire  and  beget  a  temperance  that 
may  give  it  smoothness."  But  we  must  add  Shakespeare's  caution : 
"  Be  not  too  tame  neither." 

When  we  have  roused  such  feelings  or  passions  as  naturally  im- 
pel to  practice,  we  should  not  rest  content  until  we  have  secured 
prompt  and  efficient  action.  To  be  satisfied  with  anything  short 
of  this  is  to  do  our  hearers  a  positive  injury.  As  Butler^  has  j)roved, 
most  of  our  active  principles  are  strengthened  by  habitual  exer- 
cise in  real  life,  and  weakened  by  every  excitement  that  results  in 
nothing  beyond  wishes  and  resolutions.  This  point,  though  very 
frequently  alluded  to  and  variously  ajiplied  by  subsequent  writers, 
is  of  vast  importance  to  the  preacher.  It  has  been  observed  of 
Southey's  poetry,  as  may  indeed  be  said  of  all  good  poetry,  except 
lyrical,  that  it  evinces  power  but  not  force.  And  such,  alas !  is  the 
character  of  all  pathetic  sermons  that  are  destitute  of  an  effectual 
ajqtlication  in  whicli  we  desire,  expect,  and  obtain  some  good  re- 
sults. Xow  one  of  the  natural  enemies  of  such  an  application  is  a 
tendency  to  coiobasis,  or  the  modern  ch'ma.r,  especially  when  it  is 
continually  mounting  towards  the  sublime.     And  vet,  if  this  gen- 

1  Gcsarainelte,  p.  172. 

2  Aiial«tt>y,  Pt.  1.,  c.  v.,  and  Stewart's  Jloral  Pliilosopliy.'  Smith,  in  his  SkcMches 
(if  Moral  Pliilosophy  (p.  401),  sliows  that  "some  i)assi()ns  are  increased  by  habit, 
others  decreased,  and  others  aijain  increased  to  a  certain  point,  then  decreased." 


OF  THE  FEELINGS.  271 

erally  is  so,  it  need  never  be  so ;  for  when  the  holy  prophets  as- 
cended in  a  sublime  Anabasis,  they  were  not  ashamed  immediately 
to  descend  in  a  practical  Catabasis.  Run  with  the  proj^het  up  to 
Ramah :  "  A  voice  is  heard — in  Ramah— lamentation  and  bitter 
w^eeping — Rachel  weeping  for  her  children — refuses  to  be  comforted 
for  her  children — because  they  are  not."  Had  an  orator  of  the  mod- 
ern kind  called  your  attention  to  that  distant  crying,  then  pointed  to 
the  city,  and  next  hurried  you  away  with  him  thither,  and  finally 
brought  you  into  the  presence  of  that  wailing  mother,  bowed  down 
beneath  sackcloth,  he  would  have  said  to  you,  "  This  acme  of  the 
sublime  demands  my  instant  silence."  But  hear  rather,  O  son  of 
the  prophets,  and  imitate  Ezekiel  as  he  stoops  to  speak  these  words 
of  balm :  "  Refrain  thy  voice  from  weeping,  and  thine  eyes  from 
tears ;  for  thy  work  shall  be  rewarded,  saith  the  Lord ;  and  they 
shall  come  again  from  the  land  of  the  enemy.  And  there  is  hope 
in  thine  end,  saith  the  Lord,  that  thy  children  shall  come  again  to 
their  own  border." 

Much  more  of  the  same  kmd  might  be  adduced  from  holy  Scrip- 
ture ;  but  the  following  example  from  one  of  Vieyra's  sermons^  will 
serve  to  show  that  the  Catabasis  of  the  sacred  writers  and  speakers 
may  be  successfully  imitated  by  post-apostolic  preachers :  "  Let 
us  remember  that  in  this  church  are  galleries  loftier  than  those 
which  we  see ;  '  we  are  made  a  spectacle  to  God ' — so  St.  Bernard 
would  render  the  passage — '  and  to  angels  and  to  men.'  Above 
the  tribunes  of  kings  and  the  tribunes  of  the  angels  is  the  tribune 
and  tribunal  of  God  himself,  who  hears  us  and  who  will  judge 
us.  What  reckoning  can  a  preacher  give  to  God  in  the  Day  of 
Judgment  ?  The  hearer  will  say.  They  never  told  me ;  but  thy 
preacher  ?  Vo3  mihi,  quia  tacui.  Let  it  be  so  no  more,  for  the 
love  of  God  and  of  ourselves.  .  .  Let  heaven  see  that  even  on 
earth  it  has  those  who  stand  on  its  side.  Let  hell  know  that  even 
on  earth  there  are  those  who  make  war  against  it  with  the  Word 
of  God.  And  let  earth  itself  know  that  it  is  still  capable  of  once 
more  growing  green  and  of  bearing  much  fruit." 

Thus  should  the  preacher,  in  his  most  elevated  moments,  be  like 
the  cherubs  of  Ezekiel's  vision,  who,  when  they  sailed  above  the 
world,  still  had  eyes  in  their  wings  to  look  down  on  the  wants  of 
its  inhabitants,  and  however  high  they  soared,  never  left  behind 
them  those  wheels  on  which  they  could  timefully  descend,  and,  as 
ministers  of  a  kind  providence,  ride  along  the  highways  of  needy 
and  afflicted  mortals.     But  still,  as  we  said  hi  the  outset  of  this 

1  Close  of  ser.,  The  Seed  by  the  Way-Side. 


272  USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION. 

section,  preaching  lias  otlicr  important  ends  tlian  that  of  persuad- 
ing to  action.     It  remains  only,  or  rather  we  have  space  only  to 
add,  that  the  most  active  and  enterprising   Christians   are  the  very 
ones,  of  all   others,  who  sutler  most  from   hunger   of  heart,  and 
hence  oftenest  pray,  with  Augustine:    '' O  love,  who  ever  burnest 
and  never   consumest !     O   charity,  my  God !    kindle   me.     Give 
me  what  thou  cnjoinest   and   enjoin  what  thou  wilt.  .  .   O   that 
thou  wouldst  enter  into  my  heart  and  inebriate  it,  that  I  may  for- 
get my  ills."'     Then  again  there  is  a  class  in  almost  every  audience 
who  have  long  been  reforming  their  lives,  but  who  need  such  ap- 
peals to  their  hearts  as  may,  with  the  assistance  of  grace,  lead  to 
godly  sorrow — such  appeals  as  this  of  De  Barzia :  "  Why  ! "'  says 
Jesus  to  thee,  "  who  filled  thee  with  such  rage  against  me  ?     IV/tat 
iniquity  liave  your  fatliers  found  in  nic?  (Jer.  ii.  5).     Of  what  sin 
canst  thou  charge  me,  that  thou  ragest  so  furiously  against  me  ? 
Many  good  things  have  I  showed  you ;  I  have  displayed  abundant 
charity ;    I  have  poured  forth  many  benefits ;  for  trliicJi  of  these 
worJis  do  ye  stone  me  ?  (John  x.  32).     Art  thou  enraged  against  me 
because  I  brought  thee  uito  existence  out  of  nothing?     Art  thou 
vexed  because  I  liave  watchfully  preserved  thee  ?  because  I  have 
brought  thee  to  a  saving  faith  ^     Dost  thou  count  it  for  an  injury 
that  I.  gave  up  life  and  honour,  blood  and  all,  upon  the  cross  for 
thee?  .  .  Come  now,  answer  me  wheuefore   art  enraged  against 
me?     O  Jesus,  best  beloved,  cease  to  inquire.     I  own  that  there 
is  no  cause ;  I  acknowledge  my  audacity,  and  I  bewail  it.     Flow, 
my  tears,  flow,  and  streaming  over  my  cheeks,  testify  to  my  sor- 
row.    Break,  heart,  break,  through  excess  of  love.     I  acknowledge, 
I  own,  I  see  clearly  my  conilition.     What  have  I  done  !     I  have  re- 
turne<l  thee  evil  for  good  and  hatred  for  thy  good  will.     W^hich 
was  it,  love  or  enmity  which  crucified  thee  ?     O  Lord,  it  was  love 
and  it  was  enmity.     Thine  the  love,  mbie  the  enmity."     But  the 
young  fjiglish  ])reacher  has  to  rejucmVier,  while  reading  such  Ijursts 
of  ])assion  in  the  sermons  of  De  B.-irzia,  as  well  as  in  those  of  Viey- 
ra,  that  the  former  preached  to  the  Spanish  ami  the  latter  to  the 
Portuguese.     If,  therefore,  he  already  have  a  lively  .sensibility,  he 
may  find  it  pru<lent  to  keep  at  a  distance  from  such  liearts  of  fire. 
Why  did  Venerable   Bede  sometimes  preach  to   rocks?     Wa.s  it 
that  he  might  prepare  his  feelings  for  the  cool  immobility  of  a 
British  audience? 

Section  IV. — U.sk  of  Reproof  ok  Coijkkction'. 


This  application  aims,  by  jiroduclng  conviction  of  sin  or  vice,  to 
lea<l  nu'M  to  Lrodlv  and  holv  liviiiix.     It  shouM  almost   alwavs  be 


4 


USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION.  273 

subjoined  to  or  interposed  between  the  didactic  parts  of  the  ser- 
mon ;  for  unless  the  understanding  is  convinced  the  conscience  will 
very'seldom  be  addressed  with  success.  The  Scripture  examples 
of  this  kind  of  use  are  very  instructive.!  The  English  preachers 
of  the  seventeenth  century  sometimes  disarmed  hostility  and  melted 
hard  hearts  by  calling  this  a  "  use  of  lamentation."  For  giving  re- 
proof a  pathetic  form  and  spirit  they  were  not  without  Scripture 
authority.2 

Let  us  now  turn  in  the  mind  several  of  those  maxims  which  guide 
the  young  preacher  in  the  discharge  of  a  duty  so  important  yet  so 
difficult  and  dangerous.     These  conveniently  fall  into  five  groups  : 

I.  The  Reprover.  A  yoimg  man,  as  yet  without  a  pastoral 
charge,  while  preaching  for  a  pastor  should  abstain  from  specific 
and  pointed  reprehension.  His  youth  will  perhaps  render  his  cen- 
sure repulsive  to  the  mature  and  aged;  or  he  may  reasonably  be 
thought  ignorant  of  the  circumstances  in  which  the  shortcomings 
or  misdoings  he  rebukes  were  committed;  or  else  his  procedure 
may  cause  the  pastor  to  be  suspected  of  advising  another  to  do 
what  he  will  not  venture  to  do  himself,  or  what  may  afterwards  be 
disowned  by  his  superior  authority.  Again,  it  may  possibly  hap- 
pen that  the  pastor  himself  is  temporarily  aspersed  or  calumniated 
by  some  of  his  congregation.  At  such  a  time  he  will  more  wisely 
testify,  instruct,  and  reason  than  reprehend.  Jeremy  Collier's  po- 
sition as  a  churchman  qualified  him  successfully  to  rebuke  the  vices 
of  the  English  stage.  "  Let  the  preacher,"  says  Vinet,  "  before  he 
censures,  feel  assured  that  he  has  the  esteem,  the  afi"ection,  and  the 
confidence  of  his  parish."  But  still  the  preacher  may  be  too  nice 
as  to  such  matters.  The  unmarried  Paul  taught  husbands,  wives, 
and  children  their  respective  duties;  and  Henry  Smith,  "  the  silver- 
tongued,"  though  a  young  bachelor,  yet  reproved,  and  that  very 
successfully,  many  ladies  of  rank  for  following  the  fiishion  of  refus- 
ing to  perform  the  duty  of  nursing  their  own  children. 

In  some  cases  should  the  reprover  be  one  who  is  morally  distant 
from  the  person  reproved ;  otherwise  he  may  be  crushed  by  the 
fall  of  the  offender,  much  as  Eleazar  (1  INLac.  vi.  46)  was  by  the 
elephant  which  he  crept  under  in  order  to  stab  him. 

II.  The  thinr/s  to  be  reproved  In  general  the  preacher  should 
expose  and  denounce  such  faults  and  vices  or  sins  as  his  text  or 

1  Isa.  iii.  9-26 ;  chaps,  v.,  viii.,  ix. ;  xxviii.  1-15;  chap.  Iviii. ;  Jer.,  chaps,  ii., 
iii ,  V.  ;  Ezek.'viii.  15-18;  chaps,  xiii.,  xvi.,  xxii.,  xxiii.  ;  Matt.  xi.  20-24;  xxiii. 
13-39  i  Luke  vi.  22-26  ;  vii.  31-35  ;  xi.  29-32  ;  Acts  iii.  13-17  ;  vii.  52,  53  ;  viii. 
20-23;  James,  chaps,  iii.,  iv.  ;  v.  1-6. 

2  Isa.  i.  21-23  ;  Jer.  iv.  19-31 ;  viii.  18-22 ;  chaps,  is.,  xix.,  xxvii.,  xxxii. 


274  USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION. 

subject  offers  for  consideration,  whether  he  knows  that  members 
of  the  church  or  congregation  are  guilty  of  them  or  not,  because 
general  warning  is  often  more  salutary  than  particular  rej)roof 
And  yet  some  very  excellent  preachers  have  continually  to  defend 
themselves  against  a  tendency  to  censoriousness.  Any  indolent  or 
malicious  declaimer  may  easily  win  a  certain  popularity  (in  any 
large  community  where  " birds  of  a  feather  flock  together ')  by  de- 
nouncing certain  sins  and  vices,  more  particularly  those  to  which 
most  of  his  hearers  are  never  tempted.  "  Here,"  as  Ostervald  ad- 
vises, "  the  minister  should  in  the  first  place  ascertain  the  certainty 
of  a  fact.  He  should  never  censure  upon  mere  rumor  or  vague  re- 
ports, lie  should  avoid  being  credulous  and  suspicions.  Nothing 
does  a  minister  more  harm  than  taking  fire  unseasonably.  But  as 
all  established  facts  are  not  deserving  of  censure,  he  ought,  in  the 
second  place,  to  consider  well  the  nature  of  the  thmg  he  is  con- 
cerned with.  1.  There  are  many  things  too  inconsiderable  and 
too  trifling  to  be  censured  from  the  pulpit  or  to  be  made  part  of  a 
sermon.  2.  There  are  some  private  sins  which  very  few  persons 
are  acquainted  with.  These  ought  to  be  censured  in  private ;  or, 
if  you  should  do  it  in  public,  you  should  do  it  with  such  circum- 
spection as  not  to  let  the  people  know  Avhat  person  you  mean.  3. 
You  should  never  bring  into  the  pulpit  tilings  of  a  i)rivate  and  per- 
sonal nature.  This  would  be  attended  with  very  disagreeable  con- 
sequences. I  mean  not,  however,  that  this  is  totally  unserviceable, 
but  that  it  should  not  be  done  except  in  extraordinary  cases; 
otherwise  a  minister  would  be  justly  accused  of  acting  with  passion 
or  imprudence." 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  licrcsy  \s  not  only  to  be  refutetl  but 
reproved  (Titus  i.  13). 

Sometimes  the  preacher  is  tempted  to  neglect  the  denunciation 
of  a  sin  from  the  fear  that  in  so  doing  he  will  condemn  himself. 
But  let  us  repel  such  suggestions  as  the  self  abasing  Bunyan^  did, 
so  that  we  may  adopt  his  testimony:  "I  have  as  Samson  bowed 
myself  with  all  my  might  to  condemn  sin  wherever  I  found  it. 
*  Let  me  4ie,'  thought  I,  '  with  the  Philistines  rather  than  deal  cor- 
ruptly with  the  blessed  word  of  God.' " 

III.  What  pcrsofis  are  to  be  rcj)roved  ?  Our  superiors  in  tlie 
mmistry  we  may  entreat,  but  not  rebuke  (1  Tim.  v.  1 ;  Titus  ii. ; 
Acts  xxiii.  5;  Ezek.  iii.).  But  kings  and  magistrates  are  not  the 
superiors  of  the  preacher  while  exercising  his  nunisterial  fuiu-tion. 
As  a  citizen  he  is  of  course  their  inferior,  but  we  are  not  now  defin- 

1  Grace  Abounding,  sees.  295,  296. 


USif  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION.  075 

ing  the  duties  of  a  citizen.  The  prophets,  including  John  the  Bap- 
tist and  our  Lord,  reproved  such  men  as  Zedekiah,  Herod,  Simon 
the  Pharisee,  Peter,  John,  and  others.  "Witness  the  courage  of 
Ambrose  in  rebuking  the  emperor  Theodorus,i  and  of  Knox  in  re- 
proving Queen  Mary.2  In  this  aspect  the  fifth  chapter  of  Isaiah  is 
very  instructive,  and  so  is  Zej^haniah,  who  calls  the  Hebrew  judges 
of  his  day  "  evening  wolves."  In  no  measured  terms  does  St. 
James  rebuke  the  rich^ misers  and  oppressors  of  his  time;  and 
when,  on  the  other  hand,  he  denounces  the  men  of  the  middle 
class  who  are  obsequious  to  the  rich  in  Christian  assemblies,  he  em- 
ploys terms  scarcely  more  measured.  But  let  us  remember  that 
we  have  not  an  inspired  impulse  to  reprove,  and  cannot  make  a 
■'  Thus  saith  the  Lord  "  our  battle  cry  when  we  attack  individuals. 
"  You  should  never  be  too  ready,"  is  the  wise  language  of  Oster- 
vald,  "  to  censure  magistrates  and  public  persons,  lest  by  exposing 
their  faults  and  irregularities  you  should  give  the  people  occasion 
to  show  contempt  and  disobedience  to  their  authority.  .  .  You 
should  first  use  private  admonitions.  If  these  prove  inefiectual, 
and  magistrates  are  guilty  of  any  gross  irregularities,  you  may 
then  speak  of  them  in  public."  In  some  such  cases,  we  may  be 
permitted  to  add,  it  is  best  to  ignore  the  sin  and  seek  only  and 
ever  the  radical  conversion  of  the  sinner ;  otherwise  we  may  have 
too  frequent  occasion,  with  Juvenal,  to  ask,  "  Quid  te  exempta  ju- 
vat  spinis  e  pluribus  una  ?  "3 

We  should  therefore  discriminate  between  different  classes  of 
transgressors.  Are  we  not  too  Hable  to  forget  that  some  are  more 
ignorant  of  Scripture  than  others,  and  that  some  will  not  be  pres- 
ent to  hear  our  reproofs?  Jeremy  Collier  wisely  preferred  the 
press  to  the  pulpit  in  censuring  the  vices  of  the  stage  poets  of  his 
time.  There  are  also  diSerent  degrees  of  moral  debasement.  The 
prophets  deal  more  severely  with  their  enlightened  and  privileged 
countrymen  than  they  do  with  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  Gen- 
tiles. Paul  accordingly  rebukes  the  Galatians  less  mildly  than  he 
does  the  Corinthians.  He  does  indeed  advise  Titus  to  reprove  the 
Cretans  sharply  for  their  errors  of  faith,  on  account  of  the  insensi- 
bility to  which  their  tribal  vices  had  reduced  them. 

When  should  we  call  transgressors  and  heretics  by  name  ?  This 
is  a  question  difiicult  to  answer  in  few  words.  Isaiah  is  moved  by 
the  Spirit  to  prophecy  against  the  unfaithful  treasurer,  Shebna,  by 
name,  and  so  is  Ezekiel  against  the  evil  counsellors,  Jaazaniah  and 
Pelatiah  (Isa.  xxii.,  Ezek.  xi.  ch.).     Paul,  in  writing  to   Timothy, 

1  Theodoret,  Hist.  Eccles.,  L.  v.,  c.  sviii.  2  Life,  in  "  Scottish  Worthies." 

3  What  does  it  avail  you  if  one  thorn  be  removed,  while  tho  raanj'  still  remain  1 


276  USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION. 

twice  makes  personal  mention  of  ITymenneus  and  once  of  Alexan- 
der and  I'hiletvis  (I  Epist.  i.  2U;  2  Epist.  ii.  17),  heretics,  if  not 
apostates  and  blasphemers,  all.  But  it  should  be  considered  that 
these  epistles,  not  having  been  addressed  to  a  church,  did  not  neces- 
sarily give  publicity  to  the  names  and  sins  of  these  men.  It  was 
im})ortant  that  the  young  preacher  should,  by  timely  Vvarning,  be 
put  on  his  guard  against  the  eating  canker  of  their  errors. 

Our  Lord  reproved  some  individuals,  as  Jlerod  and  others,  per- 
sonally and  directly;  and  yet  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  his 
l^ublic  preaching  he  reproved  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  and  the 
rich  as  classes,  and  Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Capernaum,  and  Jerusalem 
as  cities. 

We  are  to  warn  and  reprove  so)ne,  not  with  any  reasonable  hope 
of  their  repentance,  but  for  the  j^urpose  of  alarming  others  who 
have  begun  to  walk  in  the  same  paths.  It  has  often  been  thought 
to  be  of  doubtful  authority  or  expediency  to  reprove  those  whom 
we  cannot  expect  to  be  the  instruments  of  reforming.  What  are 
Ave  to  do  with  them  V  The  incorrigible  and  the  reprobate  Avere  de- 
nounced as  hopeless  by  the  prophets  and  apostles  and  by  the  Lord 
Jesus,  their  chief  But  preachers  fully  inspired,  be  it  ever  remem- 
bered, could  herein  speak  with  an  authority  which  was  not  weak- 
ened by  the  suspicion  of  personal  hatred  or  prejudice.  And  yet 
Ludovicus  Cocius^  admits  this  use  among  others,  terming  it  f/cnus 
PJiobeticnin.  As  it  is  of  the  nature  of  a  curse  or  commination  lev- 
ellcil  against  the  abandoned,  or  those  who  can  be  neither  persuaded 
nor  dissuaded,  it  can  be  employed  by  us  only  in  very  extraordinary 
cases — not  oftener,  perhaps,  than  once  or  twice  in  a  lifetime.  Hence 
the  young  preacher  may  safely  excuse  himself  froni  tho  frequent 
utterance  of  those  denunciations  to  Avhich  his  warm  blood  is  but 
too  apt  to  incite  him :  Ne  2mc)'o  (/laditmi.i  But  though  ho  may 
very  rarely  speak  fo,  yet  he  must  often  speak  of,  the  class  of  those 
who  are  judicially  blinded  in  mind  and  hardened  in  heart ;  this  he 
is  to  do  Avith  a  view  to  prevent  others  from  becoming  prisoners  of 
despair.3 

AVhoever  avouM  learn  to  handle  this  use  Avisely  and  tenderly, 
let  him  read  the  sermons  of  Jeremiah  and  of  the  Son  of  God.  The 
former  so  orders  the  successive  types  of  the  potter,  the  broken 
bottle,  and  the  basket  of  figs  as  to  pass  step  by  step  from  the  mild- 
est to   the   severest    prediction.      In    all   his   denunciations  "the 


1  Quoted  in  the  Methodologia   Homiletica  of  Scbastianus  Gcebclius,  p.  72  (ed- 
Lipsiae,  1G78). 

•  2  Do  not  trust  a  boy  with  a  .sword.  3  Sc>itieri,  Quaresimale,  Prpd.  xxis  ,  ^5. 


USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION.  277 

weeping  prophet "  betrays  the  fact  that  he  '  desires  not  the  woeful 
day.'  Then  how  often  does  the  Proi)het  of  prophets  remind  us 
of  Jeremiah,  or  rather  of  a  shower  which,  though  it  is  often 
checked  for  a  moment  by  flashes  of  hghtning,  still  ceases  not  to 
descend  until  it  has  bestowed  its  entire  self  upon  the  thirsty 
earth. 

In  transitions  to  this  and  other  pahiful  subjects,  it  has  a  good 
effect  sometimes  to  say,  "  I  would  gladly  conclude  here,"  or  "  would 
that  I  could  pass  over  what  I  am  now  compelled  to  add,"  or  other 
such  words. 

TV.  In  v:hat  spirit  and  manner  and  by  what  oneans  are  we  to  re- 
prove  ?  We  cannot  be  too  frequently  told  that  our  admonitions 
should  be  prompted  by  Christian  affection  (Prov.  xxvii.  6 ;  2  Cor. 
ii.  4;  xii.  14-21;  1  Thes.  ii.  7-12;  1  Tim.  v.  1;  2  Tim.  ii.  24-26). 
The  divine  love  will  enable  us  at  once  to  hate  the  sinner  and  to 
compassionate  the  man  (Dan.  iv.  19-22).  "  In  all  reprehensions," 
says  Bishop  Wilkins,  "  we  must  express  rather  our  love  than  our 
anger,  and  strive  rather  to  convince  than  to  exasperate ;  though,  if 
the  matter  do  require  any  special  indignation,  it  must  be  the  zeal 
of  a  displeased  friend  rather  than  the  bitterness  of  a  provoked  en- 
emy." (See  what  we  elsewhere  say  of  the  compassion  of  the  Great 
Teacher  and  the  other  prophets^  who  sometimes  quenched  the  fire 
caused  by  their  lightning  words  with  the  showers  of  their  tears. 
See  how  Segneri  reproves  the  ingratitude  of  sinners  (Quaresimale, 
Pred.  xxviii.,  ^11). 

But  still  we  should  consider  that  Christian  love  is  not,  uj^on  just 
occasion,  without  a  holy  indignation,2  and  that  irony,  though  very 
seldom  demanded,  is  not  always  out  of  place  in  a  sermon,  as  the  ex- 
ample of  the  holy  prophets  demonstrates.  Nevertheless  we  should 
religiously  avoid  an  habitual  irony  or  sarcasm  in  reprehending  all 
sorts  of  sins  and  faults ;  for,  as  says  Bishop  Wilkhis,  "  'tis  too  much 
levity  to  check  men  in  an  ironical,  jeering  way."  And  yet  Jeremy 
Collier^  employed  ridicule  very  seasonably  and  effectually  in  cen- 
suring the  stage  writers  of  the  Restoration.  In  reproving  great 
offences  honest  indignation  is  better  than  bantering,  lest  we  should 
be  suspected  of  regarding  them  as  mere  venial  and  trifling  follies. 
This  habit  is  akin  to,  that  unvarying  fondness  Avith  which  some  pas- 
tors treat  all  persons  and  actions    "  Always  to  address  one's  disciples 

1  Read  Abp.  Newcome's  Our  Lord  as  a  Divine  Instructor,  Pt.  ii.,  c.  i.,  sees.  2, 
3,  6,  13,  and  Bp.  Sumner's  Ministerial  Cliaracter  of  Clirist,  c.  viii.,  ix.,  x.,  xiii. 

2  Chrysostom,  ITtli  Horn  on  Acts. 

3  Short  View  of  the  Sta^e ;  cf.  Macaulay's  Essay  on  the  Comic  Dramatists. 


278  USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION 

with  mildness,"  says  Chrysostom/  "  even  when  they  needed  sever- 
ity, would  be  to  play  the  corrupter  and  enemy,  not  the  teacher. 
"Wherefore  our  Lord  too,  who  generally  spoke  gently  to  his  disci- 
ples, here  and  there  uses  sterner  language,  and  at  one  time  pro- 
nounces a  blessing,  and  another  a  curse." 

Preachers  are  often  accused  of  2)crso7iali(i/,  and  from  the  nature 
of  their  labours  these  accusations  must  needs  be  as  frequent  as 
they  are  unjust  and  malicious.  What  pastor  in  his  sober  senses 
does  not  choose  to  preach  a  sermon  to  the  profiting  of  hundreds  alike 
ratlier  than  to  the  possible  advantage  of  one.  And  if  he  wishes  to 
amend  the  life  of  one  does  he  not  wisely  prefer  to  do  it  in  such 
wise  as  to  warn  all  of  the  danger  Avhich  has  overtaken  one  individ- 
ual, dwelling  on  such  general  truths  concerning  the  sin  in  question 
as  all  may  understand  and  apply  for  themselves,  and  not  for  their 
neighbours '?-  For,  after  all,  it  is  the  self-righteous  hearer  that  is  the 
largest  dealer  in  personalities,  and  he  can  only  be  induced  to  sus- 
pend business  during  sermon-time  by  being  compelled  to  hearken 
to  a  charitable  but  searching  discussion  of  the  general  subject 
whicli  is  applicable  to  all  the  various  sms,  whether  germinating  or 
ripening,  which  belong  to  one  ethical  class.  Thus  shall  we  preach 
to  the  intellects  of  all,  and  to  the  consciences  of  some,  perhaps, 
whose  guilt  we  did  not  suspect.  It  is  not  every  direct  and, specific 
sermon  that  is  the  most  serviceable  for  convincing  of  sin.  Our  Di- 
vine Master  Avas  but  speaking  a  parable  when  the  chief  priests  and 
Pharisees  perceived  that  he  spake  of  them ;  and  it  was  St.  PauFs 
reasonings  on  the  general  subjects  of  righteousness,  temperance, 
and  the  judgment  to  come,  that  made  Felix  tremble.  And  even 
in  cases  of  private  censure  it  were  almost  always  better  to  begin 
with  some  general  truth  or  illustration  thereof,  and  especially  with 
such  passages  of  Scripture  as  are  levelled  against  the  sin  to  be  re- 
proved. 

There  are  some  authorities  who  forbid  us  to  convey  a  reproof  iu 
the  form  of  an  oblique  allusion,  as  being  unmanly,  timid,  and  disin- 
genuous. But  such  a  prohibition  would,  we  fear,  be  too  sweeping. 
To  say  nothing  of  our  Divine  Master  and  the  old  Hebrew  pro- 
phets, we  will  only  cite  the  example  of  Paul,  who,  as  Chrysostom 
thinks,'  showed  bis  great  wisdom  in  his  indirect  admonition  re- 


1  Enarr.  on  Gal.  i.  1. 

2  Ideal  examples  pourtrayed  in  vajjue  outline  will  be  self-applied  the  most  ex- 
tensively ;  wliereas  cases  depicted  from  real  life  are  almost  certain  to  be  self- 
api)lied  by  no  one. 

3  Ilom.  on  1  Thes.  iv.  9,  10  (exordium  of  Horn.  vi.  on  Thes.). 


USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION.  279 

si^ecting  brotherly  love  :  "  Now,  by  saying  there  is  no  need,  he  has 
done  a  greater  thing  than  if  he  had  spoken  expressly."  The  apos- 
tles Peter  and  Paul  sometimes  admonished  hywwj  ofrevicmhrance. 
Hence  dehortation  should  sometimes  be  substituted  for,  and  often 
follow  reproof.  The  figure  commimicatio  will  assist  us  to  reprove 
with  considerate  and  insinuating  kindness.  "Let  the  minister," 
says  Perkins,  "  include  himself,  if  he  may,  in  his  reprehension,  that 
it  may  be  more  mild  and  gentle"  (Rom.  vi.  1,  2;  1  Cor.  4,  6;  Gal. 
ii.  15  ;  Segneri — Quaresimale,  Pred.  xiv.,  §10 — Quantunque  che 
sto,  etc.   See  a  meek  exposUdation  in  Wesley's  ser.  Ixxxi.,  Heb.  ix.  1.) 

We  have  already  suggested  that  some  persons  and  oifences  are 
best  reproved  in  private.  Nathan  afibrds  a  safe  example  for  all 
similar  cases  (2  Sam.  xii.),  and  so  do  Isaiah  (ch.  xxxix.),  Jeremiah 
(ch.  xxxviii.),  and  the  Lord  Jesus  (Mark  viii.  32-34).  On  many  oc- 
casions we  may  be  assisted  in  preparing  uses  of  reproof  by  imagin- 
ing what  we  w^ould  be  likely  to  say  to  the  offenders  in  a  confiden- 
tial interview.  We  may  in  this  way  likewise  test  the  quality  of 
our  zeal.  "•  If,"  says  Ostervald,  ''  you  wish  not  to  deceive  yourself 
on  this  point,  examine  whether  you  have  the  courage  to  say  to  sin- 
ners in  private  what  you  say  to  them  in  public."  Bishop  Sumner,i 
who  is  for  the  most  part  very  correct  and  discriminating,  fails  to 
exhibit  a  full  view  of  the  case  when  he  says  that  at  the  time  our 
Lord  reproved  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  for  hypocrisy .,'h.Q  did  it  in 
private,  while  he  corrected  their  corrupt  doctrines  before  the  multi- 
tude (Mark  vii.  14).  It  should  be  remembered  that  their  offence, 
which  was  the  occasion  of  his  rebuke,  was  a  private  one  (they 
had  found  fault  with  his  disciples  for  eating  with  unwashen  hands), 
and  that  at  other  times  he  denounced  their  hypocrisy  in  the  most 
public  manner  (Matt,  xxiii.  1-39 ;  Luke  vi.  42 ;  xiii.  15). 

The  old  writers  on  sacred  oratory  mention  commination,  or 
threatening,  as  one  part  of  this  use.  It  consists  in  the  exaggera- 
tion, upbraiding,  and  condemnation  of  sin.  We  exaggerate  a  sin 
when  we  show  that  it  was  premeditated,  committed  eagerly,  ha- 
bitually, with  delight,  or  under  the  pretext  of  friendship,  of  law, 
of  justice,  or  religion,  etc.  (Psa.  xxviii.  3 ;  xxxvi.  4 ;  lii.  1 ;  xciv.  20 ; 
Micah  vii.  3 ;  Matt.  xv.  5).  We  uj^braid  or  reproach  sins  when 
v/e  dwell  on  the  failure  of  former  means  of  amendment,  on  circum- 
stances of  time  and  place,  on  blessings,  privileges,  and  means  of 
grace  neglected  and  despised,  on  the  long-suffering  of  God,  etc. 
(Isa.  i  5;  v.  1-4;  Jer.  vii.  25-28;  1.7;  Hos.  xi.  1-4;  Micah  vii. 
1-5 ;  Pom.  ii.  5  ;  Matt.  xi.  20-24).     We  speak  in  condemnation  of 


1  Ministerial  Character  of  Christ,  ch.  ix. 
'19 


280  USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION. 

sins  wlien  we  represent  the  evil  of  sin  from  its  very  nature,  or  from 
its  violation  of  the  law  of  God  or  conscience,  or  the  sense  of  shame, 
etc. ;  and  when  we  alarm  the  sinner  by  representing  to  him  his 
danger,  the  wrath  of  a  just^God  in  this  world  and  in  the  world  to 
come.  The  common  reservation  here  made  is  that  we  should  not 
describe  the  sins  Ave  rei)rehend  in  too  graphic  and  lively  language, 
for  fear  we  may  either  give  lessons  in  vice  or  show  that  we  are  but 
too  well  acquainted  with  it.  "  Certain  phrases  and  ideas,"  says 
Stier  in  his  ICeri/Jdik,  p.  243,  "  are  not  to  be  represented  in  all  their 
profjmity  and  nudity,  lest  we  scandalise  the  innocent  people  who 
go  to  church  to  hear  the  Word  of  God,  not  to  witness  the  sins  of 
the  world,  because  they  see  and  hear  enough  of  them  during  the 
week  (Eph.  v.  12-14).  Therefore  dip  not  too  deep  in  the  sand  of 
sin  in  order  to  polish  it,  but  rather  present  that  with  Avhich  every 
man  may  Avash  himself.  Do  not  paint  the  devil  on  the  church  Avail, 
nor  mention  his  name  too  boldly.  BcAvare  of  the  aisthetical  devil 
in  your  Avarrings  against  tlie  Scripture  Satan,  and  particularly  of 
terrene  and  infernal  descriptions  of  him.-'  Yet  Ave  should  not  be 
afraid,  as  some  aj)pear  to  be,  to  call  him  by  name  and  to  speak  the 
word  Jiell. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  here  to  add  Avhat  the  same  Avritcr  says  con- 
certiing  the  use  of  too  strong  language  and  objurgations  in  preach- 
ing :  "  Some  preachers  scold  in  the  pulpit.  Those  Avhom  they 
would  scold  do  not  feel  that  they  are  intended,  because  tliey  think 
that  the  language  is  altogether  too  strong  lo  apply  to  them,  and  so 
they  Avill  be  rather  irritated  than  improved.  If  you  tlunk  to  jus- 
tify such  preaching  Ijy  an  appeal  to  the  tcocs  pronounced  by  the 
Messiah,  forget  not  also  that  saying  of  Luther :  *  First  be  like  Sam- 
son and  then  you  can  act  like  Samson.'  Be  more  ])olemical  against 
the  heart  than  against  the  Avords  or  the  Avorks  of  sinners.  AVhen 
you  have  engaged  the  heart  you  Avill  soon  convince  the  mtellect 
and  change  the  Avill."  And  yet  it  is  a  suggestive  sign  of  these  times 
that  almost  all  preaching,  hoAvever  tender  and  compassionate,  that 
aims  at  conviction  of  sin  and  self-examination  is  stigmatised  as 
scoldinfj.  ]\Iany  examples  of  Avarning  and  threatening  are  found  in 
the  prophetic  sermons. 

The  ends  of  reproof  may  not  seldom  be  attained  Avithout  re- 
proof Erasmus,  conunenting  on  James  i.  4,  5,  savs  that  Ave  should 
set  Ijcfore  a  magistrate  the  image  of  a  good  ruler,  so  that,  seeing 
himself  in  a  glass,  he  may  be  led  to  imitate  the  same.  Keproof 
may  also  be  indirectly  administered  by  proposing  and  resolving 
cases  of  conscience. 

We  may  likewise  mingle  such  tiicourM'j-cinciits  wllli  our  rebukes 


USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION.  281 

as  we  can  with  truth  and  safety,  insph'hig  confidence  in  the  assist- 
ing grace  of  God  and  an  humble  liope  of  his  j^ardoning  mercy.  We 
may  in  some  cases  mitigate  the  severity  of  censure  by  deserved 
praise,  as  the  apostle  Paul  does  sometimes  (1  Thes.  iv.  9,  10 ;  Phil, 
ii.  12-16).  The  Master  himself  commends  some  (Matt.  viii.  10 ;  ix. 
22;  xi.  11;  xv.  28;  xxvi.  10;  Mark  xu.  34,  43;  John  i.  47). 

Nor  should  we  neglect  by  directions  to  show  what  hindei's  and 
what  helps  repentance.  "  'Tis  not  enough  for  the  physician,"  says 
Bishop  Wilkins,  "to  inveigh  against  the  malignity  or  danger  of  the 
disease,  but  his  chief  care  must  be  to  direct  unto  the  remedy  and 
cure  of  it."  We  should  strike  at  the  roots  of  evils.  The  doctrine 
of  the  atonement  and  the  regenerating  and  sanctifying  work  of 
the  Divine  Spirit  should  be  now  clearly  and  forcibly  exhibited. 

We  should  seal  all  our  reproofs  with  prayer  for  the  offender,  nor 
should  we  cease  to  follow  him  with  our  prayers  until  he  give  proof 
of  genuine  repentance  (1  Thes.  v.  23 ;  2  Thes.  ii.  16,  17 ;  iii.  16). 
We  may  sometimes  even  ask  him  to  pray  for  us  (1  Thes.  v.  25). 

Preachers  who  habitually  speak  loud  should  consider  that  if  they 
reprove  in  a  sharp  and  high  tone,  they  must  expect  to  be  misjudged 
and  misunderstood. 

V.  When  tee  are  to  reprove.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  all  the  fore- 
going hints  will  be  useless  to  those  who,  after  having  learned  in 
what  manner  they  ought  to  discharge  the  duty,  have  also  learned 
either  to  postpone  the  same  indefinitely  or  to  perform  it  prema- 
turely. 

In  instances  not  a  few  it  is  best  to  prepare  the  way  for  admoni- 
stion  by  preaching  one  or  more  expository  or  doctrinal  sermons 
such  as  will  enlighten  the  understanding  and  improve  the  tone  of 
the  conscience  and  other  moral  sentiments.  Indeed,  a  course  of 
sermons  aiming  indirectly  and  remotely,  but  perseveringly,  at  a 
vice  or  sin,  will  in  many  cases  supersede  the  necessity  of  direct  re- 
proof, just  as  in  medicine  a  course  of  tonics  or  alteratives  will  some- 
times prevent  or  cure  sores  wliich  would  otherwise  demand  the 
severe  treatment  of  the  surgeon's  knife.  A  woe  was  pronounced 
against  the  unfaithful  shepherds  of  Israel,  for  the  reason  that  they 
did  not  strcngtJicn  the  diseased  (Ezek.  xxxiv.  4).  Or  perhaps  the 
people  have  a  strong  prejudice  against  reproof  of  any  kind  and 
however  administered.  They  may  have  been  led  by  the  example 
of  some  respected  or*  revered  person  to  think  that  it  is  proper  or 
manly,  or  even  noble,  to  protest  against  all  admonition,  to  resent  it 
indignantly,  and  to  persecute  the  reprover.  Now,  in  such  cases 
(and  they  are  of  very  frequent  occurrence),  it  may  be  advisable  to 
pave  the  way  for  this  duty  by  a  sermon  or  two  on  meekness,  or 


282  USE  OF  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION. 

candor,  or  nobility,  or  magnanimity  in  hearing,  ami  illustrating  the 
subject  from  the  examiiles  of  ancient  monarchs,  nobles,  and  other 
honourable  men  who  were  meek  and  even  grateful  mider  ecclsiasti- 
cal  rebuke. 

In  rare  cases  of  great  criminality  it  may  be  necessary  to  allude 
to  the  crime,  or  derive  lessons  from  it.  For  obvious  reasons  this 
will  be  most  profitably  done  after  the  sentence  has  been  pronounced 
or  the  penalty  inflicted. 

The  young  preacher,  soon  after  his  settlement,  may  deem  it  wis- 
dom to  preach  many  very  plain  truths  on  the  supposition  that  it  is 
better  to  do  so  then  than  at  a  later  period,  because  no  one  can 
justly  charge  him  with  personalities,  seeing  he  is  as  yet  acquainted 
Avith  none  of  his  hearers.  But  he  should  consider  that  as  his  con- 
gregation are  Avell  acquainted  Avith  one  another,  they  will  hear 
these  bold  and  severe  sermons  with  all  the  mutual  suspicion  and 
uncharitableness  of  those  who  are  persuaded  that  personalities  are 
intended,  while  some  will  be  apt  to  conclude  that  he  has  hearken- 
ed to  and  been  deceived  by  informers  and  busybodies.  All  things 
considered,  therefore,  the  counsel  of  Vinet  is  good :  "  Let  the 
preacher  before  he  reprehends  be  well  acquainted  Avith  his  parish, 
and  let  them  also  be  Avell  acquainted  Avith  him."' 

And  yet  delays  here  as  elsewhere  are  not  unfrequently  danger- 
ous, and  we  should  without  loss  of  time  reprove  vices  that  are 
coming  to  be  both  epidemic  and  chronic.  "  Were  I  able,"  says 
Chrysostom,!  '•  by  my  silence  concerning  things  done,  to  remove 
them,  it  would  behoove  me  to  be  silent ;  but  if  the  contrary  comes 
to  pass,  and  these  things  are  not  removed  by  our  silence,  but  ra- 
ther made  worse,  avc  are  compelled  to  speak."  We  can  easily  in- 
vent plausible  excuses  for  postponing  a  duty  so  painful  and  so  haz- 
ardous ;  and  when  all  other  ones  fail  us,  Ave  may  unhappily  be  able 
to  say  with  unquestionable  truth  that  the  evil  is  past  all  remedies. 

Principiis  obsta.     Sero  nicdicina  paratur, 
Cum  mala  per  longas  invalucrc  moras.2 

And  accordingly  avc  should  beware  of  the  habit  of  deferring  all 
such  matters  until  Lent,  or  the  annual  fast,  just  as  too  many  preachers 
do  the  subject  of  gratitude  until  thanksgiving-day. 

We  may  add  that  it  Avere  greatly  to  be  Avi.slwd  that  fcAver  farewell 
sermons  Avere  pervaded  Avith  a  censorious  spirit.     The  apostles 


1  Horn,  on  Phil.  i.  30. 

2  Resist  beginnings.     Medicine  may  be  prepared  loo  late  when  the  disease  has 
grown  strong  bv  Ions  delay. 


USE  0^  REPROOF  OR  CORRECTION.  283 

were,  it  must  be  confessed,  to  shake  off  the  dust  under  their  feet 
against  all  such  as  would  not  receive  them  (Mark  vi.  1 1 ;  Luke  vii. 
5),  and  there  are,  alas !  occasions  of  a  jmstor's  leaving  his  charge 
which  may  in  justice  and  mercy  demand  a  bold  and  detailed  ex- 
planation ;  but  the  occasions  are  not  so  frequent  as  some  preachers 
imagine  which  compel  them  to  fill  their  farewell  sermons  with  in- 
vective and  denunciation.  Such  reproofs  are  sure  to  be  received 
as  personalities.  The  Parthian  bowmen  Avere  neither  the  most 
brave  nor  the  most  victorious  fighters.  They  bore  little  resem- 
blance to  that  crowned  archer  of  the  Apocalypse  w^ho,  facing  the 
enemy,  rode  forth  conquering  and  to  conquer. 

Times  of  national  alarms  and  judgments  give  opportunities  of 
reproof  Dr.  Doddridge's  sermon  on  the  guilt  and  doom  of  Ca- 
pernaum has  a  close  yet  considerate  application  to  the  Londoners. 
Observe  how  skilfully  he  makes  a  shield  out  of  his  own  ignorance 
of  the  vices  of  the  metropolis. 

On  the  general  subject  of  reproof  there  is  one  very  important 
caution  which  young  preachers  are  apt  to  disregard.  "While  you 
are  reprehending  one  vice  or  sin  you  are  in  danger  of  hardening 
the  hearts  of  those  who  are  addicted  to  the  opposite  vice  or  sin- 
This  caution  has  been  often  repeated  and  as  often  illustrated.  We 
cannot  perhaps  do  better  than  to  elucidate  this  in  the  words  of  Os- 
tervald :  "  If  you  are  declaiming  against  avarice  the  prodigal  will 
join  with  you  and  outdo  the  utmost  you  can  say  upon  this  subject ; 
but  he  will  flatter  himself  that  you  have  nothing  to  say  to  his  dis- 
advantage. If  you  are  preaching  against  the  profane  and  impious 
the  hypocrites  who  have  only  the  outside  of  piety  will  applaud 
themselves  on  this  point ;  as,  on  the  other  hand,  if  you  preach 
against  hypocrites,  the  profane  will  embrace  your  sentiments.  '  He 
is  right,'  they  will  say ;  '  these  devourers  of  sermons  and  prayers 
are  worse  than  we ; '  and  thus  they  will  establish  themselves  in 
their  ungodliness.  Just  so  when  you  are  preaching  from  texts  in 
the  imprecatory  Psalms,  revengeful  people  will  not  fail  to  imagine 
that  their  behaviour  has  no  evil  in  it.  And  thus  you  see  how  sin- 
ners will  pervert  almost  everything."  But  how  shall  we  prevent 
these  abuses  ?  Best,  by  praying  and  working  for  a  revival,  when 
both  wheat  and  tares  alike  feel  the  edge  of  the  sickle,  and  when 
they  are  most  safely  separated.  Next  best,  by  rambling  in  expo- 
positions  or  in  textual  discourses  where  we  may  not  be  tempted  to 
omit  contrasted  views  of  a  subject  for  the  sake  of  preserving  a 
topical  unity — a  unity  which  we  must  in  such  cases  be  willing  to 
sacrifice  in  order  to  secure  a  higher  excellence,  that  of  perfect  adap- 
tation to  the  diflferent  spiritual  maladies  of  the  whole  audience.   At 


2g4  USE  OF  exhortation: 

any  mte,  these  abuses  must  Le  prevented,  or  else  our  reproofs  will 
be  not  merely  unavailing  yet  simply  innocuous — they  Avill  he  posi- 
tively and  very  injuribus.  Our  sermons  may  indeed  lose  something 
not  only  of  unity  but  also  of  impetuous  fire  or  popular  movement 
by  these  necessary  antitheses  and  opposite  aspects,  but  they  will 
gain  what  is  of  incalculably  greater  worth,  the  sterling  ring  and 
Gtamji  of  candour,  fairness,  and  broad  good  sense.  In  the  midst 
of  a  strain  of  the  most  hopeful  prediction  Isaiah  interjects  a  de- 
nunciation which  has  the  startling  effect  of  lightning  out  of  a  cloud- 
less sky  in  spring  time  (Isa.  Ix.  12). 

Above  all  things,  defend  yourself  against  vindictiveness ;  for 
while  this  passion  shadows  your  intellect  you  are  almost  certain  to 
mistake  and  misjudge  the  faults  you  would  remove.  It  was  to  his 
generous  candor  that  Jeremy  Collier  owed  much  of  his  triumph  in 
the  controversy  about  the  morality  of  the  English  stage.  "  He 
that  saith  he  is  in  the  light,  and  hateth  his  brother,  is  in  darkness 
even  until  now."  Thus  benighted  the  admonisher  remains  ignorant 
of  the  real  evil  not  only,  l)ut  of  the  true  remedy  no  less.  Like  the 
blind  horseman  of  the  fabalist  Pilpay,  while  searching  for  his  whip 
in  the  gray  of  the  morning,  he  takes  up  a  frozen  serpent  instead, 
and  discovers  not  his  blunder  until  his  soft  and  nice  Avhip  warms 
into  life  and  inflicts  on  hi.s  haml  a  mortal  wound.  Thus  it  of\en  hap- 
pens that  on  occasions  when  our  hearers  will  not  perceive  the  force 
of  an  argument  or  refuse  to  understand  a  mystery  which  we  think 
Ave  have  illustrated  very  clearly,  we  are  tempted  to  apply  reproof; 
but  let  us  remember  the  example  of  the  archangel  who,  while  con- 
tending, durst  not  bring  a  railing  accusation  even  against  Satan  him- 
self; and  of  the  old  philosopher  who  once  said,  "  Were  I  not  angry, 
I  would  reprove  thee." 


Section  V. — Use  of  Exhortatiox. 


By  this  kind  of  application  we  persuade  the  auditors  to  believe 
some  truth  or  to  practice  some  duty,  or  else  dissuade  them  from 
the  belief  of  some  error  or  from  the  practice  of  some  sin  or  vice. 
It  embraces  not  only  exhortation  (which  commonly  includes  dc- 
hortation),  but  also  that  part  of  instruction  which  consists  ui  giving 
directions  as  t^  the  manner  in  which  we  should  exercise  feelings 
or  discharge  duties,  and  concerning  the  tncitns  by  which  we  aceom- 
pli.sh  the  object  which  exhortation  sets  before  us.  The  Scripture 
examples  of  exhortation  are  far  superior  to  those  of  4;he  best  sccu- 


USE  OF  EXHORTATION.  285 

lar  eloquence.!  Use  of  invitation  may  also  be  comprehended 
under  this  term  (Acts  xiii.  26,  38).  The  use  of  reproof  is  gener- 
ally followed  by  the  use  of  dehortation  or  dissuasion,  and  some- 
times it  may  be  very  properly  succeeded  by  persuasives  to  such 
virtues  and  graces  as  will  drive  and  keep  out  of  the  heart  the  faults 
reproved.  Exhortation  may  sometimes  properly  come  before  in- 
struction (1  Tim.  iv.  13). 

The  instruments  of  persuasion  are  motives  or  the  considerations 
which  occasion  or  induce  volition.  To  distinguish  a  reason  from  a 
motive  is  more  easy  in  theory  than  in  practice  :  thus  much  may  be 
said  in  general,  that  the  former  serves  chiefly  to  produce  rational 
com-iction,  the  latter  to  mfluence  the  will  either  persuasively  or 
dissuasively,  or  even  both  at  the  same  time. 

Motives  may  be  derived  from  ideas  of  excellence,  right,  honour, 
propriety,  necessity,  utility,  happiness,  etc. 

Those  considerations  which  are  addressed  to  our  sense  of  moral 
excellence,  or,  in  other  words,  to  our  love  of  spiritual  perfection,  are 
the  first  in  dignity,  although  not  always  the  most  generally  power- 
ful in  the  w^ork  of  application,  for  the  simple  reason  that  compara- 
tively few  of  the  regenerate  have  reached  that  stage  in  sanctification 
where  such  considerations  are  more  influential  than  any  other. 
The  divine  beauty  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  the  highest  object 
of  Christian  affection  and  the  highest  motive  to  obedience.2  The 
example  of  Christ  furnishes  many,  and,  to  Christians,  very  power- 
ful motives. 

And  hence,  in  addressing  Christians  we  may  appeal  to  their  grat- 
itude toicards  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  The  apostles  very  often 
address  our  sense  of  obligation  to  our  Redeemer.  Segneri  (Quare- 
simale,  Pred.  xxviii.,  §14)  appeals  to  the  gratitude  of  sinners. 

The  Conscience  is  addressed  by  motives  of  another  clasa — those 
which  appeal  to  our  sense  of  duty.  Considerations  of  this  kind 
were  employed  under  what  was  often  termed  •'  Use  of  Conviction." 
The  moral  sense  is  either  directive  or  reflective ;  it  takes  cognizance 
of  either  what  ought  to  be  done  or  what  ought  to  have  been  done. 
The  wise  preacher  w^ill  chiefly  endeavour  after  the  cultivation  of 
the  directive  or  prospective  function  of  this  faculty ;  for,  though  its 
reflective  or  retrospective  function  is  by  no  means  to  be  neglected, 
it  cannot  be  too  deeply  impressed  on  our  minds  that  this  is  not  the 


1  Lav.  xxvi.  ;  Deut.  iv.,  vi.,  viii  ,xi.,  xxxi.  ;  Isa.  i.  16-20;  ii.  10-19 ;  Iv. ;  Matt. 
V  13-16  j  vii.  ;  Heb.  vi. ;  x.  7-34 ;  xii. ;  xiii.  1-19;  Jas.  i ,  ii.,  v.  9-20. 

3  Edwards  on  the  Religious  Affections,  Pt.  iii.,  sees.  2  and  3  ;  Whately's  Essays 
on  the  Peculiarities  of  the  Christian  Rehgion,  essay  iii. 


286  USE  OF  EXHORTATION. 

guide  to  action,  but  the  messenger  of  sorrow.  "Wliy  is  it  that  the 
consciences  of  most  people  arrive  too  late  to  be  of  much  service  in 
discharging  their  duty  ?  Principally,  vre  fear,  because  their  con- 
sciences have  formed  a  habit  of  retrospection  and  not  at  the  same 
time  a  habit  of  i)rospection.  "While,  therefore,  we  do  well  to  heed 
the  advice  of  the  philosoi:)hers,  both  pagan  and  Christian,  and  at 
nif/ht  cause  all  the  actions  of  the  day  to  pass  in  review  before  the 
conscience,  we  would  obviously  do  better  if  we  also  formed  the 
habit  of  considering  every  morning  what  we  oiifjld  to  do  or  omit 
during  the  day.  On  the  same  jirinciple  young  persons  should  be 
particularly  assisted  in  the  formation  of  these  two  habits.  In  his 
six  days'  work  the  Great  Creator  not  only  reviewed  what  he  had 
done,  but  also  predetermined  what  he  would  do. 

But  while  keeping  our  duties  in  view,  we  should  frequently  look 
at  the  privileges  that  lie  beyond  them.  A  rejoicing  conscience  is 
more  persuasive  than  a  trembling  one.  Remember  the  Avise  mo- 
ther in  the  Gi'eek  epigram,  who,  when  she  sees  her  little  boy  creep- 
ing on  the  edge  of  a  cliff,  instead  of  raismg  the  cry  of  alarm, 

"  Far  better  lauaht,  she  lays  her  bosom  bare, 
And  the  fond  boy  springs  back  to  nestle  there." 
,  — Itcgcrs. 

And  so,  in  advocating  the  cause  of  a  benevolent  institution,  we 
should  not  only  appeal  to  conscience,  but  to  Chi*ist's  love  to  us,  his 
example,  and  such-like  motives. 

Sh((me  was  many  times  appealed  to  by  the  prophets.  Segneri 
addresses  it  in  the  5th  and  12th  sermons  of  his  Qnarcsimale ;  so 
does  Chrysostom  in  many  of  his  applications. 

Our  Christ  id  )i  love  toirards  our  felloic-rncn  should  likewise  be 
addressed.  This  affection  has  two  kinds  of  exercise :  the  one  is 
complacency  towards  the  holy,  and  the  other  is  compassion  tov/ards 
the  unholy.  This  passion  is  persuaded,  not  by  demonstrating  that 
it  oiuiht  to  admire  or  i)ity,  but  by  holding  up  before  it  the  object 
of  admiration  or  pity.  To  this  head  belong  addresses  to  Christian 
benevolence  and  humanity.  We  are  instructed  by  the  example  of 
Paul  to  encourage  systematic  giving,  but  not  to  favour  confining 
beneficence  to  tlie  limits  of  any  system,  however  good  ;  wc  are 
sometimes  to  defend  even  acts  of  Christian  extravagance  (Matt. 
xxvi.  G-13 ;  2  Cor.  viii.  1-3). 

Another  motive  is  interest  or  fore  of  /inppiness.  Yinet  teaches 
us  that  tliis  motive  may  be  presented  for  three  reasons  :  1.  T(i  some 
souls  access  is  easy  only  on  this  side,  and  it  is  the  side  on  which 
access  to  all  is  the  easiest.     2.  It  is  essential  to  human  nature.     8. 


USE  OF  EXHORTATION.  287 

It  abounds  in  that  revelation  in  behalf  of  which  we  speak  (Deuto 
XXX.  19;  Ezek.  xxx.  19;  Matt.  v.  3).  The  same  writer,  together 
with  Schott  and  others,  lays  down  the  following  rules  in  appealing 
to  self-interest 

We  should  never  excite  the  selfish  feelings  of  an  audience  to  such 
a  degree  or  in  such  a  manner  as  to  disturb  the  fit  proportions  be- 
tween the  desires  of  a  man  for  his  own  good  and  his  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  others. 

We.  should  never  inflame  any  selfish  feeling  of  our  audience  so 
far  or  in  such  a  manner  as  to  repress  the  activity  of  the  conscience. 

We  should  not  attempt  to  excite  any  merely  animal  feeling  which 
we  do  not  intend  to  make  subsidiary  to  spiritual  improvement. 
Emotions  which  are  born  blind  and  are  not  the  legitimate  offspring 
of  truth  and  grace  are  ever  prone  to  grope  towards  destruction,  and 
either  to  lead  or  drive  'even  intelligent  emotions  thither.  True  elo- 
quence fills  the  whole  soul  with  light,  and  not  only  reveals  but  pro- 
motes its  order  and  concord. 

We  should  give  the  first  and  largest  place  to  motives  derived 
from  our  spiritual  and  eternal  interests. 

When  we  urge  motives  drawn  from  our  material  and  temporal 
interests  w^e  may  sometimes  wisely  urge  them  indirectly  and  from 
an  eternal  point  of  view,  as  Bourdaloue  does  in  his  sermon  on  Im- 
purity, where  in  the  first  part  he  considers  impurity  as  a  sign  of 
reprobation,  and  in  the  second  place  as  a  principle  of  reprobation. 

We  ought  to  w^rn  our  audiences  against  the  danger  of  allowing 
our  lower  temporal  interests  to  make  or  determine  our  beliefs. 
"  Parson  Patten,"  the  notorious  curate  of  Whitstable,  was  so  averse 
to  the  Athanasian  creed  that  he  never  would  read  it.  Archbishop 
Seeker  having  been  informed  of  his  recusancy,  sent  the  archdeacon 
to  ask  him  his  reason  for  the  omission.  "  I  do  not  believe  it,"  said 
the  curate.  "  But  your  metropolitan  Joes,"  replied  the  archdeacon. 
"  It  may  be  so,"  rejoined  Mr.  Patten,  "  and  he  can  w^ell  afford  it. 
He  believes  at  the  rate  of  seven  thousand  a  year,  and  I  only  at  the 
rate  of  fifty y 

Nor  should  we  neglect  to  teach  our  audience  to  discriminate  be- 
tween their  real  and  their  supposed  temporal  interests — their  tem- 
poral interests  as  regarded  by  the  lover  ot  gain,  or  of  pleasure,  or 
honour,  or  power,  and  as  regarded  by  the  lover  of  truth,  or  of  holi- 
ness, or  benevolence,  or  humanity,  or  justice,  or  Christian  peace 
and  joyfulness. 

Neither  ought  we  to  endeavour  to  be  more  unselfish,  more  mor- 
al, and  more  noble  than  the  Great  Teacher  was  in  rousing  fear  and 
terror.     He  warned  men  to  fear  Him  who  is  able  to  destroy  both 


288  USE  OF  EXHORTATION. 

soul  and  hoJi/  in  liell  (Matt.  x.  29).  It  is  not  enough  to  dwoll  on 
the  torments  of  conscience  and  the  misery  of  an  eternal  separation 
from  God;  for  as  the  majority  of  our  unbelieving  hearers  contrive 
to  live  very  comfortably  with  their  consciences  here,  we  shall  find 
it  difficult  to  convince  them  that  it  will  be  otherwise  hereafter. 
And  as  to  the  idea  of  a  separation  Irom  God,  there  is  nothing  that 
an  impenitent  sinner  more  desires  and  seeks  after.  These  consid- 
erations have  weight  and  power  when  aihlressed  to  real  Christians, 
and  yet  even  they  sometimes,  and  the  impenitent  always,  are-  more 
influenced  by  the  fear  of  the  sufferings  which  the  risen  bodies  of 
the  damned  are  to  undergo  through  ages  unnumbered.  Some  2)reach- 
ers  may,  if  they  please,  stigmatise  such  sufferings  as  ';  vulgar ;  "  but 
the  Scriptures  nowhere  intimate  that  a  just  God  regards  any  sin 
as  refined  and  elegant  in  itself,  nor  that  the  hell  of  the  vulgar  is 
not  the  hell  of  all  final  impenitents,  of  all  classes  and  conditions 
whatsoever.  We  shall  best  secure  the  rejoicings  of  our  own  con- 
sciences and  best  commend  ourselves  to  every  man's  conscience  in 
the  sight  of  God  by  appealing  to  fear  and  terror  just  as  oflen  and 
just  as  vulgarly  as  holy  Scrijjture  appeals  to  them.  Xeverthe- 
less,  let  the  preacher  remember  that  though  he  is  an  ambassador 
from  God  in  Christ's  stead,  yet  he  is  himself  a  man  an;l  a  sinner. 
Let' him  therefore  employ  these  motives  as  one  not  totally  devoid 
of  fear  for  his  own  eternal  safety,  and  above  all  with  the  compas- 
sion which  ever  attends  a  godly  sorrow  for  his  own  sins.  ''  I  nev- 
er," says  Payson,  "  seemed  fit  to  say  a  word  to  a  ^nner  except  when 
I  had  a  l)roken  heart  myself  and  subdued  and  melted  into  peni- 
tence, and  felt  as  though  I  had  just  received  a  pardon  to  my  own 
soul,  and  when  my  heart  was  full  of  tenderness  and  pity.''  A  con- 
trite heart  such  as  this  will  not  be  liable  to  present  untimely  or  ex- 
aggerated or  disproportional  views  of  the  revealed  doctrine  of  the 
future  punishment  of  the  wicked.  Were  any  other  thought  or 
feeling  necessary  to  j^revent  us  from  speaking  on  this  subject  in 
the  tone  of  vehement  invective,  it  might  be  that  Avhieh  is  produced, 
as  Dr.  Dwight  says,  by  the  remembrance  that  we  may  at  the  very 
time  be  pronouncing  the  final  doom  of  our  own  parents,  or  broth- 
ers, or  sisters,  or  wives,  or  children. 

We  should  also  Avhen  necessary  dwell  on  the  prncturth/'/lfi/  of  the 
duty  to  Avhieh  wo  exhort  our  liearers  (Isa.  xxx.  21 ;  Ezek.  xxxvi. 
27;  Matt.  vii.  9-11;  xix.  2G;  Mark  ix.  23;  John  xv.  5,  Heb.  x. 
4;  xiii.  10,  11;  James  iii.  12;  v.  17,  18;  Demosthenes'  first  IMiil- 
ippic). 

Furthermoi-e,  let  the  young  preacher  remember  that  the  best  of 
men  almost  always  determine  their  choice  and  i)roceed  to  action 


USE  OF  EXHORTATION.  289 

from  mixed  motives.  By  mixed  we  do  not  mean  a  blending  of 
both  good  and  bad  (though  immature  Christians  are  sometimes^  ac- 
tuated by  such  a  mixture),  but  a  blending  of  different  kinds  of  good 
motives.  The  inspired  orators  furnish  numerous  examples  of  ap- 
peals to  motives  of  this  description,  particularly  in  their  perora- 
tions. In  rousing  fear  or  terror,  therefore,  we  should  take  advan- 
tage of  the  liberty  which  both  inspiration  and  the  laws  of  the  hu- 
man mind  proffer  and  secure.  We  should  diversify  this  application 
with  threatenings  and  promises,  with  considerations  drawn  from 
justice  and  mercy,  from  our  exposure  to  eternal  misery,  and  the 
offer  of  salvation  through  the  blood  of  the  Lamb,  from  our  addi- 
tion to  our  guilt  and  obduracy  by  each  refusal  of  the  Gospel  offer, 
and  from  the  certainty  and  necessity  of  damnation  to  all  who  reject 
the  only  Saviour. 

Nor  should  he  forget  that,  as  the  Divine  Spirit  is  frequently  in 
the  hearts  of  the  hearers  assisting  the  speaker,  he  should  follow 
his  method  rather  than  that  of  the  secular  rhetoricians  who  tell  us 
that  none  but  appeals  to  love,  hope,  joy,  and  other  active  passions 
are  persuasive ;  whereas  we  know  that  the  Divine  Spirit  usually 
begins  the  work  of  persuasion  by  inspiring  sorrow,  shame,  fear,  and 
hopelessness.  Often,  again,  we  have  to  address  the  irresolute  and 
undecided,  who  say,  "  when  I  would  do  good  evil  is  present  with 
me." 

Slgiis  or  Maries.  These  are  Scripture  tests  by  which  we  may 
prove  the  quality  and  state  of  gracious  affections,  and  the  accept- 
ableness  of  duties  and  afflictions.  These  were  chiefly  employed  by 
the  old  divines  in  uses  of  self-examination. 

These  signs  ought  to  be  applied  with  caution  and  judgment.  The 
best  authorities  teach  us  that  they  should  m  all  cases  be  necessanj, 
2)ersptcuo>fS,  infaUlble,  and  few. 

''  Cases  of  conscience "  are  also  of  this  class  of  applications,  al- 
though they  are  less  frequently  discussed  and  enforced  in  sermons 
than  they  ought  to  be. 

It  may  not  be  here  amiss  to  observe  that  signs  or  marks,  though 
properly  belonging  to  the  department  of  Ttcxidsicx,  yet,  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  they  are  employed  less  for  persuasion  than  for  infor- 
mation, or  refutation,  or  reproof,  or  consolation.  As  to  its  classifi- 
cation, therefore,  the  use  of  examination  is  a  movable  use. 

Nor  must  it  be  overlooked  that  signs  and  marks  are  serviceable  not 
only  in  application  to  professed  behevers,  but  to  worldlings  as  well. 
A  man  may,  as  George  Herbert  says,  be  both  covetous  and  intemper- 
ate, and  yet  hear  sermons  against  both  the  covetous  and  the  intem- 
perate, and  condemn  both  m  good  earnest.     The  reason  is  this :  he 


290  USE  OF  EXHORTATION. 

may  never  have  learned  -what  is  the  nature  of  these  vices,  as  it  is 
ascertained  by  holy  Scripture ;  or  he  may  never  have  been  taught 
where  thrift  and  economy  end,  and  avarice  and  parsimony  begin, 
and  so  may  have  passed  slowly  and  unawares  from  what  is  lawful 
and  commendable,  to  Avhat  is  unlawful  and  detestable. 

Caution  is  likewise  called  for  in  teaching  moralists  and  the  self- 
righteous  to  discriminate  between  apparent  and  real  virtues,  as  be- 
tween conviction  and  confession  and  evangelical  repentance ;  be- 
tween wishing  and  choosing;  between  emotions  and  affections; 
between  moral  duties  and  those  that  are  Christian  and  evangelical ; 
between  gospel  charity  and  almsgiving,  or  a  cheerful  tolerance  and 
indulgence  of  faults  and  errors,  etc. 

One  of  the  most  successful  artifices  of  Satan  is  to  induce  us  to  fix 
a  false  standard  of  piety,  and  then  through  our  repeated  failures  to 
live  up  to  the  same,  to  drive  us  back  to  a  total  neglect  of  the  real 
and  acceptable  service  of  God.  Thus  deeply  impressed  by  some 
distinguished  example,  perhaps  we  imagine  that  true  religion  con- 
sists in  fluency,  in  unaccountable  ecstacies,  in  large  and  i)ublic  gifts 
of  money,  in  a  proselyting  spirit,  or  the  punctual  observance  of  rites 
and  self-denials  which  are  of  human  invention,  and  all  that.  Coming 
short  of  the  eminent  and  the  splendid,  we  are  tempted  to  despise 
the  (iommon  and  the  obscure :  like  the  goose  in  the  old  Sanscrit 
fable,  that  mistook  for  fish  the  reflection  of  the  new  moon  in  the 
water,  and  afler  vainly  attempting  to  lay  hold  of  it,  at  length  aban- 
doned all  search  for  food,  because  whenever  it  saw  a  real  fish,  it 
fancied  it  was  but  the  glitter  of  the  moon  Avhich  had  so  often  dis- 
appointed it.  The  fruit  of  its  experience  was  that  it  passed  its  time 
fasting  and  foodless 

T/ie  ina/i)icr  and  spirit  in  which  (hides  are  to  be  done.  Under 
the  head  of  use  of  exhortation  some  writers^  place  Modi  or  Ojficia, 
i.  <?.,  directions  concerning  the  sjnrit,  manner,  or  detjrees  in  which 
graces  and  virtues  are  to  be  exercised  and  duties  are  to  be  dis- 
charged; c.  fj.,  if  we  are  preaching  from  Isa.  xlv.  19,  after  a  fjcncrcd 
exhortation  to  seek  God,  we  will  naturally  give  some  directions  re- 
specting the  proper  mode  of  seeking  him;  as,  1,  seek  him  with  the 
whole  heart;  2,  early  and  carefully;  3,  before  all  other  objects;  4, 
in  season ;  5,  perseveringly,  etc.  Or,  if  preaching  from  the  text 
Jer.  xliv.  10,  11,  the  officia  may  be  given  thus:  1.  We  may  show 
true  contrition  of  heart  (a)  by  grieving  on  account  of  our  sins;  {h) 
by  despairing  of  help  from  ourselves;  {r)  by  detesting  our  sins;  (*/) 
by  forsaking  them,  etc.     Tliis  kind  of  matter  comes  under  what  is 

1  D.  Knibbe,  Manucluctio  ad  Oratoriam  Sacram,  p.  128-131. 


USE^OF  EXHORTATION.  291 

sometimes  termed  the  use  of  Advice  or  Direction.  These  juodi  or 
officia  may  not  seldom  be  derived  partly  or  wholly  from  the  text 
itself. 

But  we  are  much  mistaken  if  we  think  that  to  manage  this  use 
to  advantage,  we  have  only  to  learn  to  skeletonise.  Valuable  as 
this  skill  is,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Christian  ethics  is  of  more 
considerable  service.  We  say  Christian  ethics  as  distinguished 
from  philosoj)hical  ethics  and  from  theological  ethics,  although  this 
last  is,  it  must  be  confessed,  of  no  small  utility  in  comj^osing  apj^li- 
cations,  especially  the  right  understanding  of  the  relations  of  the 
divine  purposes  and  human  ability  and  the  relations  of  regeneration 
and  our  obligations.  It  is  also  important  to  make  differences  be- 
tween the  old  ethnic  system  and  the  Christian ;  the  former  being 
taught  by  reason,  the  latter  by  revelation;  the  former  regarding 
chiefly  the  outward  life,  the  latter  the  feelings  and  thoughts.  The 
former  drew  its  motives  from  a  terrene  expediency,  and  found  its 
best  standard  in  moderation  or  "  the  golden  mean,"  and  was  not 
animated  by  the  exhibition  of  a  perfect  example  and  enforced  by 
any  adequate  authority  or  sanction.  The  latter  derives  its  princi- 
ples of  action  from  love  to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  other  similar 
considerations,  proposes  for  an  end  the  glory  of  God,  promises  us 
in  the  Divine  Spirit  the  most  effectual  help  to  all  obedience,  sets 
before  us  the  Lord  Jesus  as  a  perfect  example  of  all  virtues  and 
duties,  and  enforces  its  precepts  by  the  hopes  and  fears  of  the 
world  to  come.  Nor  should  it  ever  escape  us  that  the  Christian 
ethics  is  superior  to  every  other  system  by  the  simplicity  and  com- 
prehensiveness of  its  principles,  by  the  virtues  on  which  it  most 
emphatically  dwells — love,  humility,  and  holiness — and  by  its  thor- 
ough and  universal  efficacy,  transforming  as  it  does  the  entire  man, 
and  equally  potent  to  renew  the  philosopher  and  the  savage,  the 
gentle  and  the  simple,  in  any  and  every  part  of  the  world.  Our 
Saviour,  it  may  here  be  subjoined,  emjDloyed  modi  in  Matt.  vi.  3,  4, 
6,  7, 17,  18 ;  V.  22,  44;  Luke  xvii.  3-8. 

Few  duties  are  more  commonly  neglected  than  the  careful  study 
of  the  distinctive  principles  of  Christian  ethics  as  taught  and  ap- 
plied in  the  New  Testament.  "Works  on  moral  science  cannot  be 
exjDected  to  give  us  much  homiletical  knowledge  of  the  various 
branches  of  this  subject. 

The  preacher  in  the  handling  of  ethical  subjects  has  to  defend 
himself  against  temptations  to  scolding  and  fussiness.  Some 
preachers  appear  to  derive  many  of  their  themes  from  the  provoca- 
tions of  the  world  and  the  devil.  Every  disturbance  of  public  or- 
der, every  breach  of  common  justice,  every  college  riot,  every  pub- 


202  USE  OF  EXHORTAtlON. 

lie  ball,  they  follow  with  denunciations  which  serve  no  other  pur- 
pose than  to  add  to  the  levity  and  frivolity  of  the  youni;  people  of 
their  congregations.  Hereto  applies  the  remark  of  Selden,  who,  if 
we  remember  rightly,  says,  in  his  Table  Talk,  tl.at  there  is  no  me- 
dium in  rhetoric  :  "  if  the  preacher  does  not  convince  me,  I  laugh  at 
him."  When  Paul  made  the  confession,  "  Sin,  taking  occasion  by 
the  conunandincnt,  wrought  in  mo  all  manner  of  concupiscence,"  he 
had  in  mind,  perhaps,  some  irritable  Hebrew  exhorter  by  whom  he 
had,  when  young,  been  frequently  berated  in  the  synagogue  at  Tar- 
sus. It  is  Bengel,  Ave  think,  who  somewhere  observes  that  the 
pleasures  of  the  world  taste  best  when  they  are  peppered  by  a  little 
admonition. 

Every  kind  of  ethical  application,  therefore,  should  be  founded 
on  the  vital  doctrines  of  evangelical  Christianity.  Aristotle,  in  his 
ethical  works,  ever  kept  his  eye  on  "  the  golden  mean ;  "  but  no 
voyager  lias  moral  strength  enough  to  steer  safely  between  oj^po- 
site  temptations ;  and  even  the  philosopher  himself,  while  dying,  is 
reported  to  have  said :  "  I  rejoice  that  I  am  going  out  of  a  world  of 
contraries."  But  he  who  accepts  the  Lord  Jesus  as  "the  way,  and 
the  truth,  and  the  life"  has  a  shepherdly  guide  to  the  knowledge 
of  every  duty,  an  inward  power  to  do  it,  and  the  most  inciting  mo- 
tives to  its  observance. 

To  the  Jlodl  or  Officia  belong  c.rpcrimodal  uses.  "We  cannot 
here  specify  the  true  nature  and  chief  excellences  of  an  experimental 
application.  Kor  is  it  necessary.  "What  John  Jennings  has  said 
on  the  general  subject  of  experimental  preaching,  together  with  the 
devout  examination  and  study  of  our  own  spiritual  exercises,  will 
give  us  some  tolerable  notion  of  "  the  life  of  God  in  the  soul  of 
man."  The  sermons  of  Dr.  "Watts  are  good  specimens  of  this  kind 
of  a])plication.  His  "  llecollections,"  or  uses  of  various  sorts,  in  the 
style  of  soliloquy,  are  peculiar  and  well-deserving  of  imitation. 

The  popularity  of  experimental  uses  appears  to  have  been  pretty 
generally  overlooked.  It  will  be  evident  on  consideration,  that  a 
])reacher  naturally  calm  and  dispassionate  in  speech,  Avho  preaches 
experimentally,  will  move  the  people  more  powerfully  than  the 
most  fervid  and  enthusiastic  preacher,  who  neither  derives  any  ma- 
terials from,  nor  makes  any  appeals  to,  the  workings  of  the  human 
heart  and  si)iritual  consciousness.  Herein  consisted  in  great  mea- 
sure that  "  quiescence  of  turbulence  "which  Robert  Hall  attributed 
to  John  Wesley.  "  Nothing  startles  the  mind  and  fixes  the  eye  like 
having  a  voice  given  to  the  whisperings  of  our  own  hearts.  In  a 
time  of  revival,  at  a  meeting  crowded  with  awakened  sinn«'rs,  a 
preacher  commenced  his  discourse  with  this  abrupt  inijuiry  :  '  What 


USE  OF  EXHORTATION.  293 

is  this  murmnr  I  hear  ?  '  I  wish  I  had  a  new  heart ;  they  tell  me  to 
repent;  I  wish  they  would  tell  me  to  do  something  else.'  These 
words,  and  the  like  that  followed,  were  simple,  yet  they  spread 
over  that  assembly  the  silence  of  the  day  of  doom ;  and  heaving 
breasts  and  falling  heads  testified  that  the  thoughts  of  many  hearts 
had  been  revealed.  There  was  no  lack  of  attention  to  the  preacher, 
as  he  went  on  to  show  that  repentance  was  the  only  direction  which 
could  be  given  to  sinners.  .  .  Here  was  one  source  of  Christ's 
power  as  a  preacher.  He  heard  thoughts ;  the  maledictions  of  the 
smooth-faced  Pharisee,  the  cavillings  of  the  Sadducean  skeptics,  the 
excuses  of  the  indifferent— he  heard  them  all,  though  no  voice  but 
his  own  broke  the  silence  of  the  listening  crowd.  And  it  was  be- 
cause his  discourses  were  such  silent  appeals  to  what  was  in  man— 
their  consciousness  of  sin  and  obligation — that  the  multitude. 
Scribes,  Pharisees,  and  all,  thronged  to  hear  him.  They  would 
'  Come,  see  the  man  that  told  them  all  things  that  ever  they  did.' 
His  w^ords  often  filled  them  with  rage,  till  they  would  take  up 
stones  to  cast  at  him.  And  yet  they  must  hear  these  w-ords,  they 
were  so  true,  did  so  accurately  discern  the  '  thoughts  and  intents  of 
their  hearts.'  "^ 

Use  of  Counsel.  Those  who  exhort  us  to  duties  without  teach- 
ing us  what  means  we  are  to  employ  in  order  to  perform  them,  have 
been  aptly  compared  to  those  who  lighted  ancient  lamps,  but  at  the 
same  time  neglected  to  replenish  them  with  oil.2 

Hence  under  the  use  of  exhortation  or  dehortation  should  often 
be  placed  those  directions  or  "  uses  of  advice  "  or  "  direction  "  by 
which  we  may  acquire  and  cultivate  or  forsake  and  guard  against 
what  the  text  or  subject  ofters  to  our  attention.  Positive  means 
are  stated  in  exhortation;  negative  means  in  dehortation.  They 
have  likewise  been  distinguished  as  general,  as  prayer,  fasting,  self- 
examination,  or  the  improvement  which  results  from  the  constant 
exercise  of  the  grace  recommended,  or  the  habitual  performance 
of  the  duty,  etc.,  and  as  special  according  to  the  nature  of  particu- 
lar duties  and  temptations,  or  as  the  text  itself  may  counsel  or  sug- 
gest. And  it  is  equally  agreeable  and  serviceable  to  observe  how 
frequently  either  the  text  or  context  affords  the  best  means  for  at- 
taining the  grace  or  doing  the  duty  to  which  it  persuades  us,  or  the 
reverse. 

But  in  giving  directions  on  this  subject  we  should  vigilantly  and 
continually  guard  against  two  opposite  errors — that  of  underrating 

1  Mr.  Edwin  E.  Bliss,  Araer.  Quart.  Register,  vol.  xv.,  p.  317  ;  Abp.  New- 
come,  Our  Lord  as  a  Divine  Instructor,  Pt.  i.,  c.  ii.,  sec.  7. 

2  Plutirc'i,  quoted  by  Luis  do  Granada  in  his  R!ie:.  Eccles.,  L   iv ,  c.  ii. 


294  USE  OF  EXHORTATION. 

and  that  of  overrating  the  means  of  grace.  Whlchcot,  Tillotson, 
and  I'arker  teach  tliat  meditation,  prayer,  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, etc.,  are  only  means  in  order  to  Christian  practice,  and  that 
they  are  not  to  be  compared  with  the  end^  which  is  holy  living. 
This  view  "was  opposed  by  Dr.  John  Edwards^  as  an  undue  repre- 
sentation of  the  matter  in  two  respects. 

1.  It  imjilies  that  because  they  are  means  they  are,  in  some  sense, 
to  be  cheapened  and  disparaged;  whereas, ^/-i/,  all  the  acts  and 
parts  of  the  Christian  religion  may  be  regarded  as  means  and  in- 
struments, because  they  all  have  eternal  happiness  for  their  end. 
All  exercises  of  holiness  in  this  life  have  reference  to  a  future  life. 
Secondly,  some  of  the  acts  of  practical  holiness  are  means  that 
tend  to  promote  other  and  similar  acts.  Thus  humility,  love,  faith, 
and  hope  are  holi:»s  and  furtherances  to  other  graces  of  a  holy  life. 
Though  they  are,  in  a  certain  sense,  ends,  yet  they  stand  in  the  re- 
lation of  means  to  other  ends. 

2.  It  is  also  a  mistake  to  hold  that  acts  of  devotion  are  only 
means  and  nothing  else.  But  they  are  likewise  ^)rt;'/s  and  uionhcrs 
and  direct  acts  of  the  religion  of  Christ.  They  have  an  immediate 
respect  to  the  Divine  Being,  and  are  therefore  of  greater  excellence 
than  acts  of  charity  which  terminate  on  man  only.  Faith,  medita- 
tion', prayer,  the  holy  communion,  and  praise  are  more  thai\  means 
for  attaining  Christian  piety.  They  are  parts  and  branches  of  it, 
and  in  some  of  them  there  is  a  complication  of  virtues  and  graces. 
The  latter  view,  though  soimd  in  the  main,  is  yet  liable  to  perver- 
sion, particularly  by  those  who  incline  to  Quietism,  Aceticism,  and 
Antinomianism.  The  former  view  is  more  friendly  to  Arminian- 
ism,  Socinianism,  Ritualism,  and  Rationalism. 

The  more  to  guard  against  misunderstanding  and  abuse,  it  will 
be  prudent  to  omit  this  phrase  in  exhortations  to  the  impenitent ; 
for  they  are  exceedingly  apt  to  put  their  trust  in  the  instruments 
and  conveyances  of  grace  to  the  total  disregard  of  the  obligation 
to  immediate  repentance.  What  concerns  us  just  now  is  this,  that 
"  the  means  of  grace,''  while  they  may  indeed  explain  to  us  the  na- 
ture and  convince  us  of  the  necessity  of  repentance,  were  never 
intended  to  be  a  substitute  either  for  our  own  natural  efforts  in  for- 
saking sinful  practices,  or  for  the  assistance  of  divine  grace  in  con- 
tinuing and  crowning  such  efforts,  much  less  for  regeneration  itself 
As  to  method,  remedies  naturally  go  before  motives. 

Direct  address  is  more  effectual  in  exhortation  than  in  reproof, 
although  we  may,  when  the  reproof  is  private,  commonly  follow 

1  Preacher,  82-88. 


USE  OF  EXHORTATION  295 

the  example  of  Nathan  by  saying,  "  Thou  art  the  man,"  Peter  and 
Paul  sometimes  used  the  words  "  every  one."  But  those  writers 
who  teach  that  all  exhortations  should  be  direct  addresses  are  less 
wise  than  those  who  advise  either  occasional  changes  from  direct  to 
indirect  or  the  reverse,  and  in  cases  not  a  few  a  uniform  strain  of 
indirect.  As  a  rule  it  is  wiser  to  describe  than  to  name  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  sinners.  It  is,  however,  necessary,  by  some  means  or 
other,  to  individualise  the  hearers. 

Many  persuasives  come  short  of  the  effects  intended  because  the 
minds  of  the  auditors  are  not  prepared  for  them  by  a  thorough  ex- 
plication of  the  subject-matter  from  which  the  motives  are  deduced. 
"There  is  danger,"  observes  Bishop  Wilson,  "of  being  persuaded 
before  one  understands."  A  striking  example  of  this  may  be  found 
in  the  unsuccessful  attempts  of  Bourdaloue,  Massillon,  Bossuet,  and 
other  French  preachers  to  overcome  the  advancing  infidelity  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Their  reasonings  perj)etually  ran  forward  to 
exhortation  and  reproof,  whereas  the  English  preachers  of  that  pe- 
riod, whose  arguments  were  ever  going  back  and  resting  on  solid 
instruction,  were  far  more  successful.  Dry  and  unimpassioned  as 
were  their  sermons,  they  nevertheless  removed  ignorance  from  the 
peoj)le  as  to  what  are  the  evidences  of  a  divine  revelation,  and  as 
to  the  rational  foundations  of  the  Gospel  system.  But  still  there 
is  danger  on  the  didactic  side  also.  Rowland  Hill  said  that  the 
difference  between  the  English  and  Scottish  preachers  of  his  day 
was,  that  the  former  preached  to  their  audiences,  and  the  latter 
before  them.  Dr.  Ralph  Wardlaw,  as  late  as  1850,  confessed  that 
there  was  still  a  considerable  amount  of  justice  in  the  distinction. 

The  effect  of  innumerable  exhortations  is  nugatory,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  preacher  does  not  aim  to  bring  the  class  of  persons 
addressed  to  immediate  decision  and  resolution.  The  ambassador 
for  Christ  should  not  be  content  to  have  merely  proposed  the  terms 
of  reconciliation ;  he  should  urge  their  acceptance  and  feel  and 
show  that  his  endeavours  are  almost  in  vain  if  his  hearers  con- 
tinue to  listen  only  to  procrastinate,  or  to  wish  without  ever  choos- 
ing, or  to  seek  yet  never  strive.  Such  preachers  as  Baxter  and  Al- 
leine  frequently  in  their  conclusions  express  a  deep  concern  as  to 
the  reception  of  their  sermons,  and  great  reluctance  to  leave  the 
subject  and  their  hearers  without  some  assurance  that  their  prayers 
and  exhortations  have  availed  to  call  forth  a  decided  response  then 
and  there. 

Bishop  Meade^  recommends  the  occasional  use  of  the  kind  of  ap- 

1  Lectures  on  the  Pastoral  OflSce,  p.  155. 
20 


29G  USE  OF  CONSOLATION. 

plication  which  Jeremy  Taylor  adopts  in  his  Holy  Living,  viz.,  a 
set  of  resolutions  drawn  from  the  subject  of  the  sermon.     Better 
still  would  be  the  form  employed  by  Vieyra  and  Segneri,  who  by* 
Association  make  the  resolutions  as  if  for  themselves. 


Sectiox  VI. — Use  of  Coxsolation. 

This  is  an  application  by  which  the  mind  is  strengthened  against 
material  and  spiritual  evils,  and  cheered  and  encouraged  by  the 
opposite  benefits.  Consolation  is,  as  BishoiD  Wilkins  observes, 
"one  main  end  of  the  Scriptures"  (Isa.  xi.,  xii.,  xxxii.,  xxxv.,  xl.- 
Ixvi. ;  Jer.  xxix.,  xxx.,  xxxi. ;  Ezek.  xxxvi.,  xxxvii.,  xxxviii.,  xl., 
xlvii.,  xlviii. ;  Matt.  v.  3-12;  vi.  25-34;  Luke  xxi. ;  John  xiv.,  xv., 
xvi. ;  Heb.  xi.,  xii.). 

The  sufferings  of  men  arise  from  inward  and  outward  sources. 
Those  which  originate  within  are  deserving  of  the  preacher's  first 
attention.  The  doubts  and  fears  of  the  anxious  inquirer,  the  dis- 
tresses of  such  believers  as  have  wounded  consciences  or  are  vexed 
with  temptations,  or  are  groaning  under  spiritual  desertions,  are  to 
be  carefully  and  perseveringly  studied  and  treated.  Those  which 
come  from  without,  or  from  loss  of  health,  friends,  property,  em- 
ployment, reputation,  are,  nevertheless,  worthy  of  no  small  place  in 
the  preacher's  sermons.  Forasmuch  as  the  God  of  all  comfort  has 
deigned  to  provide  remedies  for  these  latter  diseases,  he  ought  not 
to  think  himself  superior  to  the  humble  task  of  ministering  to 
minds  that  are  troubled  with  external  evils. 

As  to  consolation,  it  cannot  be  too  deeply  impressed,  nor  too 
often  recollected,  that  it  is  only  in  the  school  of  sanctified  adversity 
that  we  can  be  made  rightly  to  understand  and  skilfully  to  apply 
the  comforting  parts  of  holy  Scripture. 

And  yet  the  young  preacher  would  be  all  the  better  prepared  to 
profit  by  his  lessons  in  this  school  if  he  could  but  bring  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  Bible  with  the  steady  determmation  to  acquire  a 
distinct  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  Satanic  accusations  and 
the  waj/s  in  which  it  administers  consolation.  Some  acquaintance 
Avith  standard  works  on  insanity  is  also  desirable. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  industrious  jjersons  suffer  less  from 
bereavements  and  other  outward  adversities  than  the  imemployed, 
as  the  most  miserable  are  they  tliat  are  idly  opulent  and  who  not 
unfrequently  fiill  a  prey  to  their  own  imaginations.  Such  persons 
should  be  taught  to  find  remedies  for  these  evils  in  daily  and  sys- 
tematic works  of  self-denial  and  benevolence. 


USE  OF  CONSOLATION. 


297 


Beware  of  the  methods  adopted  by  ancient  and  modern  philoso- 
phers in  attempting  to  comfort  the  afflicted.  And  especially  be- 
ware of  your  own  favourite  theory  respecting  consolation.  The 
Scriptures  exemplify  a  vast  variety  of  ways  in  which  consolatory 
applications  may  be  made.  But  above  all  do  not  persuade  your- 
self  that  consolation  is  never  or  very  seldom  necessary  for  your 
flock.  Receive,  therefore,  not  without  some  grams  of  allowance 
these  words  of  the  zealous  and  exemplary  Payson :  "  In  preachino- 
to  professing  Christians  I  endeavour  to  rouse  and  humble  rather 
than  to  comfort  them ;  for,  if  they  be  kept  humble,  comfort  will 
follow  of  course.  Besides,  I  do  not  suppose  that  Christians  need 
as  much  consolation  now  as  they  did  in  the  primitive  ages,  when 
exj-josed  to  persecution." 

The  oracles  of  God  do  indeed  set  forth  the  henefts  of  affliction, 
but,  unless  we  are  much  mistaken,  they  do  it  less  frequently  and 
less  emphatically  than  most  modern  preachers.  The  character,  at- 
tributes, and  works  of  each  person  in  the  blessed  Trinity  afford  in- 
numerable and  peerless  themes  for  consolatory  sermons.  The  way 
to  handle  these  themes  is  best  learned  by  the  study  of  the  last 
twenty-seven  chapters  of  Isaiah. 

The  way  to  the  cross  is  the  way  to  consolation,  and  accordingly 
we  must  begin  to  comfort  the  impenitent  by  giving  them  a  con- 
victing view  of  Christ  crucified,  and  worldly  professors  by  exhibit- 
ing the  cross  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  glory  in  it  as  crucify- 
ing them  to  the  worhl  and  the  world  to  them.  Holiness  is  the 
only  source  of  evangelical  consolation.  Ostervald  complains  that 
Drelincourt,  in  his  work  against  the  fear  of  death,  labours  more  to 
comfort  than  to  sanctify. 

The  iise  of  BeroUection  or  Reminiscence  is  occasionally  service- 
able in  the  work  of  consolation  (Psa.  xlii.  6  ;  Ixxvii.  10,  11 ;  Isa.  xliv. 
21-28  ;  Micah  vii.  U,  15  ;  Malachi  iii.  4). 

Heavy  calamities  do  not  immediately  allow  the  sufferer  to  heark- 
en to  advice  or  an  argument :  young  preachers  are  apt  to  forget  the 
observation  of  Seneca ;  "  Levis  est  dolor  qui  capere  consilium  po- 
test "—Light  is  that  grief  which  is  able  to  listen  to  counsel. 

It  was  a  saying  of  the  Rabbins,  that  it  is  the  greatest  beneficence 
to  prevent  poverty :  so  he  ministers  to  comfort  the  most  effectually 
who  prepares  his  flock  for  the  inevitable  sorrows  of  this  life.  And 
how  can  he  do  this  so  well  by  any  other  means  as  by  solid  Gospel 
instruction  ?  It  was  by  learning  at  the  feet  of  Jesus  that  Mary  was 
enabled  to  behave  so  nobly  at  the  grave  of  her  brother  Lazarus- 
Christ  must  be  our  teacher  if  he  is  to  be  our  comforter ;  God  must 
be  our  dwelling  place  if  we  are  also  to  find  him  a  fortress. 


298  HINTS  ON  CONTINUAL  APPLICATION. 


Section"  VII. — Hints  ox  Continual  Application". 

Isocratcs  interwove  his  persuasives,  just  as  Isreus  did  liis  argu- 
ments, with  the  various  parts  of  his  discussion.  Those  uses  which 
are  intermixed  with  the  body  of  the  sermon  are  still  better  author- 
ised by  most  of  the  inspired  examples.  Indeed,  there  is  scarcely  a 
sermon,  cither  in  the  Old  Testament  or  the  New,  whose  applica- 
tions are  not  continuous.  The  cases  where  the  applications  are  left 
to  the  close  may  almost  be  said  to  be  exceptional.  In  the  histor- 
ical discourses  of  Moses  in  Deuteronomy,  and  in  the  epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  loe  should  have  naturally  expected  that  the  speakers 
would  not  have  aj'tplied  each  part  as  they  proceeded,  nor  have 
paused  or  turned  aside  for  uses  by  way  of  interruption  or  digres- 
sion. But  such  we  find  to  be  the  fact.  The  epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
afibrds  specimens  of  both  continuous  and  final  applications.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  The  sermons  of 
the  most  of  the  prophets  have  perpetual  or  intermixed  uses,  and 
Avith  the  exception  of  some  of  Ezekiel's  discourses,  have  no  length- 
ened final  applications.  Those  writers  are  wrong,  therefore,  who 
would  have  us  chiefly  confine  current  applications  to  hortatory  and 
expository  sermons.  Our  inspired  masters  employed  them  in  ser- 
mons of  every  description.  And  so  numerous  and  so  obvious  are 
the  advantages  of  this  mode  of  preaching,  that  the  wonder  is  that 
so  few  writers  of  sermons  should  have  employed  it  habitually  or 
even  occasionally.  Claude,  in  his  Essay,  chap,  vii.,  lias  given  an 
excellent  example  of  jierpetual  uses  in  a  sermon  on  Phil.  ii.  12. 
(See  also  Vitringa's  sermon  on  1  Chron.  iv.  10,  in  his  3/ethodus 
Ilomiletlca ;  "William  Ames's,  Rutherford's,  and  Leighton's  ser- 
mons; Robert  Hall  on  John  v.  42;  Simeon  on  Num.  x.  20,  in 
Jlorm  Ilomiletica  ;  also  his  skeleton,  ]Mark  xvi.  15,  16,  in  appendix 
to  his  edition  of  Claude's  Essay ;  AValker  on  2  Cor.  vi.  1 ;  Dod- 
dridge's sermon  on  John  vii.  37 ;  Cooper's  third  sermon  on  Rom. 
vii.  21.)  Bourdalouc  and  Massillon  often  attach  a  "use"  to  each 
part  of  the  partition. 

In  cases  not  a  few  only  one  kind  of  application,  e.  g.,  exhorta- 
tion or  consolation,  can  be  profitably  made.  But  this  one  form 
may  require  to  be  frequently  repeated  (always  with  new  matter)  in 
a  single  discourse. 

In  other  discourses  the  time,  the  place,  or  other  circumstances 
may  demand  the  sacrifice  of  rhetorical  unity  to  the  paramount  and 
supreme  laws  of  Christian  feeling;  then  the  applications  may  ap- 
pear inconsequential,  or  irrelevant,  or  superfluous.     Never  mind; 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  USES.  299 

the  Scripture  uses  are  not  seldom  very  remotely  comiected  -with 
the  matter  in  hand,  or  rather  they  are  always  considered  by  the 
Divine  Spirit  as  the  matter  which  is  of  the  greatest  and  the  most 
immediate  importance,  and  therefore  always  in  order.  The  great- 
est things  in  sermons,  and  in  all  other  sacred  operations  of 
Christ's  kingdom,  are  often  those  which  seem  interstitial  or  inter- 
luded  to  us — to  us  who  would  ever  have  the  vital  and  the  useful 
grow  out  of  the  true  and  the  beautiful,  whereas  the  Creator  Spirit 
would  ever  have  the  true  and  the  beautiful  grow  out  of  the  vital  and 
the  useful. 

The  chief  excellences  of  many  Puritan  sermons  are  their  contin- 
ual applications.  Those  old  preachers  were  not  only  careful  to 
keep  in  mind  all  the  various  kinds  of  "  uses,"  but  also  to  consider 
well  which  and  how  many  of  them  couMbe  subjoined  to  each  of  the 
many  propositions  mto  which  their  sermons  were  often  divided. 
Thus  one  of  the  sermons  of  William  Ames  {Lat.  Amesius)  on  the 
text  Matt.  vi.  33  has  five  propositions,  each  followed  cither  by 
reasons  in  confirmation  of  it  or  questions  and  answers ;  and  each 
part  concluded  with  one  or  more  "  uses : "  the  first  with  uses  of  in- 
formation, admonition,  and  exhortation ;  the  second  with  a  use  of 
refutation ;  the  third  with  a  use  of  exhortation ;  the  fourth  with  a 
refutation ;  the  last  with  two  uses,  one  of  consolation,  another  of  di- 
rection. In  his  counsels  to  preachers,  Ames  did  but  repeat  a  cur- 
rent maxim  of  his  age  when  he  taught  that  in  order  to  set  forth  to 
advantage  the  word  of  God,  two  things  were  essential:  first,  a 
declaration  of  what  is  contained  in  the  text ;  secondly,  an  applica- 
tion of  the  same  to  the  hearts  and  consciences  of  those  present. 
•How  difl'erent  is  this  from  the  practice  of  a  majority  of  our  living 
preachers,  who  bestow  their  thoughts  principally  upon  comment, 
illustration,  "views,"  and  confirmation.  But  after  all,  whoever 
thinks  of  the  proper  ends  of  Christian  preaching  must  concur  with 
Amesi  in  the  opinion  that  they  who  deduce  no  application  ^ 
their  text  both  forget  themselves  and  impose  upon  their  hcai 

Section-  VIII. — Gei^eral  Remarks  ois"  Uses. 

§.  Applications  are  to  be  chiefly  deduced  from  the  text  or  sub- 
ject, either  by  consequence,  by  comparison,  by  contrast,  or  some 
other  logical  process ;  Schleiermacher's  ser.  on  "  Christ's  Resurrec- 
tion a  Pattern,"  etc.,  has  one  use  elicited  even  from  a  distinction. 

§.  They  should  not  only  be  fairly  derived  from  the  text  or  sub- 

1  Medulla  Theologica,  L.  i.,  chap,  xxxv.,  sees.  17  and  18. 


300  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  USES. 

ject,  but  be  wisely  adapted  to  the  congregation,  the  time,  the 
plaee,  and  particularly  to  the  age,  condition,  and  circumstances, 
both  of  the  preacher  and  the  hearers. 

^.  Wlien  all  the  applications  are  left  for  the  close  of  a  sermon,  it 
is  of  some  importance  that  they  be  disposed  in  a  proper  method, 
so  that  the  transition  from  one  to  another  may  be  natural,  and  their 
connection  with  the  subject  and  with  each  other  may  be  obvious. 
They  should  generally  be  arranged  according  to  the  order  in  which 
they  are  here  enumerated  and  discussed.  It  is  very  evident  that 
in  no  ordinary  case  ought  exhortation  to  come  before  information, 
consolation  before  reproof,  or  refutation  after  exhortation. 

§.  A  prime  quality  in  applications  is  seasonableness.  For  this 
our  Divine  Master  was  to  be  and  was  distinguished  (Isa.  1.  4;  liii. 
4,  5 ;  Matt.  xi.  28 ;  Prov.  xxV.  16). 

4.  Some  texts  or  subjects  do  not  admit  of  more  than  two  or  three 
kinds  of  applications,  others  of  only  one  kind,  and  that  often  re- 
peated perhaps.  Of  the  prophetic  Scriptures  it  has  been  justly 
said  that  they  are  marked  both  by  simplicity  of  principle  and  vari- 
ety of  application. 

^.  After  all,  however,  we  should  not  suffer  any  maxims  resj)ect- 
ing  rhetorical  imity  to  keep  us  from  making  digressions  when  a 
timejy  and  thorough  application  demands  them.  The  pastor  will 
desire  sometimes  in  a  single  sermon,  as  Chrysostom  has  it,  "  to  heal 
many  and  diverse  wounds." 

^.  In  addressing  our  hearers  we  should  keep  in  mind  not  only 
physical  but  moral  conditions,  and  rather  describe  than  name  vari- 
ous classes  of  sinners ;  but  still  it  will  occasionally  be  expedient  to 
address  the  old  and  young,  rich  and  poor,  the  converted  and  uncon-  ■ 
verted,  etc.  Doddridge's  ser.  on  Luke  x.  42,  applies  the  subject 
first,  to  the  unconcerned ;  secondly,  to  the  concerned  but  procras- 
tiitating ;  thirdly,  to  those  who  have  in  good  earnest  found  the  one 
thing  needful.  The  repetitions  of  the  address  may,  in  jjathetic  and 
earnest  applications,  go  on  increasing  in  expressions  of  aftection, 
c.  //.,  (1)  My  hearers ;  (2)  My  dear  hearers ;  (3)  ^\\  Avell-beloved 
hearers. 

4.  The  more  profound  a  doctrine  is  the  more  deeply  .should  we 
dig  the  channel  for  its  various  uses.  It  is  only  by  thorough  api)li- 
cation  that  our  Christian  knowledge  is  saved  from  metaphysical  and 
materialistic  errors,  just  as  the  waters  of  rivers  arc  purified  by 
flowing. 

§.  In  imitation  of  our  Lord  at  the  close  of  his  sermon  on  the 
Mount,  we  may,  in  applying  subjects  similar  to  this,  urge  that 
obedience  and  well-doing  arc  the  only  foundation  that  can  uphold, 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  USES.  301 

compact  and  defend  our  hearing,  or  worship,  or  belief,  or  experience, 
so  as  to  save  it  from  becoming  our  prison  and  our  destruction. 

Note.— The  works  which  have  been  the  most  serviceable  to  us  in  treating  the 
subject  of  application  have  been  :  B.  Keckerman,  Rhetorica  Ecclesiastica,  in  Opera 
(Hanover,  1613),  L.  ii.,  chap,  iii ;  Sehastianus  Gwlelius,  Methodologia  Homiletica 
(Lepsi£e,  1678),  chap,  xiii.,  tit.  v.  ;  B.  Knihbe,  Manuductio  ad  Oratoriam  Sacram 
(Ludg.  Batav.  1679),  pp.  86-148;  Solomon  Van  Till,  Methodus  Concionandi 
(Frankford,  1716),  Pt.  i.,  chap.  vii. :  Andrea  Eijperius,  De  Formandis  Concioni- 
bus  (Halaj,  1789),  pp.  250-410. 


PART  11. 

THE  FORMS  OF  SERMONS  AS  DETERMIXED  BY  METHOD. 


•CHAPTER  I. 

THE  MEMBERS  OF  SERMONS. 

By  member  we  here  signify  that  part  of  a  sermon  which  belongs 
to  one  place  in  it,  serves  peculiar  purposes,  and  consequently  attracts 
to  itself  all  such  matter  as  is  subservient  to  those  purposes.  Some- 
times, however,  one  member  of  a  discourse  may  perform  the  func- 
tion of  another,  as  where  the  proposition  discharges  the  duty  of 
the  exodium,  or  the  recapitulation  that  of  the  partition.  The  es- 
sental  parts  of  a  sermon  are  the  proposition,  development,  and  con- 
clusion' ;  the  subsidiary  parts  of  it  are  tlie  introduction,  including  the 
introitus,  the  nexus,  and'the  transitus ;  the  partition,  the  invocation, 
and  the  recapitulation.  The  latter  are  more  or  less  useful,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  discourse  or  the  exigencies  of  its  delivery ; 
in  some  cases  they  are  almost  indispensable.  In  arranging  matter 
we  are  to  keep  them  all  in  mind,  although  in  seeking  it  we  ought 
chiefly  to  direct  our  attention  to  the  teleology  of  the  sennon,  in  other 
words,  to  the  practical  points  which  it  is  our  intention  to  carry. 

We  cannot,  in  strictness,  regard  the  text  as  ^w>-^  of  the  sermon  • 
we. may  properly  say  that  a  text  is  a  part  of  Scripture,  or  the  sub- 
ject or  foundation  of  a  sermon ;  but  in  thus  refusing  to  make  the 
divine  a  part  of  the  human,  we  do  not  (of  all  things !)  intend  to  dis- 
parage the  divine,  nor  to  deny  it  a  place  in  our  ministrations. 

Section  I. — Of  the  Introduction. 

"  God  plays  the  skilful  orator,"  as  Arthur  Lake^  observes  of  his 
exordium  to  the  Law.  The  inspired  speakers,  too,  evince  an  ad- 
mirable propriety  in  their  introductions  or  exordia.     IIow  befitting 

1  Comment  on  Exod.  xix. ;  he  finds  lieie  Aristotle's  three  requisites  of  a  good 
exordium. 

302 


OF  THE  INTRODUCTION.  303 

it  was  that  Moses  should  begm  his  discourses  in  Deuteronomy 
with  a  recapitulation  of  such  striking  events  of  the  Exodus  as 
served  his  purpose,  and  not  with  a  journal  of  all  that  had  transpired 
during  forty  years,  nor  with  that  compendious  repetition  of  the 
Law  to  which  he  afterwards  so  naturally  passes.  And  when  we 
examine  the  beginnings  of  the  several  distinct  sermons  of  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel,  we  find  them  as  varied,  pertinent,  and  elo- 
quent as  are  the  other  parts  of  those  sermons.  It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark, however,  that  some  of  their  discourses,  as  well  as  some  of 
those  of  the  minor  prophets,  have  nothing  that  classical  rhetoric 
denominates  an  exordium,  while  others,  as  Joel  and  Micah,  com- 
mence with  a  brief  prosphonema  or  allocution.  The  prophecy  of 
Nahum  opens  with  an  introduction  which  may  be  readily  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  discourse  (i.  2-8).  His  grand  description  of 
the  power  and  patience,  the  severity  and  goodness  of  Jehovah  is  a 
most  becoming  prelude  to  his  succeeding  utterances  respecting  the 
Hebrew  emancipation  and  the  fall  of  Nineveh.  The  earlier  dis- 
courses of  Isaiah  begin  with  reproofs,  the  later  with  encourage- 
ments. Jeremiah  sets  out  in  one  of  his  sermons  (vii.  1)  with  a  call 
to  repentance  with  a  conditional  promise ;  another  (xi.  1-17)  begins 
by  proclaiming  the  tenor  of  God's  covenant  and  reproving  the 
Jews  for  disobedience ;  and  another  (xxii.  1-10)  exhorts  to  repen- 
tance, with  promises  and  threatenings.  Ezekiel  (xiv.  1-11)  de- 
nounces God's  wrath  against  hypocrites;  again  (xx.  1-44)  he 
recounts  the  many  rebellions  of  the  Jews,  and  announces  God's 
purpose  to  gather  them  into  the  bond  of  the  Gospel  covenant.  In 
xxiv.  18-27,  the  people  having  asked  why  the  prophet  does  not 
mourn  for  his  deceased  wife,  are  told  that  he  is  a  sign  that  they 
shall  not  mourn  for  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  introduc- 
tion of  another  sermon  (xxxiii.  24 — )  rebukes  the  sophistry  of  the 
self-secure  occupants  of  the  Holy  Land.  Herein  he  resembles 
Haggai,  who  repeats  and  assails  an  opinion  current  among  the  re- 
turned captives  (i.  2-11) ;  Zechariah  (i.  2-6)  begins  with  an  enthy- 
meme  that  conveys  a  mild  warning;  Habakkuk  with  a  prayer 
(i.  1-3) ;  while  Malachi  in  the  very  first  verse  gives  the  key-note  of 
his  entire  dialogistic  discourse.  In  general  the  very  first  words  of 
the  prophets  were,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord." 

Our  Divine  Master  has  left  us  a  variety  of  exordia.  On  one  oc- 
casion he  begins  with  a  declaration  that  a  certain  prophecy  is  ful- 
filled by  himself;  on  another  with  a  denunciation  of  the  Pharisees 
(Luke  xi.  29) ;  on  another  with  the  parable  of  the  Sower  (Matt, 
xiii.  3;  see  also  Luke  xv.  3).  Now  he  foretells  his  death  (Matt, 
xvi.  21-28) ;  now  he  gives  his  disciples  the  acted  parable  of  settmg 


304  OF  THE   INTRODUCTION. 

a  child  clown  before  them  (Matt.  xvii.  2).  Then  again  he  an- 
nounces in  a  metaphor  a  startling  truth  (John  viii.  12) ;  and  again 
he  utters  a  warning  against  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  (]Matt.  xxiii. 
1).  Sometimes  his  sermons  commence  with  answers  to  questions 
(Matt.  xxiv.  3).  But  of  all  his  exordia  that  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  (Matt.  v.  3-16)  is  the  most  remarkable.  Si:)oken  as  it  was 
to  the  uninstructed  disciples,  most  of  whom  entertained  Hebrew 
notions  respecting  the  kingdom  of  God,  nothing  could  have  been 
so  ojDportune  as  to  give  them  at  the  outset  correct  ideas  of  the 
character,  condition^  i^osition,  and  wfluence  of  those  who  possess 
this  kingdom.  Tholuck  calls  our  attention  to  the  fact  that,  as 
when  He  announced  Himself  at  Nazai'eth  he  read  Isa.  Ixi,  1,  and 
declared  that  it  was  fulfilled  in  Him,  so  here  ver.  3  relates  to  the 
first  and  ver.  4  to  the  second  of  the  sixty-first  chapter.  The 
thoughts  of  this  introduction  are  not  only  linked  to  each  other,  but 
also  to  the  body  of  the  sermon.^  Here,  likewise,  he  indirectly  at- 
tacks Pharisaical  jiiety  by  showing  that  in  all  actions  God  chiefly 
regards  the  dispositions  of  the  heart. 

We  have  said  that»  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  was  addressed  ex- 
clusively to  the  disciples.  It  was  possibly  heard  by  some  of  the 
multitude  (ch.  vii.  28-29) ;  but  it  was  more  propably  after  the  sub- 
sequent repetition  of  much  of  this  sermon  that  the  people  showed 
astonishment ;  for  parts  of  the  same  sermon  were,  as  we  may  infer 
from  comparing  this  narrative  of  Matthew  W'ith  Luke  vi.  17,  49, 
repeated  to  the  multitude  while  standing  on  the  plain  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountain.  This  accounts  for  the  ellipses  in  some  of  the 
beatitudes,  and  the  omission  of  others  ( it  was  to  be  presumed  that 
the  memory  of  the  disciples  would  supply  all  that  was  verbally 
wanting) ;  also  for  the  addition  of  four  Avoes  which  could  have  been 
intended  only  for  "  the  audience  of  the  people,"  and  particularly 
for  the  rich,  luxurious,  and  vain  pleasure-seekers  and  visitors  from 
Jerusalem,  Tyre,  and  Sidon.  Admirable  as  these  two  exordia  are, 
the  student  should  beware  of  considering  them  as  standards  by 
which  to  test  the  excellence  of  all  others.  They  are  j^erfect  in 
their  kind.  Let  him  remember  that  each  exordium  is  adapted  to 
the  hearers  and  the  subject.  It  will  be  erjually  ])rofital)le  for  him 
to  study  the  introduction  of  Peter's  sermon  (Acts  ii.  15),  of  Stephen's 
apology  (Acts  vii.  2),  of  Paul's  sermon  at  Antioch  (xiii.  15-41),  and 
at  Athens  (xvii.  22-31),  of  his  defence  at  Jerusalem  (ch.  xxii.),  and 
before  Felix  (ch.  xxiv.),  and  before  Agripi:)a  (ch.  xxvi.).     Nor  should 

I  Compare  v.  3.  vii.  3-5;  v.  5,  vi.  19,  34;  v.  6,  v.  20,  vi.  \-lZ]  v.  7,  v.  38-19; 
V.  8,  v.  27-32 ;  v.  9,  v.  21-26,  eic. 


OF  THE  INTRODUCTION.  305 

he  set  a  small  value  on  the  exordium  of  Hebrews  (ch.  i.  1-4),  and 
that  of  James  (i.  2-27). 

In  the  time  of  Chrysostom  it  was  the  custom  for  the  preacher  to 
begin  his  sermons  with  a  salutation  after  the  manner  of  Paul  in  his 
epistles.  This  was  afterwards  abbreviated  into  the  mere  Pax 
vohis.  But  the  Christian  fathers  seem  not  to  have  reflected  that 
what  had  always  been  considered  proper  at  the  beginning  of  letters 
was  not  necessarily  so  proper  in  the  introductions  of  sermoiis.  Yet 
to  the  honor  of  their  manly  and  Christian  freedom  be  it  added  that 
they  did  not  bind  themselves  to  any  formality  in  this  matter.  They 
sometimes  prefaced  their  discourses  with  short  prayers,  sometimes 
with  the  apostolic  benediction.  Chrysostom's  first  homily  after  his 
return  from  banishment  is  introduced  with  these  words  :  "  What 
shall  I  say — Blessed  be  God  !  The  word  which  I  spoke  on  leaving 
you  I  now  repeat  at  my  return,  or  rather  it  has  not  been  absent 
from  my  lips.  You  recollect,  perhaps,  that  I  said  to  you  in  the 
language  of  Job, '  the  name  of  the  Lord  be  praised  forever.'^  The 
circumstances  are  difierent,  but  the  jd raise  is  the  same.  When  driven 
away  I  praised  Him,  returning  home  I  praise  Him."  This  custom 
of  the  Greek  fathers  was  afterwards  cited  in  support  of  the  Intro- 
itus,  of  which  more  vv^ill  be  said  jDresently. 

From  these  and  other  examples  we  may  learn  in  the  first  place 
to  study  variety  in  our  exordia.  If  antiquity  has  not  misinform- 
ed us,  both  Demosthenes  and  Cicero  were  m  the  habit  of  pre2:)aring 
at  their  leisure  different  introductions  to  be  prefixed  to  their  ex- 
temporaneous orations.  They  thus  secured  variety  but  at  the  ex- 
pense of  pertinence.  That  kind  of  exordium  which  might  be 
adapted  to  several  causes  was  in  Quintilian's2  time  regarded  with 
little  favor,  and  was  called  vulgar  (vulgare),  although  he  admits 
that  it  was  not  always  avoided  by  the  greatest  orators.  Some  old 
rhetorician  or  other  has  compared  such  exordia  to  the  sword  used  at 
the  temple  of  Delphi  which  served  the  double  purpose  of  immola- 
ting the  sacred  victims  and  executing  malefactors. 

In  order  to  secure  a  variety,  introductions  may,  as  Claude  has 
hinted,  be  taken  from  the  same  "  topics  "  as  those  he  has  mentioned 
for  suggesting  fit  propositions.  Indeed,  Mr.  Sturtevant,3  profiting 
by  this  hint  of  Claude,  has  furnished  his  readers  with  twenty-seven 
"  topical  exordiums,"  besides  four  or  five  "  extra-topical,"  to  say 
nothing  of  his  narrative,  expository,  argumentative,  observational, 
applicatory  exordia,  and  his  seven  different  methods  of  introducing 


1  Septnagint.      ,       2  L.  iv.,  c.  1,  sec.  71. 

3  Preachers'  Manual  (Sd  ed.,  London,  1838),  pp.  573-641. 


306  OF  THE   INTRODUCTION. 

topical  introductions.  But  let  the  student  hear  m-c11  in  mind  that 
the  greatest  possible  diversity  requires  him  occasionally  to  proceed 
at  once  to  the  matter  in  hand,  as  the  inspired  preachers  frequently 
did,  and  as  Cicero  sometimes  did  {e.  //.,  Pro  Cluait'w),  and  Clirys- 
ostom.  and  Gregory  Nazianzen.  And  yet  some  brief  premonition 
is  almost  always  necessary  lest  the  people  imagine,  as  Claude  says, 
that  the  preacher  is  aiming  to  do  with  them  what  the  angel  did 
with  the  i)rophet,  when  he  took  him  by  the  hair  of  the  head  and 
carried  him  in  an  instant  from  Judea  to  Babylon  (Bel  and  the 
Dragon,  3G). 

The  next  in  importance  is  the  rule  :  To  adapt  the  exordium  to 
the  spirit,  matter,  and  form  of  the  sermon.  The  inspired  examples 
of  discourse  at  once  suggest  and  illustrate  this  rule. 

1.  "If,"  says  Claude,  "the  subject  be  sad  and  affecting,  and  your 
aim  is  to  excite  the  compassion,  grief  and  tears  of  your  audience, 
you  must  commence  accordingly.  If  you  treat  of  a  profound  and 
difficult  mystery^  aim  to  diffuse  elevation  and  wonder  among  your 
hearers.  If  some  terrible  example  of  God's  justice  be  the  subject, 
endeavour  to  stir  up  fear." 

2.  The  same  authority  counsels  us  to  take  care  to  put  nothing 
here  that  is  foreign  to  our  subject,  and  to  connect  the  irJi<>le  of  the 
exordium  with  all  the  matter  of  the  text.  Claude  lays  down  this 
rule  on  the  supposition  that  every  sermon  is  naturally  to  grow  out 
of  all  the  text.  It  cannot,  of  course,  apply  to  the  composition  of 
all  topical  sermons.  A  more  general  rule  is  that  of  Cicero,  that  every 
exordium  ought  to  convey  an  intimation  of  the  whole  matter  in  hand. 

3.  But  do  not  here  display  a  knowledge  of  rhetoric  as  Segneri 
docs  ((^uaresimale,  ser.  iii.).  Hence  introductions  should  not  antici- 
pate matter  that  belongs  to  the  other  parts  of  sermons,  but  rather, 
by  general  and  admitted  statements,  prepare  the  way  for  the  pro- 
position ;  e.  g.,  in  a  sermon  on  family  prayer  avc  may  begin  by 
saying  that  true  piety  honors  God   in  everything. 

4.  The  exordium  should  in  length  and  style  be  proportioned 
to  the  length  and  style  of  the  sermon.  Cicero  thinks  it  often 
advisable  in  small  and  unimportant  causes  to  begin  with  the 
subject-matter  itself  without  any  preliioe.  Dr.  Blair  has  bor- 
rowed ami  elaborated  this  fruitful  illustration  of  Pindar  and  the 
great  Roman  orator  :i  "  Nothing  can  be  more  absurd  than  to  erect 
a  very  great  portico  before  a  small  building  ;  and  it  is  no  lessal)surd 
to  overcharge  with  superb  ornaments  the  portico  of  a  plain  dwell- 
ing-house, or  to  make  the  entrance  of  a  monument  as  gay  r-^  that 
of  an  arbour."     But  still  Pindar  is  not  to  be  disputed  when  he 

2  De  Oraiore  L.  ii.,  c.  Ixxix.  ;  compare  Pindar's  Olympiads,  Ode  vi. 


OF  THE  INTRODUCTION.  307 

says  that  a  stately  inanslon  should  have  a  well-built  portal  sup- 
ported by  golden  pillars. 

Another  rule,  often  repeated,  is  that  the  exordium  should  be  ac- 
commodated to  the  mental  state  in  which  the  audience  are  found 
to  be  at  the  beginning  of  the  sermon.  This  rule  is  less  important 
than  the  last ;  for  the  preacher  is  always  expected  to  consult  the 
demands  of  his  subject  before  giving  heed  to  any  other  considera- 
tion. As,  however,  he  may  on  many  occasions  safely  and  advanta- 
geously adapt  his  exodium  both  to  his  subject  and  to  the  first 
thoughts  and  feelings  of  his  hearers,  he  will  find  the  following  re- 
marks not  unworthy  of  his  attention. 

(1.)  It  may  in  general  be  presupposed  that  the  congregation  are 
at  the  beginning  of  sermon-time  calm  and  dispassionate.  We  are 
accordingly  told  that  here  we  should  avoid  apostrophies,  exclama- 
tions, bold  interrogations  and  surprising  paradoxes.  And  yet  the 
simile,  the  parable,  and  the  supposition  are  here  allowable.  Nor 
should  the  student  think  that  his  introduction  should  be  devoid  of 
all  feeling.  So  far  from  this,  more  feeling  may  often  be  expressed 
here  than  in  the  explication  and  confirmation  of  the  subject.  The 
exodium  and  the  peroration  are,  according  to  Cicero,^  the  two  parts 
which  are  to  be  devoted  to  excitation.  But  Quintiliana  has  made 
an  important  distinction  as  to  the  degrees  of  excitation  which  these 
two  parts  of  a  speech  allows :  "  In  the  introduction  the  kind  feel- 
ings of  the  judge  should  be  touched  but  cautiously  and  modestly ; 
while  in  the  peroration  we  may  give  full  scope  to  the  pathetic." 
Hence  Segmeri  is  wrong  when  he  begins  one  of  his  sermons  (Quar- 
esimale,  ser.  xiv.)  with  the  words  :  "  Either  hell  or  penance." 

There  are  many  occasions,  however,  when  Cicero's  rule  is  to  be 
received  without  Quintilian's  distinction  and  the  cautions  of  later 
writers.  The  exordia  of  some  of  the  prophets  and  apostles  are,  to 
the  full,  as  animated  as  any  other  parts  of  their  sj)eeches.  See  also 
Cicero's  first  and  second  orations  against  Catiline,  that  against  Va- 
tinius,  against  L.  C.  Piso,  against  T.  A.  Milo  and  the  Eleventh 
Philippic.  One  of  Chrysostom's  sermons  is  reported^  to  have  begun 
with  these  words :  "  Again  Ilerodias  raves ;  again  she  is  troubled ; 
she  dances  again;  and  again  desires  to  receive  John's  head  m  a 
charger."  This  is  said  to  have  been  spoken  in  allusion  to  the  hostil- 
ity of  Eudosia  towards  the  bishoj^.^     Fenelon  preached  a  sermon 

1  De  Partitiones,  sees.  1  and  8.  2  Inst.  Ora.,  L.  iv.,  c.  i.,  sec.  28. 

3  Socrates,  Eccl.  Hist ,  L.  vi.,  c.  xviii. 

4  See  also  Chrysostom's  Homily  Contra  Circenses  et  TheaU'a,  beginning  Tavra 
dvEHTCc,  vol.  vi.,  314,  Paris  ed.  See  again  the  exhortations  and  objurgations  in 
the  exordia  of  his  Homilies  on  Genesis. 


308  OF  THE  INTRODUCTION. 

for  Epiphany  on  Isa  Ix.  1,  "  Rise  shine,"  etc.,  in  which  he  commences 
thus ;  "  Blessed  be  God  who  has  this  day  put  his  word  mto  my 
mouth  to  praise  the  work  which  he  accomplishes  in  this  house.  I 
have,  I  must  confess,  long  desired  to  pour  out  my  heart  before 
these  altars  and  to  speak  to  the  praise  of  divine  grace,  all  that  he 
wrought  in  the  apostolic  men  who  have  enlightened  the  East.  It 
is  then  in  a  transport  of  joy  that  I  speak  to-day  of  the  call  of  the 
Gentiles  in  this  house  whence  went  forth  the  men  by  whom  the  rest 
of  the  Gentiles  have  been  made  to  hear  the  glad  tidings."' 

For  funeral  sermons  pathetic  exordia  are  natural.  In  these,  as 
in  the  Lamentations  ol  Jeremiah,  the  anti-climax  is  not  only  allow- 
able but  often  unavoidable.  After  these  abatements  it  may  still  be 
said,  in  general,  that  the  milder  feelings,  Td  ijfJrj,  belong  to  the  ex- 
ordium, and  the  more  vehement  feelings,  Td  TtdOrj,  belong  to  the 
peroration.  Even  Chrysostom  {c.  //.,  6th  Hom.  on  Philippians) 
raises  expectations  in  the  introduction  Avhich  he  afterwards  disap- 
points. 

(2.)  The  young  preacher  should  consider  that  what  seems  a  little 
abrupt  to  himself  will  appear  still  more  abrupt  to  the  congrega- 
tion. "  His  own  interest  in  the  subject,"  says  Schott,  "  was  not 
sudden  and  mstantaneous,  but  arose  by  degrees;  therefore  he 
should  not  expect  that  his  hearers  will  enter  into  the  subject  with 
the  same  zeal  which  he  has  acquired  by  having  passed  through  a 
prolonged  study  of  it.  They  must  observe  the  same  law  of  grada- 
tion which  he  followed."  The  rule  Charles  Wolfe  adopted  for  his 
own  guidance  was :  "  Begin  naturally  and  easily,  but  so  as  to  ex- 
cite curiosity.  Begin  in  an  original  and  striking  but  sedate 
manner." 

One  principal  object  in  an  exordium  is  to  gain  and  secure  atten- 
tion. Among  the  things  that  draw  attention  are  reverence  and 
modesty.  Simeon  advised  his  students  to  adopt  such  a  tone  of 
voice  as  they  Avould  naturally  choose  if  they  were  speaking  to  per- 
sons older  than  themselves  and  to  whom  they  owed  reverence. 
Vinet  would  have  the  preacher  even  timid,  but  with  this  distinc- 
tion of  Marmontcl,  that  he  should  be  timid  for  himself,  but  bold  for 
his  cause.  Another  way  to  make  people  give  ear  is  to  set  out 
with  a  popular  saying,  objection,  ditticidty,  apparent  contradiction, 
excuse,  or  question,  which  is  to  be  afterwards  disposed  of  (See 
Chalmers's  sermon  on  the  Golden  Rule,  Matt.  vii.  12.)  A  fict  or 
short  narrative  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  seize  and  enchain  the 
min<ls  of  an  audience  (Segneri,  Quarcsimalc,  Pred.  28);  thus 
Wolfe  preferred  some  incident  or  anecdote  for  an  exordium.  Padre 
Segneri  and  Dr.  Ogdcn  begin  sermons  with  fables,  and  Adolphe 


OF  THE  INTRODUCTION.  309 

Monod  one  of  his  be&t  (that  on  1  John  iv.  8)  with  a  fact  as  the  basis 
of  a  supposition.  Segneri  in  one  case  {Quareshnale,  Pred.  11)  sets 
out  with  a  dissimilitude.  Some  are  in  the  habit  of  formally  asking 
attention ;  for  this  they  are  supported  by  the  authority  of  some  in- 
spired preachers.^ 

The  transition  from  the  exordium  to  the  proposition  should  be 
short  and  easy.  For  the  reason  that  the  matter  of  their  introduc- 
tion is  either  irrelevant  or  badly  arranged,  some  preachers  appear 
to  leap  a  very  broad  chasm  when  they  pass  from  their  exordium; 
and  a  written  or  "printed  discourse  of  theirs  seems,  when  read,  not 
unlike  a  temple  from  which  the  portico  has  been  separated  by  an 
earthquake. 

We  Avill  only  add  that  the  best  authorities  concur  in  the  opinion 
that  the  exordium  should  not  be  chosen  and  planned  until  the  prin- 
cipal matter  of  the  sermon  be  selected  and  arranged.  This  is  ac- 
cordant with  Cicero's^  example  and  advice  :  "  Quod  primum  est  di- 
cendum  postremum  soleo  cogitare."  Some  forbid  us  to  dream  of 
the  introduction  until  the  rest  of  the  discourse  has  been  vritten. 
But  Vinet  thinks  this  mode  of  proceeding  is  not  natural,  as  a  good 
exordium  prepares  the  orator  to  compose,  as  well  as  the  congrega- 
tion to  hear.  And  yet  he  approves  Cicero's  method.  If,  however, 
we  thus  write  our  exordium,  we  are  compelled  to  begin  to  arrange 
and  to  express  those  thoughts  first  which  have  occupied  our  minds 
the  shortest  time.  Now,  as  a  good  exordium  is  confessedly  very 
difficult  to  compose,  and  the  success  of  the  sermon  so  much  de- 
pends upon  its  beginning,  it  is  but  fair  to  allow  the  preacher  the 
longest  possible  time  for  pondering  its  materials,  and  for  making 
such  changes  in  them  as  the  composition  of  the  rest  may  happen  to 
suggest.  Few  sketches  are  so  complete  as  to  admit  no  improve- 
ment from  such  after-thoughts  as  inay  make  it  very  desirable  either 
to  modify  the  exordium  we  had  premeditated,  or  to  invent  an- 
other which  shall  be  essentially  different  from  it.  But  if  we  make 
the  explication  of  the  text  serve  for  an  exordium  (a  custom  of 
the  English  preachers,  which  Claude  condemns,  but  which  is  some- 
times very  convenient),  then  we  ought  undoubtedly  to  write  the 
exposition  first,  and  that  so  carefully  as  not  to  demand  any  material 
alterations ;  for  if  we  afterwards  disturb  this  foundation  we  throw 
part  of  our  building  out  of  course,  and  run  the  hazard  of  bringing 
the  whole  superstructure  down  to  the  grovmd. 

A  synchronism  (a  figure  which  expresses  the  first   things   by 

1  Micah  i.  2;  Joel  i.  2  ;  Acts  vii.  2. 

2  De  Orat.,L.  ii.,  c.  Ixxvii.,  Ixxviii.  "The  last  Ihing  one  finds  out  is  what  to 
put  first.'' — Pascal. 


310  THE  INTROITUS. 

the  first  words,  and  the  last  things  by  the  last  words)  makes  a-)od 
introdnction,  e.  ^.,  "  We  will  begin  where  the  Lord  begins  with,  j " 
"  The  Scriptures  first  reveal  the  doctrine,"  etc. 

No  inti'oductions  are  more  effective  than  those  Avhich  are  siiggt- 
ed  by  time,  or  place,  or  circumstances.     How  opportime  was  at 
of  St.  Paul,  at  Athens,  in  which  he  makes  an  inscription  he  id 
just  read  on  an  altar  the  text  of  his  address — an  exordium  wih 
we  will  the  more  admire  when  we  remember  that  the  Athen^g 
"  heard  with  their  eyes  and  saw  with  their  ears."     As  such  inv. 
ductions  have  always  been  ex  tempore^  few  of  them  have  descenQ 
to  us :    Chrysostom,  Vieyra,  Walker,  and  Whitefield,!  have  left  ■. 
some  very  happy  exordia  of  this  kind.     The  authenticity  of  t 
celebrated  introduction  which  is  ascribed  to  Brydayne  has  bd 
called  in  question.     John  Munro,  of  Halkirk,  Scotland,  is  report 
to  have  begun  a  sermon  on  Psa.  xlv.  2,  with  these  words  :  "  Comir 
here  this  afternoon,  I  Avas  struck  with  the  loveliness  of  creatioi 
The  green  fields,  the  sparkling  brooks,  the   blossoming  hedges 
were  all  smiling  and  rejoicing  in  the  sunshine.     Seeing  the  fairnes. 
of  the  creation,  I  thought  of  the  Fair  One  who  made  and  upholds 
all  things,  and  Avho,  while  fair  in  his  work  of  creation,  is  infinitely 
more  so  in  his  work  of  redemption.     I  remembered  the  fairness  of 
his  divinity,  and  the  fairness  of  his  humanity.     Was  he  not  fair  in 
the  manger,  fair  in  the  cradle,  fair  in  his  life,  fair  in  his  death  ?     Yea, 
60  fair  is  he  that  my  whole  soul  was  led  captive  by  him,  and  began 
to  preach  him  to  the  birds  of  the  air,  and  now  I  will  preach  him  to 
this  congregation."     Yet  we  must  not  think  that  such  exordia  are 
to  be  had  by  seeking ;  like  the  wings  of  the  morning,  they  can 
easily  dart  down  upon  us,  but  we  can  never  soar  to  meet  them. 

We  will  only  add  that  in  commemorative  and  other  elaborate 
sermons  for  extraordinary  occasions,  we  should  bear  in  mind  the 
old  proverb,  that  "  The  vestibule  is  the  ornament  of  a  house." 

StJBSECTIOX    I. — Tnio   iNTEOITtrS. 

In  the  later  Latin  church  this  term  was  applied  to  the  psalm  which 
was  sung  whilst  the  priest  was  entering  within  the  rails  of  the  altar: 
but  in  the  Lutheran  church  it  designated  the  salutation  with  wliich 
the  preacher  began  his  sermon,  usually  consisting  of  a  Scripture 
benediction  or  doxology.     Old  writers-  treat  of  it  as  the  first  part 

1  Foster's  Life,  vol.  ii.,  p.  315. 

2  Carpzovius,  in  Hodegeticum,  p.  24;  Goebelius  in  Method  .  Honi  t'hap.  xvi. ; 
Titulus  i.  ;  llalscmanus,  in  Oral.  Eccles.,  chap,  vi.,  p.  2,  3. 


THE  NEXUS.  311 

of  the  exordium,  and  designate  two  kinds  :  the  one  the  common  or 
fixed,  because  it  was  more  usually  employed ;  and  the  other  the 
special,  as  varying  in  accommodation  to  particular  themes.  They 
give  such  texts  from  the  Psalms  or  the  Prophets  as  are  commonly 
quoted  byway  of  introitus,  e.  g.,  Psa.  xcv.  1,  2  ;  xcvi,  8,  9;  cv.  1-5  ; 
cviii.  8;  Isa.  i.  2;  xlix.  13;  Is,  1,  2;  Ixvi.  10—;  Habak.  iii.  20; 
Amos.  iii.  8;  Jer.  vi.  8;  ix.  12;  Mich.  vi.  9.  A  special  introitus 
might  be  selected  for  any  church  festival ;  but  it  was  considered 
essential  to  every  one,  whether  fixed  or  special,  that,  it  should  con- 
clude with  three  things  :  a  benediction  or  salutation,  an  indication 
of  the  theme,  and  an  imploration  of  divine  aid. 

This  formal  prelude  fovmd  its  source  in  the  apostolic  epistles,  in 
the  homilies  of  Chrysostom,  and  the  other  Greek  fathers ;  but  as 
already  shown,  the  example  of  these  fathers,  and  of  the  aj^ostles 
encourages  a  very  large  liberty  as  to  this  and  other  parts  of  the 
exordium. 

SCBSF.CTIOX    II. TUE    NeXUS. 

The  Nexus  or  connection  is  that  part  of  a  sermon  which  aims  to 
elucidate  the  text  by  showing  its  relation  to  the  context,  near  or 
remote.  When  the  text  is  explained  by  a  copious  discussion  of  the 
scope  and  design  of  the  sacred  writer  in  the  subject-matter  connect- 
ed with  the  text,  the  result  often  is  not  a  nexus  but  an  expository 
exodium ;  for  the  former  should  be  very  brief,  and  in  the  best  ser- 
mons consists  of  a  few  remarks  preceding  the  transitus.  Many 
texts  demand  no  such  explanation;  and  those  that  do  should,  for 
the  most  part,  be  the  made  the  subject  of  a  regular  explication,  for, 
as  Claude  too  truly  remarks,  the  hearers  almost  always  pass  over 
the  nexus  and  receive  very  little  instruction  from  it.  But  still 
there  are  very  many  important  texts  which  will  not  be  understood 
by  the  mass  of  our  hearers  unless  we  trace  their  relation  to  some 
near  or  remote  passage,  e.  g.,  2  Cor.  xii.  9  ;  2  Pet.  i.  4.  Indeed,  not 
a  few  sermons  are  so  composed  as  to  be  little  other  than  an  ampli- 
fied nexus,  as  almost  all  the  subject-matter  is  suggested  by  thei 
verses  foregoing  or  following.  Such  is  frequently  the  case  when 
the  text  is  a  part  of  a  parable  or  Scripture  history.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent rule  to  treat  every  text  according  to  the  sense  it  bears  in  its 
connectio7i  •  and  hence  when  a  text  is  to  be  treated  in  a  secondary 
sense  or  application  it  is  advisable,  if  possible,  to  quote  it  in  that 
place  \vhere  it  is  employed  in  such  secondary  import  or  use ;  so 
that  if  wo  wish  to  apply  it  to  other  aualagous  cases  by  way  of  ac- 
commoda   on,  our  justification  for  so  doing  will  not  be  far  to  seek. 

21 


\ 


\ 


312  THE  TRANSITUS, 


SuBSEcriox  III. — The  TiiAxsiTrs. 


A  Transltus  is  defined  by  Schott  as  "  that  part  of  the  discourse 
■wliich  develops  the  connection  between  the  theme  and  the  text. 
...  It  is  not  the  elucidation  of  the  text  as  such,  but  is  that  part 
of  the  sermon  which  is  neccessary  for  showing  the  pertinency  of 
•the  proposition  to  the  text,  or  the  fact  that  the  former  is  involved 
in  the  latter.  If  the  j)roposition  be  derived  directly  and  obviously 
froni  the  text,  it  demands  only  such  a  brief  transitus  as  shall  un- 
fold the  intermediate  idea  uniting  the  two;  but  if  it  be  derived  in- 
directly and  by  inference,  it  requires  a  more  extended  illustration 
of  the  process  by  which  it  is  deduced  from,  and  of  its  precise  rele- 
vancy to  the  text.  The  shorter  the  transitus  so  much  the  better, 
if  it  fully  demonstrates  the  fitness  of  the  theme  to  the  words  by 
which  it  Avas  dictated  or  suggested.  If  the  transitus  be  long  it  has, 
like  the  nexus,  the  appearance  of  a  second  exordium.'' 

The  transitus  of  English  and  French  sermons  usually  forms  a 
part  of  the  exordium,  particularly  when  the  exordium  follows  the 
text  and  is  expository.  Then  the  transitus  will  naturally  close  the 
explication  and,  as  Schott  says,i  "  they  may  be  considered  as  forming 
a  single  part  of  the  discourse,  in  other  words,  as  uniting  in  a  com- 
pound exordium.  If  the  reading  of  the  text  be  deferred  to  the 
close  of  the  exordium  (as  is  customary  in  the  German  pulpit),  then 
the  development  of  the  subject  from  the  text  constitutes  a  subordi- 
nate but  distinct  part  of  the  sermon.  "When  the  two  parts  are  thus 
separated  by  the  intervening  text,  they  may  still  have  the  same  in- 
fluence on  the  sermon,  but  they  have  each  a  distinct  designation." 
But  wherever  the  transitus  is  jilaced,  it  is  frequently  necessary,  and 
the  preliminary  considerations  it  should  contain  prepare  the  hearers 
to  understand  the  rest  of  the  discourse.  Xoristhis  all.  Something 
like  a  transitus  may  sometimes  be  demanded  at  the  beginning  of 
one  or  more  of  the  leading  divisions  of  the  sermon. 

The  divines  of  the  seventeenth  ccntuary,-  strange  as  it  may  ap- 
pear to  us,  were  taught  that  the  exordium  might  sometimes  be 
properly  placed  before  the  application ;  but  we  should  remember 
that  then  an  entire  sermon  was  often  devoted  to  uses ;  occasionally, 
however,  this  precept  might  be  observed  in  the  more  brief  sermons 
of  the  modern  fashion. 


1  Dr.  Park's  condensed  translation  of  his  Theoricdcr  Bcrcdsamkeil,  Bib.  Sac,  voL 
v.,  pp.  735,  737. 

2  William  Amos,  Medulla  Tbeologica,  L.  i.,  chap,  xxxv.,  sec.  59. 


OF  THE  PROPOSITION.  313 


Section  II. — Of  the  Proposition". 

The  statement  of  the  subject  of  a  sermon,  or  of  the  doctrine  of 
its  text,  is  commonly  termed  the  proposition.  It  is  not  a  little 
remarkable  that  none  of  the  inspired  speakers  formally  announce 
their  propositions,  and  that  but  two  or  three  have  embodied  them 
in  such  forms  of  expression  as  may  be  examined  apart  from  the 
body  of  the  address.  Various  but  unsatisfactory  attemjDts  have 
been  niade  to  specify  the  verse  or  verses  in  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  which  express  the  fundamental  theme.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  all  endeavours  to  find  out  the  propositions  in  the  other  ser- 
mons of  our  Lord,  and  in  most  of  Paul's  speeches.  The  proposi- 
tion in  Paul's  speech  before  Felix  is  given  in  Acts  xxiv.  25.  Ben- 
gel,  -with  doubtful  propriety,  puts  forward  Psa.  viii.  5-9,  as  the  pro- 
position of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  but  the  same  great  scholar 
has  with  admirable  success  sought  the  theme  of  the  epistle  of  James 
in  chaj^.  i.  19,  "  Let  every  man  be  swift  to  hear,  slow  to  speak, 
slow  to  WRATH."  TVe  are  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  Heb.  vi.  1--3 
was  intended  for  a  pi'oposition  embracing  seven  subjects  (under 
that  of  perfection)  which  are  treated  in  a  free  and  somewhat  discon- 
nected way  in  this  epistle,  and  in  First  and  Second  Corinthians 
successively.  Without  here  attempting  to  show  the  grounds  of  our 
opinion,  we  may  paraphrase  the  proposition  thus :  "  Therefore 
•  leaving  the  doctrine  of  the  origin  of  Christ,  let  us  go  on  unto  the 
doctrine  of  perfection,  but  in  our  way  not  throwing  down  (but 
rather  building)  the  foundation  of  repentance  from  dead  works,  and 
of  faith  towards  God ;  of  baptisms,  of  teaching,  and  of  laying  on  of 
hands  (or  conferring  spiritual  gifts),  and  of  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead,  and  of  eternal  judgment.  And  this  will  we  do  if  God 
permit." 

The  proposition  is,  according  to  rhetoricians,  the  ultimate  con- 
clusion to  be  established.  The  premises  or  propositions  of  an  en- 
thymeme  are  by  them  called  arguments.  Of  the  real  nature  of  pro- 
positions Mr.  Mill  has  given  us  a  philosophical  account  in  his  Logic. 
"  In  every  proposition,"  says  he,  "  is  asserted  or  denied  one  or 
other  of  these  five  things  :  Existence,  co-existence,  sequence,  causa- 
tion, resemblance."  Phetorical  propositions  have  received  various 
names,  two  of  which  are  of  the  most  practical  importance,  viz., 
the  analytic  and  the  syntJietlc.  The  former  are  such  as  contain 
the  proof  within  themselves,  or  the  proof  of  which  is  derived  from 
the  very  terms  of  the  propositions ;  the  latter  are  such  as  depend 
for  proof  on  some  fact  or  reason  outside  of  themselves.     By  these 


314  OF  THE  PROPOSITION. 

two  terms  we  also  designate  two  methods  of  argumentation.  "When 
we  adopt  the  first  we  begin  by  laying  down  the  main  proposition, 
and  then  resolve  it  into  its  elements;  in  other  words,  we  place  fore- 
most the  conclusion  and  then  go  back  to  the  premises  whence  it  is 
derived.  When  we  adopt  the  second  we  gradually  establish  premiss 
after  premiss,  and  then  finally  create  our  conclusion  out  of  them ; 
in  other  words,  we  reach  our  2-)roposition  by  inducing  our  hearers 
to  make  a  series  of  concessions  which  necessarily  conduct  us  to  it 
by  way  of  inference.  Schott  recommends  this  method  when  the 
proposition  is  unwelcome  to  the  hearers,  but  thinks  it  is  not  ap])ro- 
priate  for  subjects  which  require  much  time  for  their  full  exhibition. 
Vinet,  on  the  contrary,  would  scarcely  permit  the  preacher  to  em- 
ploy synthetic  arguments.  "  When,"  says  he, "  we  have  only  to  re- 
duce an  adversary  to  silence,  this  method,  to  which  Socrates  has 
given  his  name,  may  certainly  be  employed  with  great  propriety. 
We  remark  it  in  many  of  our  Lord's  discourses ;  but  it  is  interest- 
ing to  observe  that  he  uses  it  rather  to  confound  his  unprincipled 
adversaries  than  to  instruct  well-disposed  hearers."'  But  Vinet  here 
takes  but  a  one-sided  view  of  this  method  of  reasoning.  The  fact 
is  that  our  Lord  employed  it  on  various  occasions,  and  not  a  few  of 
his  parables  are  in  effect  examples  of  synthetic  reasoning. 

But  to  retura  to  our  subject.  There  are  three  other  classes  of 
propositions  which  are  worthy  of  mention,  and  either  one  of  which 
may  sometimes  be  employed  by  the  preacher.  One  class  of  propo- 
sitions consists  of  the  mere  names  of  the  subjects  of  discourse. 
They  do  not  differ  from  what  is  called  tlie  theme ;  as,  "  The  Neces- 
sity of  Regeneration."  To  another  class  belong  those  propositions 
wjiich  are  expressed  in  a  complete  sentence.  In  this  class  are 
found  two  kinds :  the  categorical,  wherein  is  an  assertion  which 
must  be  followed  by  proof,  as,  "  Obedience  without  love  is  like  a 
body  without  a  soul ;"  the  hypothetical,  which  asks  a  question  or 
j)roposes  a  problem  for  the  hearers  to  solve,  as, "  Is  there  at  the 
present  day  a  class  of  nominal  Christians  who  in  character  and  life 
resemble  the  Pharisees  ?  "  The  third  class  consists  of  a  union  of 
the  first  two  classes  with  an  ellipsis,  as,  "The  necessity  of  regener- 
ation in  order  to  the  beatific  vision  of  Christ."  Reinhard,  who  was  too 
ambitious  to  preach  many  sermons  on  one  text,  so  as  never  to  go 
beyond  the  lessons  for  the  day,  taught  that  the  theme  must  be 
wholly  contained  in  the  text,  but  not  be  immediately  upon  the  face 
of  it,  nor  be  a  subtlety. 

Some  sermons  admit  of  more  than  one  proposition.  Samuel 
RutluM-ford  once  preached  before  tlie  House  of  Commons  a  very 
long  and  elaborate  sermon  from  Dan.  vi.  26,  in  which  he  takes  up 


OF  THE  PARTITION.  315 

in  succession  each  clause  of  his  text,  and  devotes  to  it  a  separate 
exposition,  proposition,  or  "  doctrme,"  confirmation,  and  series  of 
uses.  His  method  does  not  prevent  him  from  being  very  eloquent 
in  some  of  his  applications.  He  seems  to  have  borrowed  his  meth- 
od in  this  discourse  from  Wm.  Ames  (Lat.  Amesius),  who  employ- 
ed it  in  all  his  sermons.  Faulty  as  it  is,  it  may  be  safely  recom- 
mended to  be  adopted  for  a  season  to  those  preachers  who  have 
formed  a  habit  of  expounding  vaguely  and  without  end  or  aim. 

We  are  advised  by  some  ancient  rhetoricians^  occasionally  to 
dispense  with  the  statement  of  the  proposition ;  but  Aristotle  says 
that  the  proposition  and  proof  are  the  two  parts  which  are  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  every  discourse.  Demosthenes  often  omits  it;- 
and  yet  in  his  first  Philippic  and  some  other  orations  he  states  his 
theme  immediately  after  his  exordium.  In  some  argumentative 
discourses  the  proposition  may  wisely  be  withheld  until  near  the 
end  of  the  sermon.  Schott's  counsel  on  this  point  is  worth  repeat- 
ing :  "  In  occasional  sermons  and  in  homilies  the  preacher  may 
omit  the  regular  proposition,  and  may  indicate  his  main  theme  by 
his  mode  of  transition  to  it.  But  in  his  ordinary  discourses  he 
should  retain  the  formal  proposition.  The  use  of  it  gives  definiteness 
and  precision  to  the  ideas  of  the  audience ;  it  excites  their  curiosity 
and  stimulates  their  attention." 

The  question  whether  it  should  be  laid  down  at  the  beginning 
or  reserved  till  the  end  of  the  discourse,  has  been  virtually  answered 
in  that  part  of  the  section  which  determines  when  the  premises  and 
when  the  conclusion  should  come  first. 

Section  III. — Op  the  PARTiTioisr. 

According  to  Cicero2  the  partition  is  the  explanation  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  speaker  intends  to  handle  a  case,  indicating,  in  one 
part  of  it,  the  points  on  which  both  parties  are  agreed,  and  in  the 
other  of  those  points  on  which  they  differ.  He  taught  that  a  good 
partition  rendered  the  whole  oration  clear  and  intelligible.  In  his 
oration  for  Roscius  (§11),  the  partition  is  introduced  by  ques- 
tions. Partition,  as  defined  by  Quintilian,^  is  the  enumeration  {or- 
dlne  collata)  in  methodical  succession  of  our  own  propositions  or 
those  of  our  adversary,  or  both. 

Hitherto  questions  as  to  this  part  of  the  sermon  have,  been  de- 
cided by  an  appeal  to  classical  precepts  and  examples.  But  we 
should  consider  that  they  are  not  ultimate  authorities  in  homileti- 

1  Quint.,  L.  iv.,  c.  iv.,  §2.         2  Be  Lwcntione,  L.  i.,  c.  xxii.         3  L    iv.,  c.  v. 


ai6  OF  THE  PARTITION. 

cal  matters.  There  are  indeed  some  kinds  of  sermons  ■which  so 
nearly  rcsemLle  the  ethnic  oration  that  the  same  rules  on  this  jjoint 
apj)ly  equally  to  both. 

In  none  of  the  sacred  speeches  do  we  find  any  partition.  Nor  is 
the  method  indicated  by  any  signs  of  division.  The  modem  divi- 
sion of  the  Scriptures  into  chapters  and  verses  does  more  to  con- 
ceal than  to  reveal  their  method.  Indeed  this  method  is  of  such  a 
natm-e  as  to  derive  little  or  no  assistance  from  any  marks  that  have 
as  yet  been  invented. 

It  is  well  worth  observing,  however,  that  throughout  the  Scrip- 
tures partition  has  reference  not  to  parts  of  texts  or  subjects  or 
.  discourses,  but  to  thoughts,  and  is  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  the 
rhetorical  enumeration  or  recapitulation.  (See  Prov.  vi.  lG-19; 
xxs.  7,15, 18,  21,24,  29;  Isa.  xlvii.  9;  li.  19;  Jer,  ii.  13;  Ezek.  xiv. 
21;  Amos  i.3,6,  9,  11,  13;  u.  1,  4,  G;  1  Cor.  xiii.  13;  Gal.  iv.  24; 
Heb.  vi.  18.)  Here  from  two  to  seven  thoughts  are  enumerated 
with  the  utmost  brevity,  and  with  the  evident  intention  thereby  to 
impress  them  not  only  on  the  heart  but  the  memory.  And  if  there 
be  any  rule  respecting  division  more  valuable  than  all  the  rest,  it  is 
the  one  we  here  deduce.  Brief  partitions  are  useful  in  any  })art  of 
a  discourse  where  it  is  desirable  to  divide  and  arrange  thowjhts  in 
order  to  render  them  more  emphatic  or  to  fix  them  in  the  memory. 
Thus  might  many  religious  truths  be  converted  into  proverbs  which 
the  people  could  not  forget  if  they  would.  What  but  a  partition  has 
rendered  immortal  Luther's  tliree  things  which  make  a  good  j^reach- 
er,  onttio,  inediiatio,  tentatio.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  preachers 
have  sometimes  chosen  the  passages  above  referred  to  as  texts  of 
sermons,  and  made  these  divisions  of  thoughts  so  many  distinct 
parts  of  their  discourses.  Thus  Edmondson  has  left  us  a  sermon 
on  Prov.  vi.  lG-19,  which  is  separated  into  seven  parts  correspond- 
ing to  the  number  and  order  of  the  seven  thoughts  which  the  text 
conveys.  Had  it  been  the  purpose  of  those  preachers  to  imitate 
the  Scripture  style  (and  we  have  no  proof  that  it  was)  they  could 
have  effected  it  only  l^y  following  the  rule  we  have  just  stated. 

These  instances  of  ];artition  may  also  teach  us  not  to  be  too  pre- 
cise and  formal  in  our  divisions.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  last 
thought  in  most  of  these  exam])les  has  (he  appearance  of  an  after- 
tJtoiifjIit.  A  somewhat  dill'erent  semblance  of  after-thought  is  seen 
in  that  passage  of  John  (1  epistle  ii.  12-17)  where  the  apostle  ad- 
dresses three  classes  of  believers.  As  if  recollecting  some  things 
which  he  Avished  to  add  for  the  instruction  of  the  ''little  children" 
and  "young  men,"  he  returns  to  them,  addressing  them  in  the 
same  order  as  before,  and  merely  repeating  Avhat  he  has  already 


OF  THE  PARTITION.  317 

said  to  the  "  fathers."  Then,  as  if  bethinking  himself  again,  he  re- 
turns once  more  to  the  "  little  children,"  and  bestows  npon  them 
fresh  evidences  of  his  pastoral  solicitude.  These  things  will  at 
least  justify  the  preacher  for  dejiarting  from  the  previously  ar- 
ranged number  and  order  of  his  thoughts  in  all  cases  where  the 
needs  of  his  audience,  or  the  demands  of  his  theme  as  afterwards 
discovered,  or  the  free  action  of  his  mind  may  require  it.  And  yet 
this  gives  no  countenance  to  that  abuse  of  correctio  which  is  com- 
mitted by  those  preachers  who  frequently  give  to  their  audiences 
two  or  three  more  heads  of  discourse  than  they  promised  them  in 
the  partition. 

The  plans  of  the  inspired  discourses  are  almost  always  cryptic. 
How  shall  we  account  for  this  ?  It  were  a  superficial  view  of  the 
subject  to  say  that  it  is  owing  to  the  structure  and  habits  of  the 
Oriental  minds  which  the  Divine  Spirit  condescended  thus  to 
move.  For  it  yet  remains  to  be  proved  that  the  minds  of  the  Orient 
are  by  nature  less  fond  of  method  than  those  of  the  Occident. 
Those  great  educators  of  Mediaeval  Europe,  the  Saracens,  were  ex- 
cessively fond  of  method — a  fondness  which  is  not  fully  explained 
by  the  fact  that  they  derived  much  of  their  science  and  culture 
from  classic  Greece.  The  truth  of  the  matter  appears  to  be  this  * 
All  method  as  an  object  of  separate  consideration  is  the  want  which 
is  created  by  some  degree  of  mental  discipline.  It  is  principally 
felt  in  and  created  by  didactics.  Now  the  mass  of  mankind  in  all 
nations  ever  have  been  and  probably  ever  must  be  destitute  of  this 
discipline.  Nor  can  we  suppose  that  it  was  intended  that  the  con- 
tents of  the  Bible  should  produce  their  legitimate  effects  upon  the 
the  human  family  by  being  communicated  to  them  didactically 
either  as  to  matter  or  as  to  form.  The  sacred  speakers  and  orators 
aimed  principally  to  convict,  move,  and  persuade.  They  instruct- 
ed for  one  or  more  of  these  ends.  The  Holy  Inspirer  who  was 
in  them,  knowing  how  useless  and  even  dangerous  is  the  mere 
study  of  facts,  theories,  and  precepts,  breathed  the  breath  of 
life  and  the  fire  of  activity  into  all  their  teachings.  The  Creative 
Spii-it  was  less  desirous  of  showing  order  in  the  instruments  and 
modes  than  in  the  results  of  his  operations — than  in  bringing  moral 
order  out  of  the  chaos  of  the  human  creation. 

Plans  and  divisions,  therefore,  belong  principally  to  invention, 
which  in  the  post  apostolic  preacher  partly  makes  up  for  plenary  in- 
spiration. And  this  part  of  invention  is  mainly  useful  to  the  preach- 
er himself  and  particularly  in  the  woi'k  of  explication.  For  had  it 
been  directly  useful  to  the  hearers,  all  things  considered,  we  may 
reasonably  suppose  that  the  sacred  speakers  would  neither  have 


318  OF  THE  PARTITION. 

neglected  nor  concealed  the  practice  of  methodical  arrangement. 
The  precepts  and  examples  of  the  best  human  authorities  favor  the 
announcement  of  divisions,  and  the  mentioning  of  them  from  point 
to  point  as  the  sermon  advances.  When  they  are  well  chosen  they 
do  undoubtedly  assist  the  perception  and  memory  of  the  hearer. 
Reinhard  tells  us  that  there  were  citizens'  wives  among  his  acade- 
mic hearers  who  could  from  Sabbath  to  Sabbath  give  a  minute  ac- 
count of  each  discourse  they  heard,  with  all  its  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions. Whether  these  wonderful  feats  of  memory  were  coupled 
with  proportional  volitions  of  the  heart  and  transformations  of 
life,  this  great  analytical  preacher  does  not  inform  us.  liemhard 
vindicates  his  practice  on  the  ground  that  to  impart  instruction  is 
the  principal  object  of  preaching.  Had  he  maintained  that  it  was 
0)ie  of  ilte  objects  of  preaching,  and  that  for  didactic  sermons  order 
and  arrangement  are  very  useful,  his  reasoning  Avould  have  been 
more  sound  and  convincing.  But  let  no  one'infer  from  what  we 
have  said  that  we  regard  it  necessary  to  advise  the  student  to  shun 
altogether  the  example  and  precepts  of  the  great  German  preacher; 
so  far  from  thiS)  his  sermons  and  confessions  should  be  read  and 
even  studied  by  all  who  would  excel  in  the  choice  of  themes  and 
in  rhetorical  disposition.  In  the  announcement  of  divisions  favor- 
ite numbers  ond  phrases  should  be  avoided.  Reinhard  himself  was 
too  fond  of  the  figures  four  and  two,  six  and  three,  and  even  the 
free-souled  Whitefield  was  in  the  habit  of  announcing  his  last  head 
thus :  "  I  shall  conclude  with  an  exhortation  to  all  of  you,  high  and 
low,  rich  and  poor,  one  witli  another."  A  preacher  of  our  time 
secures  a  variety  and  otlier  advantages  by  occasionally  reserving  his 
partition  for  the  end  of  the  first  division,  as  follows :  "  We  have 
considered  generally  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  Our  remaining 
divisions  will  be, 

II.  The  sea  giving  up  its  dead. 

III.  The  meeting  of  the  dead  so  given  up  of  the  sea,  with  the 
dead  of  the  land. 

So  John  Foster  m  his  lecture  on  "  Access  to  God."  Others  some- 
times give  a  long  and  complete  partition  of  their  subject,  and  then 
state  that  they  intend  to  treat  only  two  or  three  points,  which  they 
immediately  repeat. 

Cicero^  did  not,  as  some  have  asserted,  totally  condemn  the 
practice  of  announcing  the  partition.  He  only  condemned  such 
long  ones  as  burden  the  memory  of  the  hearers,  and  being  so  con- 
fine<l  to  them  as  never  to  indulge  in  a  digression.  Quintilian- 
would  have  us  alwavs  announce  it. 


1  Dc  Parti.,  c.  viii. ;  D,>0:at.,  L.  ii.,c.  xix.  2  lust,  o  at.,  L.  iv.,  c,  v." sec.  4. 


OF  THE  PARTITION.  319 

Fenelon  has  frequently  been  cited  as  an  opponent  to  partitions  in 
general ;  whereas  it  is  evident  from  a  comparison  of  all  that  he  says 
on  the  subject  that  he  is  only  opposed  to  the  antithetic  and  other- 
wise exceedingly  artificial  partitions  which  characterized  the  ser- 
mons of  the  most  popular  preachers  of  his  time.  He  obviously 
has  in  mind  this  ingenious  {heureuse)  division  which  B.  repeats 
near  the  beginning  of  the  dialogue  :  "  I.  Though  the  dust  be  a 
sign  of  repentance,  it  is  a  principle  of  happiness.  II.  Though  it 
seems  to  degrade  us,  it  i-s  really  a  source  of  honor.  III.  Though  it 
represents  death,  it  is  a  medicine  which  makes  us  immortal." 
Fenelon  is  condemning  partitions  of  this  kind — partitions  such  as 
La  Bruyere^  has  quoted  and  ridiculeil.  It  is  unfair  to  quote  a  sin- 
gle passages  of  this  great  writer,  as  Blair,  Vinet,  and  others  have 
done,  regardless  of  what  he  says  elsewhere  in  the  same  dialogue. 
He  does  certainly  express  himself  too  roundly  when  he  says  that 
Isocrates  did  not  follow  the  rules  of  division ;  for  we  elsewhere 
show  that  he  taught  his  disciples  that  division  was  the  very  first 
step  in  the  process  of  invention,  and  that  in  his  celebrated  Panegy- 
ric he  employs  a  partition.  It  might  likewise  be  proved  from 
Cicero  and  other  ancient  orators  that  divisions  of  all  kinds  are  not 
"  a  modern  invention,  which  we  owe  to  the  scholastic  divines."3 

It  is  nevertheless  true  that  the  extremely  ai-tificial  partitions  of 
the  French  preachers  of  the  best  class  are  not  authorized  by  the  ex- 
ample of  any  of  the  ancient  orators.  Indeed,  he  acknowledges 
that  such  is  the  dullness  [grosslh-ete)  of  these  last  times  that  they 
do  not  perceive  the  order  of  a  discourse,  unless  the  speaker  ex- 
plain it  in  the  introduction,  and  come  to  a  stand-still  at  each  suc- 
cessive point.  But  Fenelon's  opinion  concerning  divisions  is  best 
expressed  in  his  comment  on  the  partition  above  quoted.  "  When," 
says  he,  "  we  choose  to  divide  a  subject  we  should  do  it  plainly, 
and  naturally.  We  should  make  such  a  division  as  is  all  con- 
tained in  the  subject  itself— a  division  which  elucidates  and  method- 
izes the  matter,  Avhich  may  be  easily  remembered,  and  at  the  same 
time  help  to  recall  all  the  rest ;  in  brief,  a  division  which  exhibits 
the  extent  of  the  subject  and  of  its  parts.  Exactly  the  opposite  is 
the  course  of  this  man  here  who  endeavours  to  dazzle  you  at  the 

1  Caracters,  chap.  xv. ;  De  La  Chaire. 

2  Dialogues  sur  L'Eloquence,  second  Dial.,  beginning  •'  B.  Vous  nous  avez 
deja  parle." 

3  In  Cicero's  oration  for  Murena  the  partition  is  as  follows  :  "The  whole  ac- 
cusation, 0  .Judges,  as  it  appears  to  me,  may  he  reduced  to  three  heads :  one 
consists  in  objections  to  his  former  life  ;  another  refers  to  his  contest  for  the  dig- 
nity of  the  consulship,  the  third  to  charges  of  bribery." 


320  OF  THE  INVOCATION. 

outset,  to  put  you  off  -wi'Ji  three  epigrams  or  three  enigmas,  which 
he  turns  and  turns  again  so  dexterously  that  you  fancy  you  are  wit- 
nessing some  tricks  of  legerdemain."  Nor  is  this  all :  we  have 
Fenelon's  own  example  in  favor  of  partitions.  Each  of  his  six  pub- 
lished sermons  has  two  points,  and  each  of  his  "  entretiens  "  three 
points,  which  he  announces  in  the  proper  place,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  French  preachers  of  his  day,  but  with  less  formality 
and  fewer  antitheses  than  Bourdaloue  and  Massillon  are  accustomed 
to  do.  We  may  add  that  the  most  eloquent  of  Italian  preachers, 
Paul  Segneri,  A\'as  in  the  habit  of  omitting  his  partitions,  and  of 
only  mentioning  the  successive  points  when  he  came  to  discuss 
them. 

When  a  pastor  succeeds  to  another  who  wore  out  the  j)atience  of 
some  and  deepened  the  spiritual  sleep  of  others  by  too  great  uni- 
formity in  his  partitions,  it  might  not  be  imprudent  to  study  some 
variety  in  them.  This  would  certainly  prove  more  useful  to  his 
flock  than  any  attempt  to  dispense  with  them.  Besides  the  expe- 
dient of  apprising  the  hearers  of  the  partition  at  the  close  of  the 
first  general  division,  there  are  two  others  Avhich  Avould  answer  a 
good  purpose  in  certain  kinds  of  discourses,  particularly  the  con- 
troversial and  hortatory,  and  such  others  as  exhibit  the  subject  by 
comparison,  or  supposition,  or  contrast.  First.  The  partition  may 
be  formally  made  and  announced,  but  not  afterwards  employed  to 
mark  the  divisions  of  the  discourse,  but  only  borne  in  mind  by 
speaker  and  hearer  for  the  sake  of  the  distinctions  it  contains ;  e.  rj.^ 
a  hortatory  sermon  on  j\Iatt.  xi.  12  might  sometimes  begin  with 
the  partition  that  a  city  may  be  taken  either  by  siege  or  by  storm, 
and  then  proceed  to  contrast  the  two  methods  as  illustrating  two 
common  Avays  of  seeking  a  saving  interest  in  Christ,  and  point 
each  contrast  with  a  "  continuous  a])plication."  Secondh/.  The  par- 
tition maybe  deferred  until  the  close  of  the  sermon,  and  then  given 
the  form  of  a  recapitulation.  In  cases  where  it  is  the  principal 
thing  to  impress  the  parts  of  a  subject  on  the  memory  of  the 
hearer,  and  at  the  .same  time  to  avoid  all  checks  upon  an  extemj)o- 
raneous  freedom  of  address,  nothing  can  be  more  effectual  than  a 
partition  thus  placed. 

Section  IV. — Of  the  Invocation. 

By  invocation  we  here  designate  those  short  jn-aycrs  for  divine 
aid  in  ])reaching  and  liearing  which  are  offered  sometimes  at  the 
close  of  exordia,  sometimes  immediately  after  partitions.  We 
find  no  examples  in  Scripture  eloquence  to  justify  making  an  invo- 


OF  THE  INVOCATION.  321 

cation  in  one  part  of  a  sermon  in  preference  to  another.  The  holy- 
prophets  break  forth  into  prayers  in  a  most  informal  manner  in  all 
parts  of  their  discourses.  Jeremiah  often  betrays  his  devotional 
feelings  by  passing  from  animated  assertions  to  petition  and  praise 
(ii.  13;  vi.  14;  viii.  11,  22;  xvii.  13).  The  Greek  and  Latin 
fathers  are  as  free  and  irregular  in  their  invocations  as  in  the  gen- 
eral arrangement  of  their  homilies  and  sermons.  Augustine  some- 
times begins  his  exordia  with  short  prayers  for  ability  to  expound 
the  Scriptures,  and  occasionally  coupled  with  a  request  to  the  peo- 
ple to  assist  him  with  their  prayers  for  the  same  object.  Origen 
makes  short  prayers  not  only  in  the  beginning  of  his  homilies,  but 
sometimes  also  when  in  the  course  of  hi^  interpretations  he  meets 
with  an  obscure  passage  of  Scripture. 

The  custom  of  the  French  preachers  is  to  offer  an  invocation  im- 
mediately after  the  partition.  The  nature  of  their  invocations  is 
too  well  known  to  need  exemplification.  The  German  preachers, 
who  often  deliver  their  exordia  before  they  take  their  texts,  not  un- 
frequently  offer  their  invocations  either  at  the  close  of  their  ex- 
ordia, or  immediately  after  taking  their  texts.  Sometimes  the 
invocation  is  silent.  Reinhard,  at  the  end  of  the  exordium  of  his 
sermon  on  the  Unity  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  has  the  following 
invocation  :  "  May  the  Spirit  of  God  be  with  us,  and  cause  us  with 
glad  amazement  to  contemplate  his  holy  work  in  our  Church  with 
his  blessed,  ever-durlng  rule  in  it !  Let  us  in  silent  devotion  im- 
plore his  grace."  He  then  announces  his  text — Eph.  iv.  3.  Van 
Der  Palm^  always  takes  his  text  first,  and  then  delivers  his  exor- 
dium, while  his  invocation  (which  i^  commonly  rather  long)  is 
sometimes  placed  before  and  sometimes  after  his  partition.  For 
the  composition  of  this  part  of  a  sermon  two  short  rules  will  suf- 
fice. 1.  Let  it  flow  sincerely  and  freely  from  the  heart.  2. 
Let  it  be  suited  to  the  subject  of  discourse.  Romaine  has  left  us 
many  examples  of  skilful  transition  from  the  invocation  to  the  par- 
tition.    He  always  places  the  former  before  the  latter. 

We  cannot  approve  the  course  of  those  w^ho  always  omit  the  in- 
vocation, nor  of  those  who  never  in  any  part  of  their  discourses 
make  ejaculations.  How  are  such  preachers  shamed  by  the  exam- 
ple of  Demosthenes,  through  all  of  whose  orations,  and  particularly 
through  his  greatest,  the  oration  on  the  Crown,  there  breathes  a 
spirit  of  deep  reverence  towards  the  gods  of  his  people.  Of  Peri- 
cles, who  always  spoke  with  equal  thought  and  feeling,  and  who 
was  called  the  Olympian,  because  his  eloquence  was  like  thunder 

1  Life  and  Sermons,  translated  by  the  Rev.  J.  P.  AVestervelt,  and  published  by 
Messrs.  Hurd  &  Houghton,  New  York. 


322  OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT. 

and  lightning,  Plutarch^  says  that  the  secret  of  his  superiority  to 
others  Avas  that  "  he  was  very  careful  what  and  how  he  M'as  to 
speak,  insomuch  that  whenever  he  went  up  to  the  platform  he 
prayed  the  gods  that  no  one  word  might  unawares  slip  from  him 
unsuitable  to  the  matter  and  the  occasion."  And  the  younger 
Pliny  introduces  his  Panegyric  of  Trajan  with  these  very  remark- 
al)le  words  :  "  Conscript  fathers  :  Well  and  wisely  Avas  it  ordained 
by  our  ancestors  that,  as  in  our  actions,  so  in  our  speeches  we 
should  begin  with  prayer ;  since  mortals  cannot  undertake  any- 
thing rightly  and  prudently  without  the  power,  the  counsel,  and 
the  approbation  of  the  immortal  gods."  Cicero,-  in  his  oration  for 
Cornelius,  makes  an  invocation,  and  in  his  oration  for  Roscius 
('^ll)  the  invocation  is  in  the  form  of  an  interrogation. 

The  Scripture  speeches  are  distinguishable  from  all  others, 
whether  religious  or  secular,  by  this  among  other  things,  that  they 
contain  no  prayers  for  inspiration.  The  reason  for  this  will  be 
very  evident  to  any  one  who  considers  that  all  these  communica- 
tions from  God  must  begin  with  inspired  words.  And  hence  the 
sacred  speakers  never  express  any  sense  of  the  Avorth  of  a  divine 
afflatus  while  they  are  preaching.  On  one  occasion^  we  find  the 
primitive  Church  praying  for  Peter  and  John  that  they  may  speak 
the  word  with  all  boldness — a  prayer  which  is  immediately  an- 
swered; but  this  was  something  very  different  from  the  post- 
apostolic  invocation  which  naturally  and  reasonably  came  into  the 
sermon  as  soon  as  plenary  inspiration  had  passed  out  of  it,  and  was 
itself  an  acknowledgment  that  the  latter  was  no  longer  needed  or 
expected. 

A  free  and  unpremeditated  invocation  often  obtains  of  the  Father 
of  Lights  grace  that  would  have  been  denied  to  one  that  was  for- 
mal and  premeditated;  but  when  Ave  do  premeditate  an  invocation 
Ave  should  avoid  raising  too  high  an  expectation  as  to  im.  Thus 
Segneri  (Quaresimale,  ser.  xiv.)  prays  the  great  God  to  lend  him 
tlie  keys  of  hell,  so  that  he  may  shoAV  to  his  audience  the  prison  of 
the  damned. 

Section  Y. — Of  the  Development. 

In  general  this  term  denotes  the  I'hetorical  amplification  of  every 
part  of  a  skeleton,  but  here  it  signifies  that  ])art  of  the  sermon 
which  is  commonly  devoted  to  explication  and  conviction.     It  is 


1  Lives,  vol.  i.        2  See  cbap.  vii.,  Pt.  i.  of  Prayer  as  a  Means  of  Inspiration. 
»  Acts  iv.  29-31. 


OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT.  323 

also  not  unfrequently  termed  ''  The  Discussion  "  or  "  the  Body  of 
the  Discourse."  The  discussion  naturally  follows  the  invocation, 
and  may  in  general  be  said  to  occupy  in  sermons  that  place  which 
in  judicial  orations  and  argumentative  compositions  is  given  to  nar- 
ration and  proof 

This  part  commonly  occupies  too  much  space  in  modern  sermons. 
The  discourses  of  the  best  of  the  ancient  j)reachers  were  pretty 
equally  divided  between  exposition  and  application.  Three  very 
distinguished  and  successful  preachers,  Francis  V.  Reinhard  and 
Jonathan  Edwards  and  Andrew  Fuller,  first  explain,  secondly 
prove,  thirdly  apply.  This  is  not,  however,  their  uniform  practice. 
Thus  much  may  be  said  in  general,  that  doctrinal  and  controversial 
sermons  will  admit  of  discussions  the  most  extended,  and  commen- 
datory and  hortatory  sermons  the  least  extended. 

But  whether  the  discussion  be  long  or  short,  let  it  by  all  means 
be  Biblical.  Many  a  preacher  falls  into  the  habit  of  devoting  this 
part  of  his  sermon  to  a  free  and  full  expression  of  his  own  peculiar 
views  of  his  subject,  including  its  relations  to  his  favourite  system 
of  theology,  his  darling  theory  of  psychology,  or  his  approved  code 
of  Christian  ethics.  Or  if  he  would  be  very  popular,  he  now  enter- 
tains his  large  congregation  with  echoes  of  their  one-sided  senti- 
ments concerning  the  social,  commercial,  or  political  questions  of 
the  day.  In  either  case  the  divine  authority  is  apt  to  be  crowded 
out  of  the  minds  of  the  audience  to  make  room  for  the  more  wel- 
come authority  of  man.  "  The  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament," 
says  the  Rev.  John  Davison,^  "  lay  the  practice  of  religion  and  vir- 
tue where  the  teachers  of  the  New  Testament  have  laid  it — upon 
faith  in  the  revelation  of  the  Divine  Will.  .  .  An  operose  deduc- 
tion may  convince  the  understanding  without  disposing  to  prac- 
tice ;  nay,  it  often  happens  that  the  greater  is  the  success  of  the 
intellect  in  eliciting  a  principle  or  rule  of  duty,  the  less  is  its  im- 
pression on  the  springs  of  conduct ;  the  reason  of  which  may  be, 
that  the  mind  is  wearied  before  it  is  satisfied,  and  the  spirit  of  ac- 
tion is  gone  before  the  theory  is  settled.  Let  the  same  truth  be 
dictated  by  the  word  of  God,  it  puts  on  a  new  meaning;  and  if  the 
maxim  be  true  that  '  all  knowledge  is  power,'  the  knowledge 
which  is  to  give  the  impulse  to  duty  takes  its  greatest  sway  and 
momentum  as  derived  immediately  from  His  paramount  wisdom 
and  will."  On  the  contrary,  we  may  add,  philosophical  preacliing 
alFords  matter  for  doubt  and  contradiction,  which  multitudes  j^refer 
to  faith  and  obedience. 

1  Vfarburton  Lectures  on  Prophecy,  p.  66. 


324  OF  THE  CONCLUSION. 

Section  VI.— Of  tue  Conclusion. 

The  term  Conclusion,  as  applied  to  a  sermon,  designates  the  last 
part  of  it,  without  defining  the  extent  of  that  part.  Among  the 
modem  Italian  preachers  the  last  half  o^  the  discourse  is  called  the 
peroration  or  conclusion,  because  it  is  chiefly  occupied  with  appli- 
cations. The  usage  of  English  writers  authorises  us  to  employ  the 
term  either  in  the  comprehensive  sense  of  the  "  improvement,"  or 
in  the  restricted  sense  of  the  last  paragraph  or  sentence.  As  that 
part  of  our  discourses  to  which  the  application  is  assigned  is  ex- 
ceedingly varied  as  to  length  (too  frequently  little  short  of  nothing), 
the  word  has  received  a  corresponding  elasticity  of  import. 

The  conclusions  of  the  Scripture  preachers,  like  their  introduc- 
tions; are  marked  by  an  admirable  variety  and  fitness.  As  an 
appropriate  conclusion  grows  out  of  the  body  of  the  discourse,  its 
excellences  cannot  be  duly  estimated  without  a  study  of  all  that 
goes  before.  And  hence  a  full  and  sufficient  discussion  of  the  in- 
spired perorations  would  involve  a  rhetorical  examination  of  the 
entire  sermons  to  which  they  belong.  Our  limits  deny  us  so  pleas- 
ant.and  instructive  a  task;  but  the  student  sliould  make  such  an 
examination  for  himself  if  he  would  acquire  the  highest  ideas  of 
their  indescribable  pertinence,  gracefulness,  and  force. 

As  these  conclusions  have  not,  in  a  single  instance,  any  announced 
beginnings,  we  cannot  quote  them  without  exposing  ourselves  to 
the  charge  of  misjudgment  from  some  and  of  dogmatism  from  oth- 
ers. We  may,  then,  be  jDcrmitted  to  say  beforehand,  and  once  for 
all,  that  we  do  not  here  presume  to  mark  in  every  case  t'le  transi- 
tion from  the  body  of  the  discourse  to  the  peroration.  Nor  is  it  a 
work  of  less  difficulty  to  classify  under  a  few  heads  so  great  a  di- 
versity of  conclusions ;  and  yet  it  seems  desirable  and  profitable  to 
give  some  general  views  of  the  diffi.M-ent  kinds,  although  it  were  a 
labour  of  months  to  regard  them  in  all  their  rhetorical  aspects. 

The  preacher  who  would  be  led  and  taught  by  the  Spirit  rather 
than  by  the  ethnic  rhetoricians,  will  be  glad  to  study  the  Scripture 
perorations.  Though  the  limits  of  these  inspired  sermons  must  in 
some  cases  be  conjectural,  yet  the  following  classification  of  con- 
clusions, however  imperfect,  will,  we  trust,  be  thought  instructive. 
Among  these  we  find  those  which  are  either  composed  of  or  contain 
promises :  Lev,  xxvi.  40-45 ;  Deut.  iv.  29-40 ;  Isa.  Ix. ;  Jer. 
xxxi.  31-40;  Ezek.  xxviii.  24,  20;  xxix.  13-10;  Obadiali  17-21; 
Warnings,  Deut.  viii.  7-20;  Blessings  and  Cursing,  Deut.  xxviii. 
1-08;  XXX.  15-20;  Denunciation,  followed  by  Supi)licati()n,  Jer.  x. 


OF    THE  CONCLUSION.  325 

17,18;  19-25;    Songs    of   Praise   foretold,    Isa,  xii.    xxvi.  1-19; 
the    Prosperity  of    Christ's    Kmgdom    foretold,  Isa.    xxxv.,    Ix; 
Prayer,  Isa.  Ixiv. ;  John   xvii. ;  Acts  xxvi.    29;  Heb.  xiii.  20-21; 
Expressions  of  Regret,  Isa.  xlviii.  18;  Lamentations,  Ezek.  xix. ; 
Matt,  xxiii.    37;  Contrasts,  Deut.  xxviii.  1-68;  xxx.    15-20;  Isa. 
xviii.  18-22;  li.  17;  xlu.  1,  13;  Ivii.  19-21;  Ixvi.  23,  24;  Jer.'xvii. 
25-27;  Joel  iii.  9-21;  Nahum  iii.  17-19;  Habak  ii.  19,20;  Mal- 
achi  iv. ;  Matt.  vii.  24-27 ;  xxv.  31-46 ;  Luke  xvi.  19-31 ;  Objec- 
tions answered  and  Explanations  made,  Jer.  xiii.  22-27 ;  John  vi. 
61-65;  Keproofs,    Ezek.    xiii.;  Exhortations   to   Repentance,   fol- 
lowed by  Promises,  Amos  ix.  11-15;  Acts   iii.  19-26;  An  exult- 
ing appeal  to  the  gracious  character  of  Jehovah,  and  an  assurance 
of  his  faithfulness,  Micah  vii.  18-20 ;  A  call  to  Israel  to  exult  in 
their  deliverance  from  captivity,  and  in  the  gracious  presence  of  Je- 
hovah their  King,  Zeph.  iii.  14-20 ;  Brief  and  weighty  sentences. 
Lev.    xxvi.,  45  Isa.  xlviii.  22;    Ivii.   21;    Ix.  22;    Jer.   vi.  30;   li. 
58;  Ezek.  vii.  27;  xiii.  23;  xix.  14;  xxiii.  49;  xxviii.   26;  Figures, 
Anthropopatheia,  Isa.  v.  26 ;  Oath,  Isa.  xiv.  24 ;    Metaphor,   Jer. 
vi.    27-30 ;  Interrogation,   Isa.    Ixiv.    12 ;    Jer.    xiii.    27 ;  Parable, 
Jer.   xxiu. ;  Matt.  vii.  24-27;  Luke   xi.  24-26;  xvi.  19-31;  Apo- 
dioxis,  James  v.  19,  20  ;  Synchronism,  or  expressing  the  first  or 
the  last  things  by  the  first  or  last  words,  Isa.  Ixvi.  24 ;  Jer.  li.  58 ; 
Ezek.   vii.   2-27;  Matt.  vii.  27;  xvi.  28;  Luke  xii.    58-59;  Matt, 
xxv.  46.     "  Thus  life  is  spent  in  framing   apologies,  in  making  and 
breaking  resolutions,  and  deferring  amendment,  till  death   places 
his  cold  hand,  on  the  mouth  open  to  make  its  last  excuse,  and  one 
more  is  added  to  the  crowded  congregation  of  the  dead."^ — Alison. 
Doxology,  Heb.  xiii.  21.      See  Dr.  Bethune's  peroration  ending, 
"  Then  burst  from  countless  armies  of  souls,  floods  of  praise  loud 
as  many  waters ;  '  Thanks !  thanks !  thanks !  thanks  be  to  God  who 
giveth  us  the  victory  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.' " 

The  violence  of  persecution  has  deprived  us  of  some  of  the  pe- 
rorations of  the  sacred  speakers.  Much  as  we  may  regret  their  loss, 
we  ought  to  consider  that  it  is  compensated  by  the  illustrations  of 
inspired  force  and  boldness  which  are  thereby  furnished  us.  Our 
Divine  Instructor's  synagogue  discourse  at  Nazareth  -svas  thus  in- 
terrupted :  He  was,  perhaps,  preaching  topically  on  the  words, 
'•He  hath  sent  me,"  etc.  (Luke  iv.  18;  compare  verse  26,  "  But 
unto  none  of  them  was  Elias  sen^,"  etc.),  when  he  was  silenced  by 
the  outburst  of  the  wrath  of  the  whole  synagogue.  Stephen  and 
Paul  were  thus  interruj^ted  (Acts  vii.  54-58 ;  xvii.  31-33  •  xxii. 
21,22;  xxvi.  28-30). 

The   Conclusion,  Peroration,  or  Epilogue  is  treated  of  by  the 


32G  OF    THE  CONCLUSION. 

classic  rhetoricians  chiefly  in  its  relation  to  the  judicial  oration. 
Aristotle'  says  that  the  peroration  has  four  objects :  first,  to  make 
the  hearer  favourable  to  the  speaker  and  ill-disposed  towards  his 
adversary;  secondly,  to  amplify  and  extenuate;  thirdly,  to  place 
the  hearer  under  the  influence  of  the  passions;  fourthly,  to  awaken 
his  recollection.  Cicero,  in  his  earliest  work,  De  Inventione  Rhc- 
torlca  (L.  i.  c.  lii.-lv.),  has  reduced  these  objects  to  three :  the  enu- 
meration or  a  summary  of  the  subject-matter  for  the  sake  of  recol- 
lection ;  the  indigiiatio,  which  seeks  to  excite  hatred  against  a  man 
or  dislike  of  some  proceeding;  the  conqaestio,  or  an  appeal  to  the 
pity  of  the  hearers.  In  a  later  work  {De  Partitioned  c.  xv.),  he  di- 
vides it  into  two  parts — amplification  and  enumeration.  Quintil- 
ian,2  again,  says  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  perorations — the  one, 
recapitulation,  and  the  other  whatever  is  adapted  to  excite  the  feel- 
ings. His  notion  respecting  it  is  substantially  that  at  which  Cicero 
finally  arri^■ed.  The  Christian  sermon  is  of  so  many  kinds,  and  has 
such  a  variety  of  applications,  that  the  precepts  of  the  classical 
rhetoricians  as  to  the  conclusion  are  not  sufticicntly  comprehen- 
sive and  specific.  It  is  chiefly  to  argumentative  and  pathetic  ser- 
mons that  they  have  reference. 

TJie  recapitulation  (Gr.  aiiaccphalceosls),  or  the  summing  up  of 
heads,  or  eiiinncratlo,  as  the  Latin  rhetoricians  term  it,  is  the  most 
appropriate  and  useful  in  argumentative  discourses.  Of  this  we 
have  to  say  something  under  the  head  of  Arrangement  of  Argu- 
ments. It  is  a  w^eighty  remark  of  Cicero^  that  "  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  avoid  letting  it  have  the  air  of  a  childish  display  of 
memory;  and  he  will  best  keep  clear  of  that  fault  who  docs  not 
recapitulate  every  trifle,  but  touches  on  each  particular  briefly  and 
dwells  on  the  more  weighty  and  important  points."  (See  this  ora- 
tor's condensed  and  emphatic  recapitulations  in  his  speeches  for 
Archias,  C.  Balbus,  and  A.  Caccinias.)  Quintilian  advises  us  to  vary 
and  enliven  our  enumerations  with  diflferent  figures,  and  cites  as  an 
excellent  example  Cicei'o's  oration  against  Verres :  "  If  your  father 
himself  were  your  judge  what  would  he  say  when  these  things 
are  proved  against  you  ? ''  and  then  adds  the  recapitulation.  JNIauryt 
is  unsparing  in  his  censure  of  enumerations  such  as  were  made  in 
his  day.  He  quotes  in  his  favour  the  language  of  Cicero,  Avho  com- 
pares the  orator  that  dryly  and  formally  recapitulates  to  a  serpent 
crawling  round  in  a  circle  and  biting  his  own  tail.  But  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  what  Cicero  and  this  French  "w^riter  condemn  is  not  so 

1  Rhet.,  L.  iii..  c.  xix.  and  c.  xiii.  2  L.  vi.,  c.  i. 

8  De  Pdrtitione,  xvii.  -l  Essai  sur  L" Eloquence,  tome  ii.,  p.  250. 


OF  THE  CONCLUSION.  327 

much  llie  enumeration  as  the  abuse  of  it.  The  ancients  employed 
it  much  more  frequently  than  the  moderns,  Cicero  thought  that  it 
was  sometimes  necessary  even  to  the  panegyrist.  But  they  often 
omitted  it.  (See  Demosthenes  again,  t  Midias,  and  Cicero  for  Liga- 
rius  and  for  the  Manilian  Law.) 

We  must  guard  against  confounding  the  enumeration  with  what 
the  French  term  the  resume^  which  aims  to  reduce  the  leading 
ideas  of  a  discourse  to  their  essential  principles,  or  to  condense 
them  into  a  sentiment  or  terse  observation.^  The  Greek  term 
anacephalceosis  is  sometimes  employed  in  this  sense.  The  resinne 
need  not  always  be  deferred  until  the  close  of  the  sermon.  Some 
of  the  sacred  examples  of  this  kind  of  rhetorical  focus  are  the  fol- 
lowing: Deut.  xi.  26,  27;  Eccles.  xii.  13,  li;  Matt.  xxii.  40;  John 
xvi.  28 ;  Heb.  viii.  1,  2. 

Sometimes,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  the  recapitulation  may 
be  in  substance  a  partition.  The  "  silver-tongued "  Henry  Smith, 
at  the  end  of  a  sermon  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  from  the  text  1  Cor. 
xi.  23,  2-i,  gives  this  partition,  which  is  worthy  of  being  imitated,  es- 
pecially in  ex^Dository  sermons :  "  Thus  ye  have  heard  the  Author 
of  this  sacrament,  the  Lord  Jesus  ;  the  time  when  it  was  instituted, 
the  night  that  he  teas  betrayed;  how  it  was  instituted,  after  thanks- 
giving ;  why  it  was  instituted, /br  a  i-eniembrance  of  his  death; 
and  the  discovery  of  transubstantiation,  one  of  the  last  heresies 
which  Babylon  hatched." 

§.  The  student  is  apt  to  be  misled  by  strikmg  remarks  on  this  as 
on  all  other  rhetorical  subjects.  He  should  remember  that  general 
advice  is  not  always  comprehensive  advice ;  e.  g.,  Bishop  Burnet's 
oft-quoted  observation^  is  :  "  The  sermon  that  makes  every  one  go 
away  silent  and  grave  and  hastening  to  be  alone  to  meditate  and 
pray  the  matter  over  in  secret,  has  had  a  true  effect."  ISTow  this  is 
excellent  as  opposed  to  sermons  that  awake  applause,  self-com- 
placency, and  talkativeness,  and  as  descriptive  of  the  proper  effects 
of  many  kinds  of  sermons.  But  this  test  ought  not  to  be  applied 
to  sermons  whose  object  is  to  move  the  people  to  holy  praise» 
thanksgiving,  and  joy,  nor  to  those  which  are  intended  to  secure 
immediate  contributions  for  the  relief  of  the  suffering. 

§.  Matters  for  reproof,  or  alarm,  or  horror  should  not  in  general 
be  assigned  to  the  concluding  sentence  or  words  of  a  sermon.  Let 
them  come,  when  come  they  must,  before  the  conclusion  and  in  the 

1  Vinet's  Homiletics,  Pt.  ii.,  c.  v. 

2  This  may  have  been  Sliggested  by  Jerome's  advice  to  Nepotian :  "  When 
yoii  teach  in  the  church,  do  not  draw  plaudits  but  sighs  from  the  people.  Let 
their  tears  praise  you"  (Epist.  52,  sec.  8). 

22 


328  OF  THE  CONCLUSION. 

first  part  of  the  application.  "  But  did  not  our  Lord  and  some  of 
the  other  sacred  speakers  sometimes  utter  bold  and  inflammatoiy 
thinf^s  in  their  perorations?"  Very  seldom.  In  most  cases  their 
sermons  end  mildly  and  hopefully  (Ilosea  ii.  14-23;  v.  15;  vi.  1-3; 
xiv.  2-9).  The  inspired  speeches  which  excited  indignation  and 
violence  were,  as  we  before  said,  interrupted ;  so  that  it  were  just 
to  consider  these  conclusions  as  made  not  by  the  holy  prophets, 
but  by  human  madness  and  folly.  Wliat  they  would  have  gone  on 
to  communicate  had  they  been  heard  with  respectful  attention  we 
may  fairly  infer  from  the  conclusions  they  made  on  other  occasions 
when  they  were  not  interrupted.  See  our  G-reat  Teacher'^ 
lamentation  at  the  close  of  his  heavy  denunciations  of  the  Scribes 
and  Pharisees  (Matt,  xxiii.) ;  also  his  tender  invitation  to  all  such 
as  feel  the  burden  of  their  sins,  after  having  denounced  woes 
against  Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  and  Cai)ernaum  (Matt.  xi.).  Observe, 
also,  hoAv  mildly  Baxter  concludes  his  sermon  on  the  Judgment, 
Edwards  his  sennon  on  the  Eternity  of  Hell  Torments,  and  that  of 
Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an  Angry  God,i  and  James  Hervey  his 
third  sermon  on  the  National  Fast. 

L  "  Very  properly,"'  says  Vinet,  "  the  peroration  will  often  be  in 
a  less  elevated  and  less  vehement  tone  than  the  precedmg  parts. 
Here  again  the  rhetoric  of  the  ancients  cannot  be  taken  absolutely 
as  our  guide  and  model.  .  .  The  perorations  of  the  great  masters 
of  the  pulpit  are  generally  moderate  and  gentle.  We  may  com- 
pare them  to  a  river  the  waves  of  which,  very  near  an<l  perfectly 
sure  to  reach  the  sea,  slacken  their  pace  as  they  approach  the 
moulh,  and  present  to  the  eye  only  a  sheet  of  water,  the  motion  of 
which  is  almost  invisible."  He  cites  as  examples  the  funeral  ora- 
tions of  Bossuet  and  Flechier,  and  the  Abl)e  Poulle's  sermon  Sur 
VAitinone.  But  in  these  and  similar  sermons  it  is  natural  that  we 
should  begin  with  agitated  feelings  and  close  with  something  like 
composure.  Vinet\s  rule,  therefore,  is  not  universal,  but  particu- 
larly applicable  to  most  kinds  of  funeral,  consolatory,  ethical,  and 
didactic  discourses.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  ijict  that 
some  of  the  inspired  conclusions  end  with  brief  and  weighty  sen- 
tences. And  it  is  well  worthy  of  note  that  the  last  words  of  not 
a  few  of  the  inspired  conclusions  already  quoted  are  unimpassioned 
as  compared  with  those  that  go  before.  These  perorations,  each 
reixarded  in  its  entirety,  suggest  the  idea  of  the  whole  course  of  the 
eagle,  not  only  in  ascending  and  descending  birt  also  in  the  very 
act  of  perching  himself  on  the  battlement  of  a  mount ian   tower. 

I  See  Dwighl's  ed.  Some  of  the  other  editions  of  his  'vorks  lack  iMirts  of  the 
peroration. 


OF  THE  CONCLUSION.  329 

The  concluding  sentences  of  Demonthenes'  orations  are,  as  Lord 
Brougham  has  observed,  more  calm  and  tame  than  the  penultimate 
portions.  He  adds,  however,  that  to  this  rule  there  are  some  re- 
markable exceptions  ;  as  the  oration  on  the  Crown,  whose  closing 
period  is  a  highly  wrought  invocation,  and  the  oration  on  the  Em- 
bassy, and  that  on  the  liberty  of  the  Rhodians,  the  perorations  of 
which  continue  impassioned  to  the  veiy  last  words. 

§.  The  above  remarks  prepare  us  to  answer  the  question  whether 
the  last  division  or  sub-division  of  a  sermon  may  ever  constitute 
the  epilogue.  Reinhard  has  been  censured  for  too  frequently 
winding  up  with  the  last  head  of  the  body  of  the  discourse,  with- 
out any  regular  peroration.  The  moderate  and  gentle  feelings 
with  which  the  second  half  of  some  sermons  should  be  pervaded, 
ought,  in  most  cases,  to  inspire  the  very  last  sentence.  And  in 
some  other  discourses,  where  a  high  pitch  of  animation  has  been 
reached  at  an  early  stage,  it  will  be  most  natural  and  effectual  to 
maintain  it  even  to  the  end.  Several  of  the  sacred  discourses  thus 
conclude. 

§.  The  various  figures  whose  essential  principle  is  repetition,  and 
the  Assyndeton  are  proper  and  natural  for  many  kinds  of  perora- 
tions. As  to  the  last-mentioned  figure  Aristotle^  says :  "  For  the 
close,  the  style  without  connectives  {r)  ddvySsros)  is  becoming,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  a  peroration  {k7Ci]\.oyo<i)  and  not  an  oration 
(Ao>o5)  as,  '  I  have  spoken — you  have  heard — the  case  is  in  your 
hands — pronounce  your  decision.' "  (See  example  from  the  sermons 
of  Antonio  Vieyra,  appended  to  this  chapter.) 

§.  The  extemporaneous  speaker  ought  to  give  good  heed  to 
Whately's  warning  as  to  "more  last  words."  "  Let  the  speaker  de- 
cide beforehand  what  shall  be  his  concluding  topic ;  and  let  him 
resolve  .  .  .  that  whenever  he  shall  see  fit  to  arrive  at  tJiCtt,  noth- 
ing shall  tempt  him  either  to  expand  it  beyond  what  he  had  deter- 
mined on,  or  to  add  anything  else  beyond  it."  'Soy  should  he  for- 
get this  maxim  of  Bengel :-  "  A  preacher  Avho  can  come  to  a  close 
when  and  how  he  pleases  is  able  to  preach  the  whole  sermon  with 
greater  ease  and  freedom."  Then  he  has  likewise  to  consider  the 
weakness  or  infirmity  of  many  a  hearer.  When  the  Greeks  set  up 
statues  of  Nemesis  holding  a  measuring-rod  in  one  hand  and  a 
bridle  in  the  other,  it  was  to  forewarn  us,  as  Parmenion  in  his 
epigram  sings,  to  do  nothing  beyond  our  limits,  nor  speak  with  un- 
bridled tongue.  If  the  old  classic  orator  needed  thus  to  be  ad- 
monished, how  much  more  does  the  Christian  speaker  who  can  but 
seldom  have  audiences  as  attentive  as  theirs  so  frequently  were. 
1  Rhet ,  at  the  end.  2  Life  by  Burk,  p.  78. 


330  OF  THE  CONCLUSION. 

As  to  the  closing  Avords  of  perorations,  fitness  and  variety  should 
decide  our  choice  of  them.  Among  the  Scripture  forms  are  prov- 
erbs, promises,  prayers,  and  doxologies.  The  Roman  and  French 
Catholics  sometimes  conclude  with  the  paraphrase  of  some  psalm. 
(See  Bourdaloue  on  Riches,  Massillon  on  the  Resurrection  of 
Lazarus,  and  Abbe  PouUe  on  Heaven.)  Or  else  they  sometimes 
paraphrase  parts  of  hymns ;  e.  g.^  see  at  the  end  of  Massillon  s  ser- 
mon on  the  small  number  of  the  Elect,  a  paraphrase  of  Te  oportet 
ndorarl ;  and  the  peroration  of  Torielli's  sermon  on  the  General 
Judgment  for  a  paraphrase  of  the  Dies  Ine.  Schott  recommends 
one  or  more  stanzas  of  a  hymn,  but  gives  the  preference  to  a  pas- 
sage of  holy  Scrijiture.  Many  append  to  their  sermons  a  written 
or  extemporaneous  prayer.  This  is  frequently  a  part  of  the  con- 
clusion of  French  and  German  sermons.  "  Reinhard,"  says  Schott,^ 
"  sometimes  inserts  in  his  exordiimi  a  j)rayer  whicli  contains  the 
division  of  his  discourse,  and  sometimes  the  prayer  in  his  epilogue 
is  a  virtual  recapitulation  of  the  leading  views  which  he  has  ad- 
vanced. The  same  may  be  said  of  other  eminent  preachers,  and  it 
cannot  be  indiscriminately  condemned."  Nevertheless,  the  Jiahit 
of  preaching  in  prayer  is,  in  our  judgment,  every  way  pernicious. 
A  direct  and  formal  prayer  (the  same  may  be  said  of  a  benediction), 
made  out  of  its  customary  time  or  plaqe,  is  apt  to  throw  some 
hearers  into  a  doubt  as  to  whether  they  ought  to  assume  the  pos- 
ture of  prayer  or  not.  "We  may,  as  Mr.  Grcsley2  suggests,  avoid 
this  inconvenience  by  continuing  to  address  the  people  in  the  form 
of  benediction.  "  May  God  grant  us,"  etc.,  instead  of  "  Grant  us, 
O  God,"  etc.  If,  however,  both  the  congregation  and  the  preacher 
are  strongly  moved,  then  a  direct  address  to  God  is  impressive  and 
affecting;  and  in  order  to  remedy  the  inconvenience  before  ad- 
verted to,  you  may  commence  your  prayer  with  the  words,  "  Let 
us  pray." 

EXAMPLE   BEFORE   REFERRED   TO. 

AxTOXiO  Vieyra's  jjeroration  on  the  emanc'qmtion  of  the  en- 
slaved Indians  at  JMaranJuim,  Brazil,  in  the  year  1G53  :...''  Let 
the  world  know  that  there  is  still  truth,  that  there  is  still  the  fear 
of  God,  that  there  is  still  a  soul,  that  there  is  still  a  conscience,  and 
that  self  interest  is  not  the  absolute  and  universal  lord  of  all.  Let 
the  world  know  that  there  are  those  who,  for  the  love  of  God  and 
of  their  own  salvation,  still  trample  self-interest  under  foot.     Lord 

1  Prof.  Park's  condensed  translation  in  Bib.  Sac,  vol.  v.,  p.  750. 

2  Treatise  on  Preaching,  Letter  xxix. 


OF  THE  CONCLUSION.  331 

Jesus,  this  is  the  mind,  and  this  is  the  resolution  of  these  thy  faith- 
ful Catholics  from  this  day  forth.  There  is  no  one  here  who  has 
any  other  interest  but  that  of  serving  thee ;  there  is  no  one  here 
who  desires  any  other  advantage  but  that  of  loving  thee  ;  there  is 
no  one  hpre  who  has  any  other  ambition  but  that  of  being  eternally 
obedient  to  thee  and  prostrate  at  thy  feet.  Their  property  is  at 
thy  feet,  their  interest  is  at  thy  feet,  their  slaves  are  at  thy  feet,  their 
children  are  at  thy  feet,  their  blood  is  at  thy  feet,  their  life  is  at  thy 
feet,  that  thou  mayest  do  with  it,  and  with  all,  w^hatever  is  most 
conformable  to  thy  holy  law.  Is  it  not  thus,  Christians  ?  It  is 
thus ;  I  say  thus  and  promise  thus  to  God  in  the  name  of  all.  Vic- 
tory then  on  the  part  of  Christ ;  victory,  victory,  over  the  strong- 
est temptations  of  the  devil.  Woe  be  to  Satan,  woe  to  his  temp- 
tations, woe  be  to  sin,  woe  be  to  hell,  woe  to  ambition,  woe  to 
self-interest.  But  blessed  be  the  service  of  God ;  blessed  be  faith, 
blessed  be  Christianity,  blessed  be  the  soul,  blessed  be  conscience, 
blessed  be  the  law  of  God,  and  whatever  it  shall  command ;  blessed 
be  God,  blessed  and  only  blessed  be  us  all.  In  this  world  may  a 
rich  abundance  of  good  things  be  ours,  but  chiefly  those  of  grace  ; 
and  in  the  other  world,  glory  everlasting." 

Paolo  Segneri  closes  his  Lenten  sermon  [Perdono  agll  inimici 
Quareshnale,  Predica  iii.)  with  a  similar,  promise  on  behalf  of  the 
people.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  most  grand  and  pathetic  passage  in 
his  sermons.  The  first  part  of  the  same  sermon  (§8)  contains  a 
long  apostrophe  or  lamentation  before  the  Author  of  his  text. 


332  OF  DISPOSITION. 


CHAPTER    II. 

OF  DISPOSITION. 

We  have  liere  presumed  to  make  Disposition  a  part  of  Inven- 
tion ;  first,  because  the  proper  exercise  of  invention  either  proceeds 
from  or  results  in  thinking  according  to  some  method,  good  or  bad  ; 
secondly,  because  in  searching  for  the  best  method  the  most  perti- 
nent and  useful  thoughts  are  not  imfrequently  suggested  to  us. 
''  The  penmen  of  Holy  Writ,"  says  Diodati,  ''  ot\en  designedly  fol- 
low the  method  of  prudence,  whereby  they  apply  themselves  to 
the  present  subject,  time,  place,  or  persons."  Isocrates,  the  disciple 
of  Socrates  and  the  master  of  some  of  the  greatest  of  the  Greek 
orators,  appears  to  have  assigned  disposition  the  very  first  place  in 
invention;  for  in  one  of  his  lettersi  he  says:  "I  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  tell  my  hearers  that  they  ought  first  to  consider  how  the 
subject  and  each  part  of  it  is  to  be  treated,  and  when  tliat  has  been 
dul}'  weighed  and  examined,  then  to  think  of  arguments  and  a 
proper  style  to  support  and  recommend  it,  tliat  it  may  answer  the 
end  we  propose."  And  this  great  rhetorician  evidently  practised 
the  lessons  he  gave.  His  Panegyric  has  a  free  yet  admirable  order. 
Ilis  partition  is  as  follows:  "For  my  part  there  are  two  reasons 
which  engage  me  to  undertake  this  task ;  the  first  and  principal, 
that  you  may  be  thoroughly  reconciled  to  one  another,  and  per- 
suaded to  tui-n  all  your  resentment  against  the  barbarians;  the 
second,  that,  if  unsuccessful  in  this  principal  design,  I  may  at  least 
have  an  opportunity  of  pointing  out  the  obstacles  to  your  happi- 
ness, and  of  proving  in  the  presence  of  this  assembly  the  ancient 
superiority  of  Athens  on  the  sea,  and  its  present  title  to  assr-rt  the 
first  rank  among  the  Greeks."  It  is  worthy  of  observation  that 
Isocrates  takes  up  the  second  proposition  in  his  partition  first,  and 
jMirsuing  this  reverse  order,  makes  the  several  clauses  of  the  two 

1  Epist.  vi..  ad  Jasonis  Libros. 


OF  DISPOSITION.  333 

propositions  so  many  concealed  subdivisions  of  his  oration.i  The 
younger  Plmy,-  a  disciple  of  Quintilian,  considered  a  methodical 
arrangement  and  propriety  in  the  use  of  figures  as  distinguishing 
the  educated  from  the  mieducated  orator. 

Cicero  is  never  hampered  by  excess  of  method,  and  yet  several 
of  his  orations  are  obviously  composed  according  to  a  previous 
analysis  and  arrangement  of  the  matter.  His  oration  against  Pub- 
lius  Quintius  has  three  divisions,  that  against  Quintius  Ctccilius 
two,  and  that  for  the  Manilian  law  three ;  while  his  oration  for 
Murena,  and  his  seventh  Philippic,  have  each  three  divisions,  of 
which  the  hearers  are  apprised  m  brief  partitions, 

Chrysostom,  Ambrose,  and  Augustine,  preaching,  for  the  most 
part,  expository  sermons,  neglected  divisions;  and  even  their 
toj^ical  discourses  are  often  very  far  from  methodical.  In  the  ser- 
mons of  Isidore  and  other  preachers  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  cen- 
turies, we  sometimes  find  the  heads  and  partitions  carefully  set 
forth.  Antony  of  Padua,  a  very  popular  preacher  in  his  time,  fre- 
quently divides  his  subject  in  an  orderly  manner.  Herein  he  is 
followed  by  Albertus  Magnus  and  his  pupil,  Thomas  Aquinas,  re- 
commended by  Borromeo,  and  freely  imitated  by  the  princes  of 
the  French  pulpit. 

Of  Method  several  writers  have  treated.  Descartes^  has  dis- 
cussed the  subject  of  philosophical  method,  which  he  defines  a  pro- 
ceeding according  to  certain  rules  with  a  view  to  realize  a  certain 
end.  Keckerman,"^  Watts,^  Coleridge,6  and  Beck,^  have  left  us 
dissertations  on  method,  while  Mr.  F.  E.  Ziegler^  has  elaborately 
applied  the  principles  of  methodical  division  to  homiletics. 

Logical  method  is,  according  to  Dr.  Beck,  a  union  of  cognitions, 
determined  by  the  internal  relations  of  things;  in  other  words,  by 
the  necessary  interdependence  of  being  or  substance,  and  attribute 
and  accident,  of  cause  and  operation  or  effect,  of  condition  and 
conditional,  of  end  and  means.  This  is  distinguished  by  him  from 
the  geographical  and  chronological  method,  which  is  based  on  ex- 
ternal relations  of  objects  in  space  and  time.     Definition,  in   pure 

1  Reinhaid  also  sometimes  compresses  his  subdivisions  into  a  single  sentence, 
and  afterwards  recurs  to  the  successive  clauses  which  form  ihem.  (See  Dr. 
Parli's  two  excellent  articles  on  his  sermons,  Bib.  Sac,  vol.  yi.) 

2  Epist.  xiii.,  L.  iii.  3  Discourse  on  Method. 

4  Systema  Logicse  a  Minus,  pp.  576-595.  5  Logic,  Ft  iv.,  chaps,  i.  and  ii. 

6  Gen.  Intro,  to  Encyclop  Metropol. 

7  An  Outline  Treatise  on  Logic,  trans,  from  the  German  by  Dr.  E.  V.  Ger- 
havt,  p.  308-339.  8  Fundameiitura  Dividendi,  pp.  500,  8vo  (Dresden,  1851). 


334  OF  DISPOSITION. 

logic,  relates  to  the  contents  of  a  conception ;  division  to  its  ex- 
tent. To  divide  logically  is  to  represent  the  objects  which  a  con- 
C2ption  comprehends,  both  in  their  relation  to  each  other  and  in 
their  relation  to  the  conception  itself.  The  office  of  logical  division 
is  to  regard  a  conception  as  a  genus,  and  to  resolve  it  into  its  sev- 
eral species,  or  to  subordinate  the  particular  to  the  general,  a  case 
to  its  rule,  and  an  inference  to  a  universal  proposition ;  conse- 
quently this  kind  of  division  involves  the  following  elements: 
(1)  A' given  concejjtion,  or  the  divisible  ichole;  (2)  a  princijjle 
of  division  (fundamentum  divisionis) ;  that  is,  some  general  at- 
tribute of  the  divisible  whole,  which  determines  the  character  of 
the  division.  As  we  reflect  upon  a  given  conception  from  various 
points  of  view,  we  discover  in  it  different  principles  of  division- 
Thus  we  get  collateral  divisions.  Man,  for  axample,  may  be  va- 
riously divided.  "We  may-  take  as  the  principle  of  division  either 
his  nationality  or  religion,  or  morality  or  mental  qualities,  or  occu- 
pations. In  each  division  the  given  conception,  JTcm,  is  the  same, 
but  for  every  new  prmciple  we  adopt  we  get  a  difierent  set  of  7?ie)n- 
bers  of  division,  or  specific  differences,  or  various  particulars.  Each 
member  of  a  division  may  itself  be  regarded  as  a  divisible  whole 
from  which  a  subordinate  division  may  be  derived.  Thus  we  get 
subdivisions  which  may  be  subjected  to  the  same  dividing  process 
to  almost  any  extent.  That  division  to  which  a  subdivision  is  im- 
mediately subordinate  is  called  a  superior  division.  The  division 
wliich  comprehends  all  the  different  series  of  subdivisions  is  called 
the  fundaniented  or  primary  division  (divisio  fmidamentalis,  or 
primaria). 

As  to  the  order  of  division.  Dr.  Beck's  precept  is :  In  the  first 
place  elucidate  the  given  conception  l^y  a  complete  definition ; 
secondly,  settle  the  principle  of  division,  which  must  be  an  essential 
attribute  of  the  given  conception  ;  next  determine  by  this  principle 
the  several  species  of  the  divisible  whole ;  then  take  each  species 
in  turn  as  a  divisible  whole;  again  settle  a  principle  of  division,  and 
determine  its  several  subordinate  species  ;  and  thus  advance  till  the 
process  is  complete.  Hence,  as  Ziegler  teaches,  it  is  an  offence 
against  logical  method  when  a  preacher,  e.  g.,  upon  the  proposi- 
tion, "  Why  is  it  necessary  to  bridle  the  tongue  ?  "  builds  this  as 
a   subdivision      "  What  is  it  to  bridle  the  tongue  ?  " 

These  laws  of  logical  method  arc  worth  remembering,  as  they 
constitute  the  groundworks  of  rhetorical  method.  "  It  is  the  fun- 
damental tendency  of  the  mind,''  as  Dr.  Beck  observes,  "  to  refer 
its  manifold  conceptions  or  cognitions  each  to  its  own  category,  and 
thus  reduce  them  to  unity  in  order  In  comprehend  tiiem.     Hence 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  RHETORICAL  METHOD.  335 

it  is  the  logical  method  only  which  can  satisfy  the  deej^est  wants  of 
the  human  understanding."  The  preacher  finds  it  a  constant  help 
in  invention,  although  in  comjjosition  an  occasional  hindrance  to  a 
free  and  popular  diction. 

i 

Section  I. — The  Phinciples  of  Khetoeical  Method. 

Rhetorical  method  may,  in  general,  be  defined  such  a  disposition 
of  the  subject-matter  of  a  popular  discourse  as  best  serves  to  ex- 
plain, establish,  and  apply  it.  It  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds, 
natural,  and  arbitrary  or  heroic.  The  natui-al  is  that  which  is 
founded  on  the  laws  of  the  creation,  as  the  method  of  genesis,  or 
the  order  in  which  beings  come  to  exist,  the  modes  of  existence, 
the  parts,  properties,  kinds,  relations,  sequence,  and  ends  of  things. 
The  method  of  deduction  is  the  natural  one,  and  every  valid  pro- 
cess of  induction  is,  in  reality,  a  species  of  deductive  reasoning. 
The  arbitrary  or  heroic  disregards  deduction,  whether  absolute  or 
subordinate,  the  external  or  internal  relation  of  things,  and  logi- 
cal unity.  It  follows  or  forsakes  any  arrangement  according  to  the 
purpose  of  the  speaker,  and  the  variable  circumstances  and  neces- 
sities of  his  hearers ;  e.  g.,  when  a  panegyric  neglects  the  order  of 
time  in  delineating  the  deeds  of  its  hero,  and  speaks  first  of  his 
private  and  Christian  life,  secondly  of  his  public  and  political  life. 
The  arbitrary  may  be  divided  into  the  mixed  or  eccentric,  and 
cryptical.  The  former  may  either  employ  in  turn  several  methods, 
or  occasionally  forsaking  one  or  more,  may  abound  in  regressions, 
digressions,  and  rhaposdies.  The  cryptic  has,  in  some  cases,  per- 
haps, only  the  c/ppearance  of  arbitrariness  ;  for  its  method,  though 
concealed,  may  really  be  natural.  There  are  some  ancient  rules 
still  observed  in  the  process  of  division  and  arrangement ;  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  following : 

Let  your  method,  for  one  thing,  be  founded  on  a  distinct  concep- 
tion of  the  nature  and  verge  of  your  subject,  so  that  you  can  sepa- 
rate that  which  belongs  to  it  from  all  that  is  foreign  thereto.  Never 
preach  a  topical  sermon  without  first  reducing  to  writing  and  fixing 
in  your  memory,  if  not  always  announcing  its  subject,  or,  what 
is  still  better,  its  proposition.  Now  we  should  remember  that 
argumentative  propositions  are  of  two  kinds,  analytic  and  synthet- 
ic ;  in  the  former  are  expressed  or  implied  all  the  positions  which 
are  to  be  established  by  proof;  so  that  an  analysis  of  the  terms  of 
the  proposition  suggests  the  arguments  by  which  it  is  supported ;  r.y.^ 
Dean  Young  shows  that  judgment  is  for  the  Lord  by  first  analysing 
the  term  "judgment"  into  the  conceptions  of  power,  matter,  issue 


336  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  RHETORICAL  METHOD. 

and  form,  and  then  analysing  the  phrase  "for  the  Lord"  into  the 
ideas  of  God's  right,  God's  cause,  God's  end,  and  God's  sentence. 
These  ideas  are  coupled  in  four  subordinate  propositions.  (See 
plans  and  divisions.)  Such  a  method  is  recommended  by  Quintiliani 
■when  the  separate  arguments  are  powerful.  In  su<;h  cases  ojihj 
should  M'e  observe  the  rule  that  the  partition  should  exclude  all 
matter  not  embraced  in  the  chief  proposition.  Synthetic  proposi- 
tions are  such  as  are  establi.shed  bv  arguments  that  are  not  suo-- 
gested  by  an  analysis  of  their  terms,  but  founded  on  matter  outside 
of  themselves.  Of  this  kind  are  many  deductive  arguments,  and 
all  propositions  established  by  historic  proofs. 

And  let  your  method  be  founded  on  a  proposition  that  is  not 
only  distinct  but  true.  This  hint,  though  second  in  order,  is  first 
in  importance ;  hence,  the  necessity  for  employing  only  such  propo- 
sitions, terms,  definitions,  descriptions,  consequences,  and  inferences 
as  you  can  defend  if  attacked.  Express,  therefore,  and  arrange 
so  cautiously  your  proposition,  partition,  subdivisions,  and  matter 
generally,  as  to  preclude  or  anticipate  common  objections.  Xext 
in  order  after  the  question,  What  is  my  subject  ?  is  the  question,  Is 
it  founded  in  truth  or  based  on  the  text  ? 

Lqt  your  method,  for  another  thing,  be  as  plain  and  simple  as  the 
subject  will  admit  of,  beginning  with  what  is  Avell  known  and  ad- 
vancing to  that  which  is  less  known,  and  thence  to  the  obscure  and 
profound.  Do  not  attempt  to  gorge  one  long  sentence  with  a  great 
number  of  ideas,  nor,  like  Hooker,  '  drive  before  you  a  multitude  of 
clauses  like  a  flock  of  sheep,  and  so  become  perplexed  and  tedious.' 
And  accordingly  you  have  to  avoid  too  long  a  partition,  and  too 
many  subdivisions;  otherwise  not  a  few  of  your  hearers  will  be  in 
danger  of  confounding  generals  with  particulars,  and  things  forego- 
ing with  things  followhig,  or  the  reverse.  This  excess' of  method 
has  the  practical  effect  of  confusion.  The  dbservance  of  logical 
sequence  in  the  arrangement  and  connection  of  sentences  often  has 
the  effect  of  method  without  exhibiting  it.  Kobert  Hall  and 
Sydney  Smith  seldom  connect  their  thoughts;  hence  their  sen- 
tences move  not  forward  in  single  file  but  irregularly  along  parallel 
lines. 

Again,  let  not  the  various  i)arts  of  the  sermon  interfere  with 
one  another,  as  the  partition  with  the  proposition,  or  the  division 
with  the  subdivisions.  Do  not  regard  as  co-ordinate  that  which  is 
.iibonlinate,  nor  the  reverse.  Thus,  of  the  two  ideas  of  rluiriti/ 
and  iiithihiciicc  the  second  is  subordinate  to  the  first;  but  tlic  two 


1  Inst.  Rhet.,  L.  v.,  c.  zii. 


THE  PRNCiPLES  OF  RHETORICAL  METHOD.  337 

ideas  of  kbidness  and  indulgence  are  co-ordinate.  Do  not  there- 
fore distribute  into  two  distinct  heads  two  aspects  of  the  same  idea 
or  thought,  or  two  ideas  which  from  their  relation  to  each  other 
are  liable  to  be  confounded;  e.  g.,  do  not  attempt  to  prove  that  a 
vice  is  contrary,  first,  to  good  sense,  secondly,  to  our  interest ;  nor 
to  treat  under  two  heads  the  scripture  phrase,  "gentle,  easy  to  be 
entreated."  Herein  we  shall  be  greatly  assisted  by  the  habit  of 
conceiving  and  distinguishing  things  according  to  their  natures, 
parts,  properties,  kmds,  relations,  and  ends.  Besides,  we  shall  thus 
avoid  a  leaj)  (Saltus  in  dividendo)  as  when  a  preacher  divides  the 
divine  nature  into  the  attributes,  immutability,  spirituality,  justice, 
love,  etc.,  instead  of  first  dividing  them  into  absolute  and  relative. 

And  let  your  transitions  and  connections  be  made  with  a  reference 
not  only  to  an  orderly  disposition  of  all  the  parts,  but  also  to  a 
methodical  tendency  of  all  the  parts  to  attain  a  particular  end.  A 
discourse  may  be  so  arranged  that  each  part  may  prepare  the  w^ay 
for  what  follows,  and  at  the  same  time  preserve  the  force  of  what 
went  before,  but  it  may  still  fail  to  keep  in  view  the  main  object, 
or  make  it  evident  that  all  the  parts  thus  connected  lean  and  move 
towards  it.  Hence  the  necessity  of  observing  the  diflerence  be- 
tween a  side-path  and  an  obscure  and,  it  may  be,  devious  path. 

Let  your  method  moreover  be  without  deficiency,  and  yet  with- 
out superfluity.  "  There  is,"  as  Dt.  Watts  says,  "  a  happy  medium 
to  be  observed  in  our  method,  so  that  brevity  may  not  render  the 
sense  obscure,  nor  the  argument  feeble,  nor  our  knowledge  merely 
superficial ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  fiilness  and  copious- 
ness of  our  method  may  not  waste  the  time,  tire  the  learner,  nor  fill 
the  mind  wdth  trifles  and  impertinences."  The  proposition  should 
be  as  brief  as  possible,  and  should  contain  few  or  no  terms  that  call 
for  explanation ;  and  accordingly  all  definitions,  where  necessary, 
should  go  before  the  proposition.  The  divisions,  as  stated  in  the 
partition,  should  be  as  concise  and  elliptical  as  clearness  will  admit ; 
but  the  subdivisions  must  in  general  be  so  fully  expressed  that  no 
words  are  wanting  either  to  convey  the  sense  or  to  make  all  ti'ansi- 
tions.  Uniform  and  artificial  partitions,  like  every  other  kind  of 
sameness,  are  tedious.  Bishop  Burnet  almost  always  has  but  one 
division,  and  Christmas  Evans  and  F.  W.  Robertson  usually  two. 
Never  dwell  at  great  length  on  introductory,  transitional  occasion- 
al, and  incidental  matter,  nor  make  a  subdivision  merely  for  the 
sake  of  obtaining  a  symmetrical  and  complete  skeleton.  Make 
your  plan  bend,  and,  if  necessary,  give  way  to  the  most  important 
and  useful  matter  and  its  amplifications.  In  the  distribution  of 
matter  two  errors  are  often  committed  :  digressions  and  parenthe- 


338  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  RHETOPJCAL  METHOD. 

ses,  filled  with  unimportant  and  irrelevant  thoughts,  are  allowed  to 
occupy  space  which  is  needed  for  thoughts  that  contribute  to  the 
principal  design  ;  and  again,  such  a  prolixity  is  mdulged  in  the  ex- 
ordium and  body  of  the  discourse  that  little  or  no  space  is  left  for 
a  full  application.  So  inveterate  is  this  habit  in  some  that  it  is  ad- 
visable for  them,  after  meditating  deeply  on  all  parts  of  their  plan, 
to  compose  their  application  first.  Be  it  observed,  however,  that 
we  suggest  tliis  only  as  a  reuiedi/. 

For  the  rest,  conform  the  method  to  the  laws  of  rhetorical  adap- 
tation ;  in  other  words,  let  it  be  suitable  for  the  speaker,  for  his 
matter,  for  his  purpose,  and  for  his  audience.  Thereby  you  will 
cultivate  that  "  method  of  prudence,"  which  characterises  the  in- 
spired writers  and  preachers.  "  Discretion  of  speech,"  says  Bacon, 
"  is  more  than  eloquence."  The  sermons  of  the  prophets  deserve 
the  most  careful  study  in  this  respect.  The  example  of  the  apostle 
Paul  in  his  epistles  to  the  Cormthians  is  also  worthy  of  imitation, 
although  none  but  an  apostle  could  safely  announce  the  purpose  of 
addressing  a  church  as  a  congregation  of  spiritual  child ren.i  A 
good  rhetorical  method,  being  much  inlluenced  by  ailaptation,  ad- 
mits of  great  liberty  and  variety,  as  will  be  seen  from  a  study  of 
our  examples  of  plans  and  divisions.  Exposition,  conviction,  and 
application  demand  their  own  respective  and  peculiar  arrangements  ; 
and  these  again  may  be  advantageously  modified  by  the  exigencies 
of  time,  place,  and  audience.  Tlie  most  argumentative  sermons 
cannot  afford  to  lose  sight  of  a  jiractical  scope  and  design.  The 
sermons  of  Bourdaloue  and  Massillon  are  noted  for  tlieir  formal 
and  elaborate  partitions,  and  yet  their  partitions  very  seldom  fail  to 
trace  the  connection  between  the  discussions  and  their  various  and 
consequent  uses.  These  preachers  were  anxious  even  to  excess,  lest 
their  hearers  should  not  from  llie  outset  keep  in  full  view  the  prac- 
tical end  for  which  each  division  Avas  introduced  and  discussed.  So 
jirone  are  many  modern  preachers  to  throw  their  uses  into  the  back- 
ground, if  not  quite  out  of  sight,  that  they  might,  for  a  time  at 
least,  finil  it  judicious  as  a  means  of  self-reform  to  base  tiie  parts  of 
their  partitions,  if  not  their  propositions,  upon  the  preconceived 
and  previously  adjusted  matter  of  their  applications.  To  know 
how  to  analyse  our  hearers  is  more  important  than  to  know  how  to 
analyse  our  propositions. 

Adaptation  does  not  demand  that  in  the  process  of  invention  we 

1  Heb.  V.  12-14;  1  Cor.  iii.  1,  2;  cf.  sect,  on  Partitions.  BonGiel  lias  re- 
marked that  the  inspired  teachers  in  tlie  N.  T.  always  set  what  is  good  in  the 
foreground  ;  first  touching  on  betterments,  and  then  adducing  what  they  had  to 
blame.     (Life  by  Burk,  p.  79.) 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  RHETORICAL  METHOD.  339 

should  neglect  exactitude  and  fulness  of  method.  It  is  only  in  the 
act  of  composition,  and  occasionally  in  the  course  of  delivery  that 
an  arbitrary,  mixed,  or  cryptic  arrangement  will  often  be  wisely 
adopted.!  In  few  thmgs  is  the  novice  more  readily  detected  than 
in  his  rigid  adherence  to  a  scientific  method.  Of  one  of  the  Czars 
of  Russia,  Dr.  Watts  writes,  that  when  he  first  learned  the  art  of 
war  he  practised  all  the  rules  of  circumvallation  and  contravalla- 
tion  at  the  siege  of  a  certain  city  in  Lavonia ;  and  he  passed  so  much 
of  his  time  in  his  mathematical  approaches  that  he  wasted  the  sea- 
son for  taking  the  toAvn. 

Some  never  acquire  a  free  method,  because  in  their  minds  the 
subject  is  bound  up  with  rigid  notions  of  rhetorical  unity.  Think- 
ing thus,  they  adjust  almost  all  the  parts  of  their  sermons  in  such  an 
order  that  the  principal  subject  or  proposition  shall  be  continually 
kept  before  the  hearer.  Their  plans  are  apt  to  resemble  the  pine 
or  fir,  the  main  body  of  which  grows  up  straight  to  the  very  top  of 
the  tree,  while  branches  shoot  out  on  its  sides  at  regular  intervals ; 
and  there  are,  it  must  be  allowed,  certain  subjects,  e.  g.,  those  of  the  ar- 
gumentative and  demonstrative  kind,  which  sometimes  derive  con- 
siderable energy  and  gracefulness  from  the  constant  visibilty  of  the 
stem  proposition.  But  still  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  there  is 
also  a  unity  of  amplification  and  of  various  applications.  Almost 
all  fruit  trees  divide  the  trunk  among  the  first  branches,  and  sacri- 
fice height  and  symmetry  of  stem,  limb,  and  twig  to  that  rotundity 
which  exposes  the  greatest  amount  of  fruit  to  the  ripening  weather 
and  the  admiring  eye.  It  is  therefore  by  keeping  the  utility  of  our 
sermon  ever  before  us  that  we  acquire  the  truest  unity  and,  at  the 
same  time,  that  Ars  ut  artem  falleret,  that  art  of  deceiving  art,  of 
which  Venantius  Fortunatus  writes. 

Let  no  preacher  esteem  skill  in  practical  method  a  cheap,  super- 
ficial, and  enfeebling  accomplishment.  No  man  can  methodise 
thoroughly  well  whose  mind  has' not  been  disciplined  to  habits 
of  sound  thinking;  for  "method,"  as  Coleridge'^  observes,  "is  a 
power  or  spirit  of  the  intellect  pervading  all  that  it  does,  rather  than 
its  tangible  product."  Nor  is  he  likely  to  reduce  any  subject  to  a 
just  niethod  who  has  not  a  distmct,  particular,  and  comprehensive 
knowledge  thereof  But  to  learn  to  arrange  a  subject  practically 
and  popularly,  we  should  add  to  all  this  much  intercourse  with 
men3  and  considerable  experience  in  pubUc  speaking.     That  mas- 


1  See  the  sections  on  Digressions  and  Regressions.  2  Friend,  vol.  iii. 

3  The  following  partition  by  Kiummacher  on  2  Cor.  xiii.  5  must  have  been  de- 
rived from  a  knowledge  of  common  doubts  and  delusions.     I.  The  characteristic 


340  OF  DIGRESSIONS. 

ter  analyst,  Charles  Simeon,  told  Bishop  Wilson  that  he  had  recom- 
posed  the  plan  of  one  of  his  discourses  nearly  thirty  times. 

But  is  not  an  analytic  mind  necessarily  wanting  in  force  ?  Be- 
lieve it  not.  The  tendency  of  method  is  exactly  the  opposite  :  by 
contributing  to  perspicuity  and  by  reducing  the  whole  subject  to  one 
view,  it  stimulates  energy,  sometimes  to  an  extravagant  degree. 
Massillon  and  Baxter  were  both  analytic  thinkers,  and  yet  both 
Avrote  and  spoke  with  a  force  that  is  Demosthenian.  The  latteri 
studied  the  schoolmen,  chietly,  it  w^ould  seem,  because  of  their 
acuteness  and  skill  in  methodology.  "  And  though,"'  says  he, 
"  I  know  no  man  whose  genius  more  abhorreth  confusion  instead 
of  necessary  distinction  and  method,  yet  I  loathe  impertinent,  use- 
less art  and  pretended  precepts,  and  distinctions  which  have  no 
foundation  in  the  matter."  He  somewhere  says  he  never  thought  he 
understood  anything  until  he  could  anatomise  it.  Method  ther-efore, 
as  it  belongs  in  germ  and  potentiality  to  the  mind  itself,  so  it  is  the 
most  perfectly  evolved  by  the  most  capacious  and  cultivated  minds. 
When  nourished  by  great  vital  forces  the  osseous  frame  of  the  ser- 
mon will  be  sound,  well-proportioned,  and  capable  of  supporting 
the  strength  and  gracefulness  of  the  entire  composition.  Method 
wil'l,  moreover,  serve  so  fully  to  possess  the  mind  with  the  beautiful 
symmetry  of  a  subject  as  to  compel  utterance.  It  was  this,  perhaps, 
that  gave  to  the  hearers  of  Masi?illon  the  impression  when  he  be- 
gan to  speak,  that  he  could  not  help  setting  his  pent  thoughts  at 
liberty.  The  relations  of  method  and  eloquence  may  be  rendered 
more  clear  and  vivid  by  the  speculations  of  the  schoolmen  as  to 
the  name  Cherubim.  It  signifies,  as  they  said,  fulness  of  knowledge, 
which  consists,  first, in  a  perfect  vision  of  God;  secondly,  full  recep- 
tion of  divine  light ;  thirdly,  the  contemplation  in  God  himself  of 
the  beauty  of  the  order  of  things  emanting  from  him;  finally,  that 
fulness  of  this  knowledge  which  enables  them  to  pour  it  out  upon 
others  copiously. 

Of  the  assistance  method  affords  to  the  memory  of  the  speaker 
and  hearer  many  rhetors  have  said  many  excellent  things. 

Section  II. — Of  Digressions. 

The  Digression  {digrcssio,  cf/rcssio,  ^^are^-Jac;/*)  abounds  in  the 

graces  that  are  not  necessary.  IT.  Those  marks  of  a  state  of  grace  whicli  are  in- 
sutBcient.  III.  Those  whichare  satisfactory,  and  at  the  same  time  indispensable. 
1  Knowledge  and  Love  Comitar^d,  Pt.  i.,  c.  i.  ;  Wiinle  Worlts,  vol.  xv.  p.  15.  Bax- 
ter wrotea  very  elaborate  work  in  Lnt'm  entll]ed  Mi  t/wJits  Theol>gi<e  (LonJ  ,  16S1}. 
It  is  a  rich  contribution  to  methodology. 


OF  DIGRESSIONS.  841 

inspired  eloquence  to  an  extent  unequalled  by  any  speecaes  that  are 
merely  human.  The  instances  of  this  are  multitudinous  and  evi- 
dent to  all.  But  we  must  possess  a  considerable  knowledge  of  clas- 
sical digressions  before  we  are  prepared  to  appreciate  the  natural 
and  noble  spontaneousness  and  negligence  which  characterise  those 
of  the  holy  prophets.  Though  their  thoughts  are  never  poured 
forth  in  a  tumultuary  and  precipitate  manner,  yet  they  are  never, 
on  the  other  hand,  uttered  under  the  restraints  to  which  the  laws  of 
logical  unity  would  subject  them.  The  speaker  at  the  end  of  a  di- 
gression never  says,  "  But  I  have  been  travelling  a  little  out  of  my 
proper  path." 

The  digressions  of  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  orators  were  free 
and  artless,  being  such  as  properly  belonged  to  their  "  impulsive 
style,"  or  that  Avhich  at  all  hazards  follows  the  flow  of  the  thought. 
Cicero  approved  digressions,  even  such  as  were  premeditated.^  Ac- 
cording to  his  great  work  (De  Oratore,  L.  xi,  c.  xix.)  the  chief  di- 
gression customarily  came  before  the  conclusion.  Those  of  the 
later  rhetors  and  declaimers-  were  often  carefully  premeditated  and 
set  in  a  particular  place,  namely,  between  the  narrative  and  the 
proof.  Quintilian  thinks  the  digression  should  not  be  uniformly 
assigned  to  this  part  of  the  oration,  although  he  admits  that  it  is 
often  useful  as  a  kind  of  second  exordium  to  prepare  the  judge  for 
the  examination  of  the  evidence.  The  same  writer  makes  the  im- 
portant remark  that  expressions  of  indignation,  pity,  detestation,' 
reproach,  or  conciliation,  apologies,  replies  to  invective,  all  exaggera- 
tion, extenuation,  and  appeals  to  the  passions  are  of  the  nature  of 
the  digression.  It  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  disorderly  wandering 
is  true  method  in  almost  every  kind  of  vehement,  pathetic,  or  horta- 
tory speech.  Excitation,  if  it  is  to  be  prolonged,  demands  an  irregu- 
lar and  unrestrained  flow  of  ideas,  the  liberty  to  pass  obliquely 
from  one  digression  to  another,  and  the  privilege  of  sinkuig  down 
to  rest  and  expiring  in  an  anti-climax. 

This  principle  serves  to  accoimt  for  much  of  that  abruptness  in 
the  ancient  classics  which  critics  have  so  often  complained  of.  In 
cases  not  a  few  it  will  be  found  that  the  abruptness  is  occasioned 
not  by  a  transition  from  one  branch  of  the  same  subject  to 
another,  but  by  a  digression  from  one  subject  to  another.  The 
impassioned  speaker  -almost  always  awakens  the  feelings  of  his 
hearers  by  surprise,  or  before  they  are  aware.  Dr.  Johnson  is 
wrong,  therefore,  when  lie  conjectures  that  these  transitions,  as  he 
terms  them,  were  usually  performed  by  indirect  allusion  ;  and  the 


1  De  Orat.,  L.  ii.,  c   xix   ar.d  Ixxvlii.  2  Qu'.nt.,  L.  iv.,  c.  iii. 


342  OF  DIGRESSIONS. 

reason  why  they  appear  to  us  so  disjointed,  is  only  because  vre  have 
lost  the  intermediato  idea,  which,  by  being  understood  without 
being  expressed,  served  thus  to  connect  the  adjoining  parts  of  the 
composition.  But  he  should  have  remembered  that  the  modulation 
of  the  voice  in  singing  or  reading  them  supplied  this  want.  Nor 
did  it  occur  to  Johnson  that  many  of  these  passages  owe  their 
power  to  their  total  lack  of  transitions  of  every  kind,  to  their  being, 
in  fact,  of  the  nature  of  digressions.  It  requires  a  lively  imagina- 
tion, as  Beattie^  has  truly  remarked,  to  understand  and  appreciate 
the  incoherent  language  of  enlhusiasm.  "  Hence,"  says  he,  "  in  the 
odes  of  Pindar,  and  in  some  of  the  odes  of  Gray,  which  imitate 
the  language  of  enthusiasm,  many  readers  complain  that  they  ai*e 
often  at  a  loss  to  discover  connection  between  contiguous  senti- 
ments; while  others  not  more  learned,  perhaps,  find  no  difficulty 
in  conceiving  the  progress  of  ideas  that  lead  these  authors  from  one 
thought  or  image  to  another.  The  latter  surely  are  the  only  per- 
sons qualified  to  judge  of  those  odes ;  and  this  qualification  they 
seem  to  derive  from  their  superior  liveliness  of  fancy."  The 
emotional  kind  of  imagination  (to  which  should  be  joined  a  deep 
religious  experience)  is  nowhere  in  greater  request  than  in  the  study 
of  the  digressions  of  the  prophetic  eloquence.  It  has  not  escaped 
the  notice  of  Calvin-  that  Isaiah,  in  the  second  part  of  the  book, 
after  having  begun  to  encourage  the  hope  of  pardon,  appears  fre- 
quently to  digress  to  another  subject,  and  to  wander  through  prolix 
circumlocutions,  celebrating  the  wonders  of  the  divine  government 
in  the  mechanism  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  whole  order  of  na- 
ture ;  yet  there  is  nothing  said  but  what  is  applicable  to  the  subject ; 
for,  unless  the  omnipotence  of  God  be  presented  to  our  eyes,  our 
ears  will  not  attend  to  his  word,  nor  esteem  it  according  to  its 
M'orth.  Tliis  is  the  reason,  as  this  great  interpreter  and  theologian 
thinks,  why  the  prophet,  when  he  w^ould  hnprcss  the  hearts  of  the 
doubting  and  fearing  people  of  God  with  an  assurance  of  salvation, 
discourses  in  so  magnificent  a  manner  concerning  the  infinite  power 
of  God.  These  prophetic  roamings  are  indeed  justified  alike  by 
Hebrew  history,  and  the  exigencies  of  all  believers  in  their  tempta- 
tions and  other  experiences.  Paul  in  his  defence  before  Agrippa 
(Acts  xxvi.)  suddenly  drops  his  subject  at  verse  8,  and  exclaims: 
"  Why  should  it  be  thought  a  tiling  incredible,"  etc.  He  then  re- 
turns to  his  defence,  but  he  again  digresses  to  the  subject  of  the 
resurrection,  verse  23,  when  he  is  interrupted   by  Festus  with  the 

1  Lmerlatiom,  Moral  and  Critical ;  Of  Imagination,  c.  iv. 

2  Institutes,  B.  ii.   c  iii.,  ^31. 


OF  DIGRESSIONS.  343 

charge,  "  Paul,  much  learning   hath  made^  thee  mad."     The  obiter 
dicta  of  Scripture  are  very  instructive. 

Nor  are  wanderings  forbidden  in  those  parts  of  sermons  which 
are  argumentative.  When  well  chosen  and  brief  they  afford  to  the 
reasoning  powers  a  little  recreation,  from  which  they  may  return  to 
their  task  with  undivided  attention,  or  else  give  an  opportunity 
for  handling  such  matters  as  serve  to  elucidate  the  whole  field  of 
discussion ;  whereof  the  effect  is  much  like  that  of  climbing  to  the 
top  of  a  mountain  during  a  campaign,  and  there  surveying  the  terri- 
tory in  dispute.  Mr.  Taylor,^  the  famous  street  preacher  of  San 
Francisco,  makes  very  effective  use  of  what  he  terms  "  surprise 
power;"  and  Cecil  speaks  of  "  darting  upon  you  with  an  unex- 
pected stroke."  The  Roman  orator,  Lentulus,^  owed  much  of  his 
success  to  his  sallies  and  suriDrises ;  and  the  oath  of  Demosthenes, 
the  most  eloquent  of  all  his  utterances,  must  be  numbered  among 
digressions. 

And  of  didactic  subjects  it  may  likewise  be  said,  that  ramblings 
often  give  us  new  and  more  extensive  views.  It  has  been  justly 
observed  that  "  a  man  does  not  know  England  "  (nor,  we  may  add, 
"  Pilgrim's  Progress  "  )  "  until  he  has  broken  loose  from  railways, 
from  cities,  from  towns,  and  clambered  over  stiles  and  lost  himself 
in  the  fields."  He  who  knows  not  how  to  wander,  knows  not  how 
to  explore ;  and  circumnavigators  have  changed  the  map  of  the 
world  and  greatly  enlarged  the  domain  of  civilized  nations,  because 
furious  gales  swept  them  out  of  their  course,  drove  them  up  and 
down,  and  finally  wrecked  them  among  the  rocks  of  the  unknown 
coast. 

But  some  disciple  of  the  old  classic  rhetors  will  say :  "  This 
writer  has  dared  to  set  at  naught  all  that  the  highest  authorities 
teach  us  concerning  homiletical  unity.  Were  they,  after  all,  mis- 
taken in  demanding  that  a  sermon  be  one  in  subject,  one  in  design, 
one  in  the  adjustment  of  its  parts  to  the  principal  end  and  to  each 
other,  one  in  the  general  design  and  effect  of  its  figures?  '  No,  we 
reply,  they  were  not  mistaken,  if  they  intended  that  their  precepts 
should  apply  only  to  the  most  of  the  sermons  written  by  students 
as  exercises  in  homileties,  and  to  discourses  that  are  to  be  printed 
for  general  circulation ;  in  brief,  to  all  discourses,  disquisitions,  and 
essays  that  are  composed  without  regard  to  an  application  to  a  par- 
ticular audience.  But  mistaken  they  certainly  were,  if  they  meant 
to  exact  such  unity  from  the  homilies  and  sermons  of  the  pastor 
who  aims  to  make  full  and  specific  and  timely  applications  of  all 

1  Model  Preacher.  2  Cicero's  Brutus,  chap.  Ixvi. 

23 


344:  OF  DIGRESSIONS. 

texts  and  tlieraes  to  the  many  different  and  ever-changing  moral 
states  and  circumstances  of  his  flock.  And  it  just  now  occurs  to 
us  that  M'e  stand  not  alone  in  this  view  of  homiletical  unity.  ''  In 
the  applications  you  make,"  says  Ostervald,  "  do  not  tie  yourselves 
doAvn  in  such  wise  as  to  feel  under  a  necessity  of  saying  nothing 
that  docs  not  exactly  arise  from  the  subject.  You  should  always 
preserve  a  reasonable  liberty,  esjiecially  Mhen  you  are  preaching  in 
your  own  church.  But  I  would  not  recommend  this  to  young  stu- 
dents of  divinity,  or  to  ministers  that  preach  in  a  strange  church. 
"We  have  in  favor  of  this  course  the  example  of  St.  Chrysostom, 
who  in  his  applications  runs  out  into  several  subjects  to  which  his 
text  does  not  lead  him.  *You  should  always  have  more  regard  to 
edification  than  to  anything  else ;  what  is  good  and  necessary  is 
always  seasonable;  and  even  those  uses  that  do  not  appear  to  flow 
naturally  from  the  text  may  show  the  hearers  the  necessity  of  the 
exhortations  you  address  to  them."  But  our  opinion  respecting 
this  matter  is  supported  by  the  supreme  authority  of  inspired  ex- 
amples— examples  too  familiar  and  too  abundant  to  quote. 

And  if  we  examine  closely  those  predictive,  historic,  an<l  horta- 
tory Scriptures  which  mention  the  Lord  Jesus,  we  shall  find  that 
not  a  few  of  them  are  digressions.  Mark  how  abruptly  Isaiah 
sometimes  introduces  his  visions  of  the  Messiah.  !Mark  with  what 
bold  and  imexpected  turns  John  the  Baptist,  and  Stephen,  Paul, 
Peter,  Jolm,  and  the  other  holy  prophets  make  aberrations  in  their 
orbits  in  order  to  lead  us  betimes  nearer  Jesus,  the  radiant  centre 
of  all  Scripture  light,  and  the  efficient  source  of  all  Christian  obe- 
dience.' And,  blessed  be  his  name,  if  we  keep  within  the  bounds 
of  divine  revelation,  we  need  never  turn  aside  very  far  from  our 
path  to  find  ourselves  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Lamb  of  God. 

The  love  of  divme  knowledge  and  of  a  miserable  humanity  will, 
when  necessary,  make  short  work  of  our  ideas  of  symmetrical 
images,  classic  sentences,  and  rhetorical  imities.  Only  see  how  St. 
Paul,  evidently  made  flexible  by  liis  comjiassion  for  his  countrymen, 
or  his  ignorant  and  erring  converts,  chooses  rather  to  mar  his  meta- 
phors than  to  break  the  head  of  a  fellow-disciple,  and  to  build  his 
periods  out  of  course  lest  they  appear  to  shock  needlessly  the  pre- 
judices of  some  Hebrew  or  heathen.  Then  consider  that  a  whole- 
some variety  in  our  ministrations  cannot  always  be  secured  without 
imitating  Chrysostom,^  who  thought  it  needful  to  set  a  variety  of 

1  Isa.  vii.  11;  ix.  1  ,  lii.  2;  John  i  119;  Acts  ii.  122  ;  vii.  53;  i.  Cor.  v.  7;  Epli. 
V.  2-5;  Titus  iii.  2-G  ;  1  Pol.  ii.  18-25  ;  Jas.  ii.  1 ;  v.  7. 

2  Homily  i.,  Pt.  i. ;  Do  Prop'.iete  Obscuritat.  Clirysostom  and  Greg.  Nazianzen 
abound  in  digressions. 


OF  DIGRESSIONS.  345 

spiritual  food  before  an  audience  of  sick  and  convalescent  souls.  It 
was  a  kind  of  digression  when  Moses  turned  aside  from  his  flock  to 
learn  why  the  burning  bush  was  not  consumed ;  it  was  much  like  a 
digression  when  the  good  Samaritan  left  the  high  road  to  save  the 
life  of  his  waylaid  fellow-traveller.  Zoroaster,  in  one  of  his  fables, 
describes  a  wretch  who  was  so  far  immersed  in  a  fiery  lake  that 
only  one  of  his  heels  was  allowed  to  be  lifted  above  the  surface  as 
a  reward  for  having  once  turned  upon  it  to  relieve  a  lamb  entangled 
in  a  thicket.  And  of  how  many  a  sermon  does  the  aged  preacher 
commit  to  the  flames,  all  except  a  small  digression  still  treasured 
in  the  memory,  which  served  to  lead  back  some  wandering  sheep 
to  the  holy  fold  and  the  Chief  Shepherd.  Augustine^  one  day  made 
a  long  digression  against  the  Manichees.  On  returning  home  he 
mentioned  that  he  had  wandered  from  his  subject  much  against  his 
will  and  purpose,  and  asked  Possidonius  and  other  friends :  "  Did 
you  not  observe  it  ?  "  "  We  did,  and  wondered,"  was  the  reply. 
Upon  this  he  said :  "  I  believe  that  it  was  the  good  pleasure  of  the 
Lord  through  my  forgetfulness  to  look  after  some  straying  one." 
Two  days  after  this  one  Firmus,  a  merchant,  called  on  him,  and 
falling  down  at  his  feet  confessed  with  tears  that  he  had  for  many 
years  entertained  the  Manichean  heresy,  but  was  by  that  sermon 
rightly  instructed  and  soundly  converted  to  the  orthodox  faith. 
When  Augnstme  and  his  friends  heard  this,  they  wondered  at  and 
admired  the  deep  purpose  of  God,  and  glorified  his  power  to  con- 
vert souls  when  he  will,  whence  he  will,  and  in.  what  manner  he 
will,  whether  the  preachers  know  it  or  know  it  not.  Luther  was 
no  stranger  to  these  side-gusts  of  the  Spirit  and  their  blessed 
results;  hence  his  sermons,  as  one  wo»ds  it,  have  often  the  ir- 
regularity of  an  ode.  "  I  have  observed,"  says  John  Bunyan,^  "  that 
a  word  cast  in  by  the  bye  hath  done  more  execution  in  a  ser- 
mon than  all  that  was  spoken  besides."  "  He  wanders  from  his 
subject,"  cojnplained  some  critic  of  the  late  English  preacher,  John 
Gualter.  "  Yes,"  was  the  reply,  "  he  wanders  from  his  subject  to 
the  heart."  A  late  dissenting  minister  in  England  had  obtained  no 
small  reputation  among  his  brethren  for  his  eloquence  generally, 
and,  more  particularly,  for  the  logical  sequence,  and,  most  of  alb 
for  the  impressive  conclusions  of  his  sermons.  On  some  great  oc- 
casion he  was  appointed  to  preach  in  the  oj^en  air,  and  he  had  held 
the  attention  of  his  auditors  through  a  long  discourse.  Just  before 
the  conclusion  he  was  observed  to  hesitate — and  then  in  a  rambling 
manner  he  recapitulated  part  of  what  he  had  already  said,  until  he 

1  Possidonius,  Vita  Augustini.  2  Grace  Abounding,  etc.,  §287. 


346  OF  DIGRESSIONS. 

reached  a  very  lame  and  impotent  close.  At  the  subsequent  din- 
ner, when  the  preacher's  health  was  proposed,  "  Brother ," 

said  one  of  the  ministers  present,  "  we  must  all,  I  am  sure,  liave 
been  charmed  by  your  discourse;  but  if  I  may  hazard  the  observa- 
tion, I  thought  that  at  the  conclusion  you  lost  the  thread  of  your 
argument,  and  hardly  equalled  your  ordinary  excellence."  "  I 
must  tell  you  the  reason,"  was  the  reply ;  "  thus  it  was.  Just  as  I 
was  about  to  conclude  I  saw  a  poor  man  running  to  the  place,  hot 
and  dusty  and  eager  to  hear.  '  Speak  a  word  to  him,'  said  con- 
science. *  You  will  spoil  your  sermon  if  you  do,'  said  pride.  And 
I  did  spoil  it,  I  know ;  but  still. I  may  have  done  him  good."^  Such 
an  application  is  often  less  a  digression  than,  to  borrow  a  happy 
phrase  from  Eustathius,  "  a  profitable  side-path  "  running  towards 
the  same  point  as  the  highway. 

It  is  to  the  excursions  of  the  eloquence  of  the  Scriptures  that  w^ 
are  indebted  for  one  of  its  most  excellent  adaptions  to  the  undis- 
ciplined minds  of  the  common  people,  and  of  the  young  of  every 
condition.  Though  the  interdependence  of  its  parts  is  greater  in 
some  books  than  most  sujierficial  readers  think,  yet  it  is  less  than 
most  critics  imagine.  Some  sentences  and  paragraphs  are  linked, 
or  else  are  merely  hooked  together  by  verbal  connections,  but  the 
plurality  are  attached  to  one  another  by  the  magnetism  of  an  in- 
ward unity  so  deeply  hidden  that  it  can  only  be  explored  by  the 
future  progress  of  Scripture  knowledge.*  And  yet  for  all  this 
they  are  perfectly  suited  to  inattentive  and  vagrant  minds  which, 
being  unable  either  to  embrace  in  one  view  the  whole  extent  of  a 
speech,  or  to  trace  the  connection  of  all  its  parts,  can  comprehend 
and  feel  the  import  of  each  short  phrase  and  sentence ;  whereby  as 
by  so  many  drops  irrigated,  they  will  l)e  gently  and  gradually 
evolved  in  spiritual  beauty  and  fruitfulness.  Descriptive  of  this  pe- 
culiarity of  the  prophetic-  style  are,  we  think,  these  lines  in  the  song 
of  Moses :  "  My  doctrine  shall  drop  as  the  rain,  my  speech  shall 
distil  as  the  dew,  as  the  small  rain  upon  the  tender  herb,  and  as  the 
showers  upon  the  grass." 

But  from  the  above,  or  from  anything  we  have  elsewhere  advanced, 
let  no  one  infer  that  we  approve  the  jiractice  of  those  who  select 
for  subjects  large  jiortions  of  sacred  history,  or  general  views  of 
cardinal  doctrines,  or  of  virtues,  and  then  expatiate  upon  them  m 
every  direction;  extravagating  by  turns,  north,  east,  south,  and 
west;  or  else  wandering,  totally  regardless  of  any  point  of  the 
compass,  and  of  the  outermost  fences  of  the  theme,  be  it  ever  so 

1  Rev.  J.  M.  Neale's  Mediaeval  Preachers  and  Preaching,  p.  17. 


OF   REGRESSIONS.  347 

widely  extended.  The  canonical  books  afford  no  example  of  such 
incessant  and  purposeless  roaming.  Digressions  are  only  allowable 
and  commendable  in  cases  where  the  subject  and  the  aim  of  the 
preacher  are  characterised  by  the  strictest  unity.  These  remarks  do 
not,  of  course,  narrowly  apply  to  some  sermons  which  conclude 
series — sermons  whose  object  is  to  recapitulate  the  matter  of  the 
series, — and  certain  kinds  of  liistorical  and  statistical  discourses. 
Yet,  let  it  be  remembered,  that  any  sermon  on  "  the  generality  of 
things  in  general"  is  soporific  for  tlie  many,  while  it  aggravates  the 
painful  insomnolence  of  the  few. 

As  a  general  thing  digressions  ought  to  be  short,  otherwise  they 
may  cause  the  minds  of  the  hearers  to  forget  and  abandon  the  mat- 
ter in  hand.  It  will  conciliate  our  more  intelligent  and  methodical 
auditors  if  we  ask  of  them  the  liberty  of  digressing  when  we  are 
about  to  do  so,  and  to  notify  them  when  we  begin  to  return  to  the 
main  current  of  our  thoughts.  In  oratory,  however,  we  should  not 
be  too  ceremonious  in  our  transitions  to  and  from  digressions. 

Some  invent  best  when  they  invent  immethodically.  Their  best 
thoughts  on  a  subject  come  to  them  disconnectedly.  Such  preach- 
ers would  find  it  advantageous  to  themselves  and  their  hearers, 
were  they  to  number  their  suggestions  in  the  order  they  jotted 
them  down,  and  then,  after  finding  that  they  could  range  almost  all 
of  them  under  two  or  three  heads,  proceed  to  do  so  with  the  fol- 
lowing result :  Text  John  iii.,  IG  :  "  God  so  loved."  I.  Mode,  4,  7. 
II.  Degree,  3,  6,  9.     III.  Intention,  1,  2,  8. 

We  do  well  to  avoid  such  a  habit,  either  of  thinkmg  or  compos- 
ing, as  leads  to  a  confusion  and  contradiction  of  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings. "  If,"  says  Vieyra,!  "  the  labourer  were  first  to  sow  wheat, 
and  over  that  rye,  and  over  that  millet,  and  over  that  barley,  what 
would  spring  up  ?  A  tangled  forest,  a  green  confusion."  It  is  well, 
however,  that  such  preachers  are  apt  to  sow  scatteringly ;  and  let 
us  hope  that  they,  at  least,  pre-occupy  the  minds  of  their  hearers 
against  the  weeds  and  thorns  of  error. 

Sectio:n"  III. — Of  Kegressioxs. 

No  writer  appears  to  have  directed  out  attention  to  that  quality 
of  the  inspired  oratory  which  we  may  venture  to  term  variation 
or  enhancement  by  regression.  An  example  of  this  is  furnished  by 
these  familiar  but  inexhaustible  words  of  our  Divine  Instructor : 
"  Come  unto  me  all  ye  that  labour  and  are  heavy  laden,  and  /  v)iU 

1  Sermon  on  the  Seed  by  the  Wayside. 


348  OF  REGRESSIONS. 

give  ymi  rest.  Take  my  yoke  upon  you,  and  leani  of  me,  for  I  am 
meek  and  lowly  in  heart:  and  ye  si  tall  find  rest  unto  your  soids. 
For  my  yoke  is  easy,  and  my  burden  is  light "  (Matt,  xi.,  28-30). 
The  members  of  the  sentence  we  have  italicised  both  promise  rest, 
and,  therefore,  according  to  modern  notions  of  unity,  should  not 
have  been  separated.  A  similar  regression  is  observable  in  the 
closing  words  where  he  returns  to  the  idea  of  His  yoke,  and  am- 
plifies it  with  the  idea  that  the  yoke  is  easy.  Yet  another  retro- 
gression is  found  in  the  clause,  "my  burden  is  light,''  which  very 
evidently  goes  back  to  the  words,  "  ye  that  .  .  .  are  heavy  laden." 
The  insjjired  sermons  teem  with  such  regressions ;  few  of  which, 
however,  are  as  short  or  as  regular  as  these.  The  text  is,  indeed, 
an  example  of  the  Hebrew  parallelism ;  and  being  such,  it  would 
serve  to  confirm  the  ojjinion  that  the  parallelism  is  the  germ  of  the 
regression  as  well  as  the  refi-ain.  Tlio  recurrence  is  not  always  to 
the  same  word,  i)hrase,  or  thought ;  nor  is  it  always  a  retura  to  the 
first  expression  of  an  idea,  or  first  statement  of  a  subject.  The  pro- 
gress of  such  ideas  in  projihetic  speeches  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
way  in  which  the  downy  seeds  of  certain  plants  are  disseminated 
by  the  winds  of  autumn.  Could  we  trace  back  to  their  mother- 
country  all  the  plats  of  wild  fiowers  which  we  count  in  a  single 
field,  we  should  find  that  one  was  colonised  by  a  seed  wafted  to  it 
on  a  light  wind  from  an  adjacent  field;  another  owed  its  foundation 
to  some  more  daring  adventurer,  driven  by  a  storm-gale  from  the 
utmost  corner  of  the  valley ;  another,  again,  was  indebted  for  its 
first  settlement  to  a  packet  of  hope,  sailing  before  a  fresh  breeze 
from  a  region  not  quite  so  remote.  Would  you  have  the  illustra- 
tion less  imperfect  V  Suppose  these  winds  to  blow  only  from  one 
point,  and  years  crowded  into  the  space  of  half  an  hour.^ 

This  reproductive  variety  which  thus  enlivens  and  adorns  the  sa- 
cred addresses  is  well  adapted  to  the  mental  habits  of  the  mass  of 
almost  every  congregation.  The  reason  is  not  far  to  seek.  They 
are  unused  to  close  attention  and  consecutive  thinking;  we  have 
but  to  listen  to  their  common  talk  to  detect  many  a  yratis  dictum. 
Their  ideas  follow  one  another  in  a  fortuitous,  disorderly  train.     In 


1  By  comparing  tlie  speeches  of  Christ  with  those  of  Hebrew  prophets,  the 
reader  will  have  striking  and  full  evidence  that  his  regressions  are  essentially 
like  theirs,  e.  g.,  Lev.  xxvi.  8,  17,  36,  37,  26.  20,  34,  43;  Deut.  iv.  7,  3,  32-38;  11 
-12,  24,  36;  v.  22-26;  Isa.  xlviii.  20;  xlix :  9-12,  24,  25;  lii.  2-12;  Iv.  12,  13. 
Ivi.  4-6;  Iviii.  13,  14;  Jer.  ii.  2,  3,  20,  24,  33,  34  ;  iii.  1.  2,  14,20;  v.  4,  5.  21  \ 
viii.  7,9,etc.;  Matt.  v.  6,38-48;  vi.  12-15;  v.  8,27-82;  vi.  6-15;  vii.  7-12) 
vi.  22,  23;  vii.  8-5;  x.  14-40;  xxiii.  14,  23;  John  x.  2.  11.  19;  xiv.  lC-18,  26;* 
XV.  1-5:  26  ;  xvi.  7—11,  13,  14,  33;  xvii.  4,  5,  22, 11,  22-23,  etc. 


OF  REGRESSIONS.  349 

Plato's  Theastetus,  we  hear  Socrates  comparing  the  mmd  to  an 
aviary,  and  the  cogitations  to  various  kinds  of  birds,  gregarious  and 
other,  which  fly  about  within.  Their  owner  may  be  said  to  j^ossess, 
but  not  to  have  them;  and  when  he  puts  in  his  hand  to  catch  a 
dove,  the  chances  are  that  he  will  grasp  a  wood-pigeon  instead. 
And  this  holds  good  of  the  most  intellectual  hearers  when  Sunday 
finds  them,  as  it  commonly  does,  disinclined  to  further  mental  toil. 
Rare  as  black  swans  are  the  minds  whose  thoughts  are  always  avail- 
able. 

The  undisciplined  many  are  often  compelled  to  return  again  and 
again  to  search  after  that  which  they  know.  Not  dissimilar  is  the 
process  by  which  they  are  instructed  by  an  explication,  convinced 
by  an  argument,  or  are  moved  by  a  persuasive.  And  hence  Agus- 
tine^  advises  the  exposititor  to  observe  the  ways  by  which  an  as- 
sembly signifies  that  they  either  do  or  do  not  understand  what  he 
says,  and  so  long  as  there  are  indications  that  an  idea  is  not  com- 
prehended, to  give  it  another  turn  or  set  it  in  a  variety  of  new 
lights.  In  this  manner  did  the  prophets  almost  always  teach  and 
move  the  people.  They  seldom  returned  to  the  treasury  of  the 
mind  to  bring  out  something  new  without  bringing  out,  at  the  same 
time,  something  old.  Uncultivated  minds  compensate  for  the 
want  of  a  steady  attention  by  frequent  returns  to  the  subjects  they 
love.  Rowland  Hill  was  fully  aware  bf  this,  and  used,  in  his  home- 
ly way,  to  compare  his  preacliing  to  milking  an  excellent  cow :  "  I 
first  pull  at  sanctification,  then  at  adoption,  and  afterwards  at  sanc- 
tification ;  and  so  on,  till  I  have  filled  my  pail  with  gospel  milk." 
The  minds  of  all  except  a  few  are  excvirsive.  Each  of  the  many 
avocations  of  life  draws  a  transient  attention,  while  some  of  them 
are,  perhaps,  often  revisited  by  it,  and  yet  it  is  continually  finding 
its  way  back  to  one  endeared  and  j^aramount  subject,  which  is  apt 
to  grow  the  more  precious  the  oftener  it  is  thus  revisited.  Now, 
imless  we  are  much  mistaken,  the  Divine  Spirit  has  deigned  to 
adapt  the  sacred  eloquence  to  this  habit  or  law  of  the  common  mind, 
and  instead  of  aiming  directly  to  discii^line  it  to  continuous  think- 
ing, he  has  in  preference  sought  to  save  it  by  yielding  a  complete 
subserviency  to  its  untutored  modes  of  operation.  And  it  will  gen- 
erally be  found  that  when  any  one  speaks  extemporaneously  on  a 
subject  which  had  often,  but  only  a  little  while  at  once,  engaged  his 
attention,  his  speech  will  be  of  this  regressive  description.  Even 
Isocrates  in  his  elaborate  Panegyric  has  not  lost  sight  of  this 
quality.     He  frequently  returns  to  these  two  ideas,  the  unfriendly 

1  De  Doct  Christ.,  L.  iv.,  c.  x. 


350  DISPOSITION  IN  EXPOSITORY  DISCOURSES. 

relations  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  and  the  feasibility  of  conquering 
the  Persians  by  restoring  the  union  of  the  Greek  states.  Never  was 
there  a  better  illustration  of  the  adage,  caput  art  is  est  celare  artem. 

The  regressions  of  Demosthenes  are  more  frequent  and  more 
natural.  Lord  Brougham,  commenting  upon  a  passage  of  his  ora- 
tion on  the  Crown,  thus  draws  attention  to  them,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  contrasts  them  with  those  of  Fox.  "  Here  is  the  same  leading 
topic  once  more  introduced ;  but  introduced  after  new  topics  and 
fresh  illustrations.  The  repetitions,  the  enforcement  again  and 
again  of  the  same  points,  are  a  distinguishing  feature  of  Demosthe- 
nes, and  formed  also  one  of  the  characteristics  of  Mr.  Fox's  great 
eloquence.  The  ancient,  however,  Avas  incomparably  more  felici- 
tous in  this  than  the  modern ;  for  in  the  latter  it  often  arose  from 
carelessness,  from  ill-arranged  discourse,  from  want  of  giving  due 
attention,  and  from  having  once  or  twice  attempted  the  topic  and 
forgotten  it,  or  perhaps  from  having  failed  to  produce  the  desired 
effect.  Now  in  Demosthenes  this  is  never  the  case ;  the  early  al- 
lusions to  the  subject  of  the  repetition  are  always  perfect  m  them- 
selves, and  would  sufficiently  have  enforced  the  topic  had  they  stood 
alone.  But  new  matter  afterwards  handled  gave  the  topic  new 
force  and  fresh  illustration  by  presenting  the  point  in  a  new  light." 

But  to  return  to  the  inspired  regressions.  They  not  only  deepen 
the  impression  of  divine  ideas  and  present  them  in  new  lights,  but 
they  also  compel  us  to  receive  the  more  unwelcome  parts  of  re- 
vealed instruction.  We  have  elsewhere  shoM'n  that  such  admixture 
makes  exposition  for  purposes  of  correction  superior  to  other  kinds 
of  warning  and  reproof 

Another  advantage  of  this  recurrence  is  that  it  perpetually  re- 
minds us  of  the  interconnection,  interdependence,  and  harmony 
of  all  the  Scripture  verities ;  but  this  theme  is  too  copious  and  too 
important  to  be  discussed  within  out  restricted  limits. 

Object  not  that  as  regressions  involve  repetitions  we  should  de- 
fend ourselves  against  the  habit  of  making  them,  lest  we  at  length 
become  addicted  to  preaching  in  circles.  Suppose  we  do,  this  Avill 
never  injure  or  afflict  our  hearers,  provided  only  we  ri^  m  feeling 
with  each  new  gyration.  We  may  then,  as  old  Thomas  Fuller 
somewhere  suggests,  justify  ourselves  by  the  example  of  Paul,  who 
said :  "  Of  whom  I  have  told  you  often,  and  now  tell  you  even 
weeping." 

Section  IV. — Disposition  in  Expository  Discourses. 

When  the  subject  for  exposition  is  composed  of  different  parts, 
it  is  necessary  that  these  parts  should  be  arranged  witli  a  careful 


♦  DISPOSITION  IN  EXPOSITORY  DISCOURSES.  351 

regard  to  method.  In  simple  exposition  of  Scripture,  the  textual 
order  is  wisely  followed,  provided  an  analysis  of  the  passage  is 
given  either  in  the  introduction  or  the  conclusion  of  the  sermon, 
in  order  that  the  hearers  may  not  in  their  attention  to  details  lose 
sight  of  the  subject  in  its  entirety,  and  the  relations  of  the  several 
parts.  But  when  a  subject  is  complex,  or  such  as  embraces  the 
different  pai'ts  of  a  doctrine  or  a  duty,  a  distinct  and  perspicuous 
arrangement  is  more  difficult.  From  the  study  of  our  examples  of 
plans  and  divisions  more  may  be  learned  than  from  any  thing  else 
except  actual  practice.  But  we  must  here  repeat  two  plain  but 
often  disregarded  cautions.  One  is,  that  in  methodising  our  plans, 
the  simplest  and  the  fundamental  divisions  should  be  placed  before 
others.  Thus,  in  explaining  the  love  of  God  in  the  most  extensive 
sense,  we  may  reflect  on  what  passes  in  our  minds  towards  a  person 
whom  we  esteem  and  love.  To  such  a  one  we  will  feel,  1.  High 
esteem  for  his  talents  and  virtue ;  2.  An  inclination  to  think  often, 
and  to  speak  honorably  of  him ;  3.  Desire  for  his  happiness,  and 
rejoicing  in  it;  4.  Desire  for  his  approbation,  and  pleasure  in  re- 
ceiving it ;  5.  Gratitude  for  his  favors ;  6.  Confidence  in  him.  These 
tests  may,  by  way  of  resemblance,  be  applied  to  the  gracious 
affection  of  love  to  God.  "  If,"  says  Dr.  Gerard,  "the  first  of  these 
were  placed  anywhere  else,  the  division  would  be  confused;  for 
esteem  is  the  foundation  all  the  rest." 

The  other  caution  is.  Avoid  unnecessary  divisions  and  subdivis- 
ions. The  young  preacher  may  imagine  that  he  is  in  no  danger  of 
making  such  a  mistake,  but  let  him  be  warned  by  the  errors  of  cele- 
brated masters  of  sacred  rhetoric.  For  example,  Claude,  in  illustra- 
ting the  commonplace,  "  Descend  from  Genus  to  Species,"  brings  for- 
'ward  one  of  his  sermons,  in  the  first  part  of  which  he  shows  that 
true  love  to  God  has  thirteen  characteristics.  Simeon,  one  of  his 
editors,  reduces  them  to  three,  which  substantially  embrace  them 
all.  Take  another  instance  :  Dr.  Ammon  illustrates  one  of  his 
principles  of  disposition  by  the  following  division,  which  has  been 
approved  by  Vinet  and  others :  "  I.  What  is  ambition  ?  II.  Its  un- 
happy influence  on  temporal  good;  (1)  It  makes  us  habitually  dis- 
contented with  ourselves ;  (2)  It  excites  others  to  resist  us ;  (3)  It 
does  not  secure  us  the  esteem  of  other  men;  (4)  Still  less  their  love. 
III.  Its  unhappy  influence  on  spiritual  good.  (4)  It  hinders  self- 
knowledge  ;  (2)  It  prevents  us  from  being  just  to  others ;  (3)  It  pre- 
vents us  from  loving  others."  The  last  three  subdivisions  under 
the  second  head  should  have  been  embraced  in  one.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  last  two  subdivisions  under  the  third  head. 

In  giving  evening  lectures  of  this  kind,  particularly  to  a  sleepy 


352  DISPOSITION  IN  EXPOSITORY  DISCOURSES.  * 

and  inattentive  audience,  it  may  be  well,  occasionally,  to  write  a 
number  of  questions  on  the  obscure  jioints  of  the  text,  and  put 
them  into  the  liands  of  some  intelligent  hearer  to  read  aloud,  in 
order  to  be  separately  answerd  by  the  lecturer.  Macarius  says  that 
in  ancient  times  auditors  were  permitted  to  question  the  ])reacher. 

The  Pastor  will  not  seldom  reverse  the  logical  method ;  in  other 
words,  he  will  make  his  ap})lication  the  basis  of  his  explication.! 
Thus  he  finds  it  necessary  to  dissuade  his  congregation  from  seek- 
ing justification  by  the  works  of  the  law,  and  to  persuade  them  to 
seek  it  only  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  As  the  subject  first  occurs  to 
him  in  this  practical  shape,  he  is  led  to  inquire,  "  How  may  I  do  this 
effectually  ?  "  Choosing,  perhaps,  Rom.  iii.  20  as  his  text,  he  will 
endeavor  to  make  each  head  of  explication  pave  the  way  to  his  ap- 
plication. And  accordingly  he  will  first  explain  the  word  justifi- 
cation ;  secondly,  show  that  good  works  cannot  be  the  meritorious 
cause  of  our  justification;  thirdly,  that  the  righteousness  of  Christ 
is  that  cause ;  fourthly,  explain  the  nature  of  that  faith  which  is  the 
instrumental  cause  of  our  justification.  Now  the  work  of  dehorta- 
tion  and  exhortation  will  be  comparatively  easy,  for  it  will  proceed 
intelligibly,  and  with  that  force  which  motives  ever  carry  to  minds 
which  are  already  taught  the  import,  and  convinced  of  the  reason- 
ableness of  our  position.  Generally,  indeed,  the  adoption  of  this 
retro.spective  method  will  enable  the  preacher  to  omit  all  those  parts 
of  his  sermon  that  are  not  in  some  way  ancillary  to  his  practical  in- 
ferences, and  their  immediate  or  ultimate  results. 

In  methodizing  a  didactic  discourse  we  should  so  arrange  the 
several  parts  that  their  connection  may,  as  far  as  possible,  suggest 
itself,  so  that  long  transitions  may  be  superceded.  But  when  from 
the  complexity  or  obscurity  of  the  subject  this  cannot  be  done,  some  " 
transition  will  be  necessary;  and  even  arguments  may  sometimes 
answer  this  jiurpose ;  for,  as  every  important  particular  in  a  doctrine, 
experience,  or  duty  must  be  explained,  so  it  must  be  sho\vn  that 
every  particular  introduced  is  really  included  in  that  doctrine  or 
duty;  and  that  it  arises  from  the  preceding  and  is  subservient  to 
the  succeeding  parts  of  it;  and  thus,  says  Dr.  Gerard,  rcasoni/ir/  is 
introduced  on  these  several  particulars  even  in  an  explicatory  dis- 
course, thou^/h  vot  in  support  of  the  trufh  of  the  general  doctrine  or 
oblir/ation  of  the  irhole  ditty. 

Good  examples  of  method  in  expository  sermons  may  be  found 
in  the  sermons  and  commentaries  of  Thos.  Adams,  Caryl,  Greenhill, 
Manton,  Burkitt,  Henry,  and  Bradley. 


1  Principal  Blackwell's  Methodus  Evanglica,  chap.  iii. 


il 


METHOD  IN  HISTORICAL  SERMONS.  '  353 

Sectiois"  V. — Method  in  Historical  Sermons. 

The  orderly  disposition  of  a  subject  taken  from  Scripture  history 
or  biography  is  comparatively  easy,  except  in  cases  wherein,  as  in  a 
series  of  sermons,  a  variety  is  very  desirable. 

In  biographical  discourses  we  attempt  to  exhibit  and  apply  a 
single  act  or  event  in  a  good  or  bad  man's  life,  or  a  particular  virtue 
or  vice  as  it  appeared  in  one  action  or  trial,  or  else  in  all  the  princi- 
pal events  of  a  life.  It  is  only  in  a  series  of  discourses  that  preach- 
ers endeavour  to  display  all  the  virtues  or  vices  which  are  recorded 
of  a  person,  either  in  one  period  of  his  life  or  in  all  the  successive 
periods,  and  in  all  the  emergencies  and  circumstances  of  life. 

When  a  character,  as  that  of  Balaam,  for  example,  is  to  be  deline- 
ated and  applied,  the  second  part  is  usually  devoted  to  an  examina- 
tion of  the  principle  or  motive  or  temper  which  prompted  the 
actions  before  described,  and  the  third  part  is  occupied  with  the 
application.  In  other  cases  the  second  part  is  assigned  to  "  obser- 
vations "  which,  by  the  way,  Claude  considers  necessary  in  discussing 
such  historical  subjects  as  need  no  explication.  Dr.  Thos.  Guthrie, 
mhis  sermon,  the  Apostate  Demas,  considers,  in  the  second  place,  the 
cause  of  Demas'  fall.  In  many  historical  sermons  the  application 
may  be  continuous.  Robinson's  "  Scripture  Characters  "  is  a  work 
well  deserving  attention  as  affording  good  example  of  this  form  of 
application.  Reinhard^  excelled  in  handUng  historical  and  biograph- 
ical subjects.  His  method  usually  was,  first  to  draw  from  a 
Scripture  fact  a  principle  or  doctrine ;  then  illustrate  it  incidentally 
by  the  text  and  by  modern  ways  of  thinking  and  acting ;  finally,  to 
make  applications.  He  thus  secures  the  unity  of  a  logical  arrangement, 
which  is  so  difficult  that  Dr.  Porter^  accounts  it  one  of  the  incon- 
veniencies  of  the  choice  of  an  historical  subject;  audit  is  not  a  little 
remarkable  that  so  severe  an  exactor  of  rhetorical  unity  should  here 
concede  that  the  sacrifice  of  unity  is  fully  justified  on  proper  occa- 
sions by  the  advantages  with  which  it  is  attended.  Our  method, 
however,  should  not  be  determined  by  the  matter  of  the  text  or 
context.  We  should  especially  keep  in  view  some  definite,  practi- 
cal object,  and  adjust  our  plan  thereto.  See  how  admirably  Massil- 
lon  bends  his  method  to  his  knowledge  of  human  nature,  andKrum-' 
macher  develops  his  from  the  treasures  of  his  Christian  experience. 

In  sermons  of  this  kind  the  plan  should  always  be  simple,  and 
may  often  be  mixed  and  cryptic.     An  animated  style  should  mark 

1  Read  Dr.  Park's  two  able  and  instructive  articles  on  his  sermons  in  Bib.  Sac, 
vol.  vi.  2  Lectures  on  Homiletics,  Lect.  v. 


354  DISPOSITION  IN  DEMONSTRATIVE  DISCOURSES. 

historic  sermons.  Even  the  much-abused  Bishop  Butler  -svarms 
■with  the  subject  of  Balaam,  exclaiming:  "Good  God,  wliat  incon- 
sistency, -what  perplexity  is  here !  "  Butler's  sermon,  and  nearly  all 
other  able  ones,  conceal  the  sketch,  which  in  such  compositions 
should  never  be  very  prominent.  One  dead  body  is  known  to  have 
been  qulckend  by  the  touch  of  another ;  but  who  ever  read  of  a 
dead  body  being  raised  to  life  by  the  touch  of  a  skeleton  ?  An- 
other excellent  example  of  a  cryptic  plan  is  furnished  by  Dr.  Enoch 
Pond's  sermon,  "  Darius  and  Daniel ;  or,  the  Necessity  of  an 
Atonement,"  in  the  National  Preacher,  vol.  xxxviii. 

For  a  series  of  historical  sermons  there  are  no  better  models  than 
the  discourses  of  the  late  F.  W.  Krummacher,  comjiosing  his  two 
books,  the  one  entitled  "  Elijah  the  Tishbite,"  and  the  other  "  The 
Early  Days  of  Elisha."  Their  structure  is  solid  and  inartificial ; 
the  heads  of  each  are  only  two  or  three,  and  these  are  always  sug- 
gestive and  compact.  Those  who  would  know  how  much  valuable 
instruction  may  be  conveyed  by  the  mere  order  of  a  series  of  ser- 
mons must  study  the  arrangement  of  the  prophetic  addresses. 
Thus  Ezekiel  places  his  threatenings  against  foreign  nations  be- 
tween predictions  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  predictions  of  the 
return  and  salvation  of  the  Jews.  This  order  taught  the  covenant 
people,  as  Keil  and  others  have  observed,  that  though  they  were 
for  a  time  to  be  in  subjection  to  heathen  poAvers,  yet  those  wicked 
po"wers  must  themselves  ultimately  fall,  and  the  chosen  nation  rise 
again  out  of  their  ruins  to  new  and  higher  prosperity. 

Section  VI. — Dispositiox  12s"  Funeral  and   other  De^ion- 
STRATIVE  Discourses. 

Panegyrical  addresses  are  seldom  delivered  by  Protestant 
preachers,  except  in  praise  of  some  post-Biblical  person,  generally 
of  some  one  not  long  deceased.  But  we  know  no  good  reason  why 
they  should  not  occasionally  jDreach  on  the  perfections  of  our  Sa- 
viour and  the  moral  excellences  of  the  apostles,  })roi)hets,  and 
patriarchs.  We  say  occasionally  ;  for  were  tliey  frequently  to  paint 
Scripture  personages  to  the  life,  and  to  recommend  their  godly  ex. 
ample,  they  would  be  in  danger  of  slighting  the  doctrines  and  pre- 
cepts and  promises  of  Holy  Writ.  Ilecent  facts  demonstrate  that 
this  danger  is  by  no  means  imaginary ;  for  are  not  some  now  preach- 
ing demonstrative  sermons  on  the  subject  of  our  Saviour,  in  which 
they  would  i)aint  the  whole  man  and  represent  him  before  us  speak- 
ing and  acting  at  the  very  time  that  they  either  ignore  or  deny  the 
truth  and  authority  of  his  teachings  ? 


DISPOSITION  IN  DEMONSTRATIVE  DISCOURSES.  355 

But  to  return  :  in  funeral  sermons,  delivered  while  the  memory 
of  the  departed  is  fresh,  a  studied  method  will  naturally  be  avoided; 
and  the  common  and  the  individual  loss  and  sorrow  will  demand 
the  foremost  place.  How  Isaiah  wanders  up  and  down  weeping  in 
the  fifty-third  chapter  of  his  prophecy ;  and  how  bewildered  with 
his  sorrow  does  Jeremiah  sometimes  appear  ! 

There  are  five  methods  in  demonstrative  sermons:  First,  the 
historical,  in  which  the  order  of  time  is  followed.  If  we  have 
much  material,  and  time  permits,  we  may  divide  the  career  of  the 
person  we  eulogise  into  distinct  periods,  and  consider  each  in  its 
order ;  if  our  materials  are  few  or  comprised  withm  a  short  period, 
we  should  not  divide  the  discourse  into  separate  parts.  The  his- 
torical method  demands  not  a  narration  of  the  minor  incidents  of 
a  life,  but  of  its  principal  events.  The  discourse  may  either  em- 
body continuous  applications  or  conclude  with  practical  deductions. 
Fenelon,  Maury,  and  Theremin  give  their  preference  to  panegyrics 
of  this  kind. 

Secondly,  the  logical  method,  according  to  which  the  most  em- 
enent  virtues  of  a  character  are  separately  illustrated  by  the  great 
events  of  his  life.  This  was  the  arrangement  adopted  by  Bossuet, 
Bourdaloue  and  Flechier :  Thus  Bossueti  in  his  oration  over 
the  Prmce  of  Conde,  by  recounting  the  leading  achievements  of 
his  hero,  shows,  first,  the  admirable  virtues  of  his  heart ;  secondly, 
the  excellent  powers  of  his  intellect.  FlechierS  in  his  funeral  ora- 
tion for  Turenne  shows,  first,  how  he  triumphed  over  the  enemies 
of  the  state  by  his  bravery ;  secondly,  over  the  passions  of  his  soul 
by  his  virtue  ;  thirdly,  over  the  errors  and  vanity  of  the  world  by 
his  piety. 

Thirdly,  the  apologetic,  in  which  is  commemorated  a  famous  man, 
against  whose  memory  much  has  been  said  or  written.  In  such 
cases,  it  is  best  to  speak,  first,  m  answer  to  the  attacks  that  have 
been  made ;  secondly,  in  praise  of  those  deeds  for  which  the  per- 
sonage is  deserving  of  our  gratitude. 

Fourthly,  the  dramatical,  in  which  two  or  three  memorable 
events  are  employed  by  the  encomiast  to  illustrate  the  virtues 
which  the  hero  displayed  in  his  conduct  on  these  several  occasions. 
This  method  is  the  reverse  of  the  logical,  or,  rather,  this  process  is 
inductive,  the  former  deductive.  Here  events  are  foremost  in  the 
partition,  there  virtues.  The  historical  and  biographical  discourses 
of  Krummacher  afford  numerous  examples  of  the  dramatical 
method. 


1  Dr.  Fish's  Masterpieces  of  Pulpit  Eloquence,  vol.  ii.,  p.  21-25.         2  Id.  72. 


356  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

Fifthly,  the  descrijytiue,  in  which  the  person  is  sketched  character- 
istically from  the  life.  Theremin  holds  that  the  law  of  constant  pro- 
gress, Avhich  true  eloquence  obeys,  excludes  the  logical  and  dra- 
matical (both  sometimes  are  united  under  the  term  moral);  but 
while  it  condemns  description  it  approves  narration.  "  The  orator," 
says  he,  "  should  never  in  his  narration  exhibit,  side  by  side,  the  dif- 
ferent qualities  of  a  person,  or  the  different  characteristics  of  things; 
but  ho  should  find  an  historical  thread,  by  means  of  which  his  rep- 
resentation may  run  off  like  a  gradually  developing  history.  .  . 
Unless  this  be  done,  the  orator  falls  away  from  the  rhetorical  into 
the  poetical  representation,  and  allows  himself  and  his  hearers  a 
rest  that  is  destructive  of  all  affection."  But  though  sketches  of 
character  are  less  oratorical,  yet  they  are  better  than  those  eulogies 
that  make  their  subjects  2:>atterns  of  every  virtue,  like  that  of  Nazi- 
anzen  on  Athanasius.^ 

As  to  the  manner  of  concluding  such  discourses,  either  any  one 
or  all  of  the  three  following  may  be  adopted : 

1.  Vie  may  make  out  of  the  life  we  have  been  narrating  a  dis 
tinct  character  of  the  person.  This  is  difficult.  We  should,  in 
such  an  attempt,  avoid  artificial  and  elaborate  antitheses.  Gregory 
Nazianzen2  concludes  his  oration  over  Basil  Avith  a  description  of  a 
crowd,  each  })raising  Basil  from  his  own  i)oint  of  view. 

2.  "We  may  introduce  a  resemblance  or  contrast  between  the 
conduct  of  the  person  commended  in  some  memorable  instances, 
and  that  which  is  comm|Only  followed  by  most  persona  in  like  cir- 
cumstances. But  it  is  not  necessary  that  these  contrasts  be  con- 
fined to  the  conclusion.  Aristotle^  recommends  the  demonstrative 
comparsions  of  Isocrates. 

3.  Or  we  may  conclude  with  a  more  direct  application  to  the 
passions  of  the  hearers  in  order  to  excite  in  them  a  generous  ardor 
to  be  themselves  what  they  so  much  admire  in  the  life  of  the  de- 
parted. This  is  the  most  common  method  of  concluding,  and  may 
be  either  general,  as  relating  to  the  whole  subject  or  assembly ;  or 
special,  as  relating  to  some  of  the  actions  or  virtues  narrated,  or  to 
particular  persons  or  classes  in  the  assembly. 

f  Section"  YII. — The  Arraxgemext  of  Arguments. 

The  order  in  which  arguments  should  be  employed  Avill  dejicnd 
on  one  or  more  of  a  great  variety  of  considerations. 

1  Oration  xxi.,  ^()l-4. 

2  Dr.  Fish's  Masterpieces  of  Pulpit  Eloquence,  vol.  i.,  i)p.  71,  72. 

3  Rliet.,  L.  i.,  cLap.  ix. 


THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  ARGUMENTS.  357 

The  order  may  be  determined  by  our  direct  purpose  whether  it 
be  one  of  preparation  or  demonstration  or  corroboration,  or  include 
all  these  special  ends.  Matters  of  opinion,  matters  of  individual 
facts  that  are  past,  and  matters  of  individual  facts  that  are  future, 
each  require  different  kinds  of  arguments.  "  Matters  of  opinion,' 
says  Whately,  "  are  established  chiefly  by  the  argument  from  ante- 
cedent probability,  though  the  testimony  of  wise  men  is  also  ad- 
missible ;  j^ast  facts,  chiefly  by  signs  of  various  kinds  (including 
testimony) ;  and  of  future  events  by  antecedent  probabilities  and 
examples.''  Now  the  arrangement  will  depend  sometimes  on  the 
question  whether  or  not  we  have  to  establish  both  a  fact  and  an 
opinion,  or  whether  we  have  only  to  create  an  antecedent  likelihood 
m  favor  of  a  conclusion,  or  remove  lingering  doubts.  We  have  al- 
ready in  eflect  answered  these  and  similar  questions. 

The  order  may  be  fixed  according  to  the  kind  of  the  arguments 
employed.  Arguments  of  the  same  kind  ought,  if  possible,  to  be 
grouped  together,  e.  g.,  all  the  a  2yy'>'0rl  arguments  in  one  place,  and 
all  the  a  2^osteriori,  arguments  in  another,  etc. 

The  arrangement  will  often  be  determined  by  the  dej)endence  of 
the  arguments  on  one  another.  "  This  principle,"  says  Prof  H.  IST. 
Day,  "  requires  in  the  first  place  that  the  analytic  proofs  precede  all 
others,  i.  e.,  proofs  which  are  given  in  the  very  terms  of  the  propo- 
sition to  be  proved.  As  in  exhibiting  a  proof  of  this  class,  the  pro- 
jDosition  itself  must  necessarily  be  explained,  the  relevance  and 
force  of  every  other  proof  will  be  more  clearly  seen  after  such  an 
explanation.  .  .  .  This  principle  requires,  in  the  second  place,  that 
arguments  from  antecedent  probability  precede  examples  and  signs. 
.  .  In  Dr.  Barrow's  discourse  on  the  Divine  Imj^ai'tiality  the  a^^riorl 
arguments  are,  with  obvious  propriety,  presented  first ;  and  then  the 
a  2)osterlorl  arguments.  If  the  order  had  been  reversed  the  force 
of  the  reasoning  would  have  been  greatly  weakened."  The  argu- 
ment from  antecedent  probability  comes  first,  that  from  signs  or 
symptoms  second,  and  that  from  examples  last  of  all.  "  After  the 
other  proofs  have  been  adduced,"  says  Aristotle,  "  one  example 
comes  in  with  as  much  force  as  the  testimony  of  a  single  honest 
witness." 

In  some  cases,  however,  wherein  the  subject  of  discourse  is  ob- 
scure or  profound,  and  the  a  posteriori  arguments  serve  likewise  to 
illustrate  it,  the  latter  should  be  brought  forward  first ;  e.  g.,  we 
may  first  prove  a  j^osterlorl,  that  our  Maker  does  give  songs  in  the 
night;  secondly,  show  a  jo^'^o^''^:  that  our  Maker  can  give  us  such 
songs. 

Arguments  ought  in  general  to  be  placed  in  such  an  order  as  to 


358  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

show  our  respect  for  the  oracles  of  God.  '•  Our  strongest  proof," 
says  Dr.  Porter, "  is  taken  from  the  Bible ;  but  when  this  is  mingled 
with  a  series  of  other  proofs,  there  is  a  valid  objection  to  })laeing  it 
first.  I  know  it  is  common  in  preaching,  to  prove  a  point  from  the 
word  of  God,  and  then  add  arguments  from  experience  or  conscious- 
ness, or  other  sources ;  but  to  my  mind  there  is  at  least  an  appar- 
ent disrespect  to  the  declarations  of  God,  when  we  adduce  these 
as  proof  of  a  point,  and  then  proceed  by  arguments  of  a  different 
kind  to  corroborate  that  proof,  as  though  it  were  not  of  itself  decis- 
ive. In  general  when  such  arguments  are  independent  of  Scripture 
authority,  they  should  be  arranged,  not  after,  but  before  it.''  He 
makes  tAvo  exceptions  to  this  rule.  1st.  When  arguments  are  ad- 
duced to  ansiccr  objections  aginst  the  Scripture  proof  2d.  When, 
as  is  often  the  case,  prejudice  and  waywardness  give  only  a  reserved, 
doubting  assent  to  proof  from  the  Bible.  Bellefroid  concurs  with 
Porter  in  advising  that  proofs  from  reason  should  be  oftered  first, 
because  they  are  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  every  one,  and  prepare 
the  way  for  the  sacred  Scriptures. 

The  order  will  sometimes  be  wisely  derived  from  a  consideration 
of  the  state  of  the  minds  addressed.  '•  If,"  says  Prof  Day,  ''  there 
be  already  a  state  of  belief,  and  the  object  of  the  discourse  is  to 
confirm  and  strengthen  it,  then  the  weaker  arguments  will  gener- 
ally need  to  be  placed  first,  and  the  stronger  ones  last.  .  .  If  there 
be  an  opjiosing  belief  to  be  set  aside,  it  will  be  better  to  advance 
the  stronger  first,  in  order  to  overthrow  opposition  at  once.  The 
weaker  may  follow,  which  will  serve  to  confirm,  though  they  would 
be  of  no  avail  in  the  first  assault.  In  order,  however,  to  leave  a 
deep  impression,  some  of  the  stronger  should  be  reserved  to  the 
close;  or,  what  is  equivalent,  the  arguments  may  be  recapitulated  m 
the  reverse  order." 

A  question  often  discussed  l)y  rhetoricians  is,  When  should  the 
premises  and  when  should  the  conclusion  come  first  ?  A  proposi- 
tion that  is  loell  knoion  (whether  easy  to  be  established  or  not),  and 
Avhich  contains  nothing  peculiarly  offensive,  should,  according'  to 
Whately,  in  general  be  stated  at  once,  and  the  proof  subjoined;  but 
if  it  be  not  familiar  to  the  hearers,  and  especially  if  it  be  likely  to 
be  unacceptable,  it  is  usually  better  to  state  the  arguments  first,  or 
at  least  some  of  them,  and  then  introduce  the  conclusion.  Schott,i 
an  earlier  authority,  is  of  a  similar  oj)inion.  Tie  prefers  the  pro- 
gressive or  s)Tithetic  arrangement,  so  making  the  discussion  more 
popular  and  interesting,  for  it  often  begins  with  individual  and  con- 

IBibliotheca  Sacra,  vol.  Hi.,  p.  488. 


THE  ARRANGEMENTS  OF  ARGUMENTS.  359 

Crete  statements,  and  advances  gradually  to  the  more  general  and 
abstract  propositions.  He  adds,  however,  that  it  is  an  arrangement 
which  demands  much  time  for  its  full  exhibition,  and  therefore  is 
not  apj)ro23riate  for  some  subjects,  and  for  some  discourses.  The 
same  writer  prefers  the  regressive  or  analytic  arrangement  (which 
reverses  the  order  just  named)  where  the  theme  is  very  extensive, 
or  where  the  discourse  must  be  very  brief  But  he  concludes  that 
the  "  use  of  the  first  or  the  second  of  these  methods  depends  not 
merely  upon  the  nature  of  the  theme,  and  of  the  occasion  on  which 
it  is  discussed,  but  also  upon  the  character  and  habits  of  the  preach- 
er ;  upon  the  specific  design  which  he  has  in  view ;  upon  his  text 
which  may  or  may  not  require  a  formal  proposition  and  distinct 
divisions ;  or  upon  the  facility  with  which  his  audience  can  or  will 
follow  a  train  of  consecutive  argument,  from  premises  which  are 
unobjectionable  to  an  obnoxious  inference." 

In  historical  and  biographical  sermons  the  arguments  .may  often 
be  placed  here  and  there  like  continual  applications.  (See  where 
Dr.  James  Hamilton,  in  his  eighth  lecture  on  Moses,  fixes  the  argu- 
ment from  Congruity.) 

It  has  been  overlooked  by  rhetoricians,  that  the  arrangement  of 
arguments  will,  in  some  cases,  be  determined  by  the  reasoner's  re- 
lation to  presumption  and  the  burden  of  proof,  or  omis  prohandl. 
By  the  Avay,  the  preacher  who  makes  much  ado  in  order  to  shirk 
the  burden  of  proof,  is  liable  either  to  be  suspected  of  being  a  weak 
reasoner,  or  else  of  attemptmg  to  maintain  groundless  opinions. 

In  the  ordering  of  arguments  ,«<?  doctrinani  [e.  (/.,  such  as  are  ad- 
dressed to  the  learned)  we  are  to  employ  a  cryptic  method,  and  avoid, 
to  the  utmost  of  our  power,  long  transitions.  In  other  cases,  igno- 
rance or  prejudice  may  demand  the  utmost  lucidity  in  methodising 
our  arguments.  Through  ignorance  the  argument  from  antecedent 
probability  may  not  be  well  understood  when  placed  foremost.  In 
such  cases  the  argument  from  example  should  come  before  it.  As  to 
prejudice,  the  whole  subject  should  be  studied  by  all  who  would  learn 
how  to  convince.  (Read  Port  Koyal  Logic,  Pt.  iii.,  chap,  xx.,  Of 
the  Sophisims  of  Self-Loye,  of  Interest,  and  of  Passion ;  also  Dr. 
Watts'  Logic,  Pt.  ii.,  chap,  iii., "  Of  the  Springs  of  False  Judgment,  or 
the  Doctrine  of  Prejudices.")  It  is  an  acute  observation  of  Spalding, 
that  "  adverse  prepossession  is  always  to  be  supposed  possible  where 
the  writer  or  speaker  has  not  the  first  word." 

The  effect  of  disorder  in  reasoning  is  sometimes  grand  and  over- 
whelming, like  that  of  an  army  scaling  the  walls  of  a  city.  Robert 
Hall's  manner  is  an  example  of  this.  Foster  compares  his  independ- 
ent propositions  to  a  number  of  separate  and  undisciplined  savages. 

2-i 


3G0  THE  MANIFOLD  FRA:MEW0RK  OF  SERMONS. 

Where  should  the  refutation  of  objections  be  placed '?  We  an- 
swer, When  the  counter-opinions  are  deeply  rooted  it  is  advisable 
to  begin  with  refutation ;  but,  as  in  some  cases  it  is  difficult  to 
refute  objections  before  we  have  finished  our  arguments,  it  is  Ijest 
to  mention  those  objections  at  the  beginning  with  the  promise  of 
afterwards  refuting  them ;  for,  if  we  do  not  so  much  as  mention 
them  at  first,  or  in  the  midst  of  our  sermon,  our  arguments  will  be 
received  with  little  favour  'T)y  those  who  know  and  remember  that 
there  are  strong  oljjections  on  the  other  side. 

But  if  the  objections  to  be  refuted  are  indirectly  opposed  by  our 
main  arguments,  they  should  be  fully  considered  in  the  midst  of 
each  argument  or  at  its  close.  Generally,  indeed,  refutation,  like 
application, is  most  effective  when  cont'muous,  i.  e., distributed  here 
and  there.  When,  again,  we  have  to  refute  anticipated  objections, 
we  should  defer  them  till  the  last ;  for  then  our  refutation  will  be 
fresh  in  the  memory  of  our  adversary  and  of  the  audience. 

AVhen  the  argumentator  has  to  make  refutation  his  principal  task, 
he  may,  as  the  French  preachers  have  often  done,  divide  an  objec- 
tion into  two  or  three  parts,  and  dispose  of  each  one  in  succession. 

Entire  sermons  may  thus  be.  profitably  devoted  to  the  refutation 
of  weighty  objections.  Bourdaloue,  Massillon,  and  Saurin  furnish 
examples  of  such  discourses.  (See  also  Kichard  Watson's  ser., 
"  God  with  us,"  Acts  xvii.  28 ;  Vinet's  ser.,  "  The  Mysteries  of  Chris- 
tianity,'' 1  Cor.  ii.  9.,  and  Chalmers  on  the  Golden  Rule,  Matt.  vii.  12.) 

Follow  not  the  example  of  those  Jesuits  and  otlicr  reasoners 
who  very  seldom  or  never  take  ^ny  notice  of  objections.  Even 
Jonathan  Edwards,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  was  not  always  careful 
enough  to  pause  at  real  obstacles  that  might  be  thrown  in  his  way. 
"His  preaching,"  said  Charles  Simeon,  "reminds  me  of  a  man  hold- 
ing another's  nose  to  to  the  grindstone,  and  turning  with  all  his 
might  in  spite  of  all  objections  and  expostulations."  Thomas  Wat- 
son, of  Walbrook,  on  the  contrary,  is  so  attentive  to  the  doubts  and 
difficulties  of  his  hearers,  that  some  of  his  sermons  read  like  dia- 
loerues. 


Section  VIII. — The  Manifold  Framework  of  Sermoks. 

Our  present  aim  is  to  exhibit  a  varicfi/  of  plans  and  divisions, 
witliout  attempting,  however,  to  give  examples  of  every  jiossible 
or  every  allowable  kind.  Among  tho.se  preachers  who  neither  un- 
derrate nor  overrate  the  importance  of  analysis  and  method,  there 
are  not  a  few  who  employ  certain  favourite  and  stereotyped  forms 


TEXTUAL  DIVISIONS.  361 

of  division  and  arrangement.  It  is  very  true,  as  Reinhard^  ob- 
serves, that  "  a  large  proportion  of  subjects  must  be  divided  alike, 
if  treated  in  the  most  natural  manner ;  and  a  man  will  fall  into  ar- 
tificialness,  or  fail  to  do  them  justice,  if  he  divides  them  in  any- 
other  way."  And  yet  he  confesses  that  far  too  much  uniformity 
of  method  was  one  of  the  faults  of  his  own  earlier  sermons.  Meth- 
od, however,  of  some  kind,  we  must  employ,  or  else  we  must  re- 
nounce all  hopes  of  becoming  Christian  teachers  and  reasoners. 
Exhortation  is,  in  general,  most  effectual  when  the  method  is  con- 
cealed. Qn  the  whole,  yye  should  here  remember  and  observe  the 
sterling  precept,  "  Amplify  rather  than  multiply." 

The  divisions  of  sermons,  in  so  far  as  they  relate  to  texts,  are  of 
two  kinds — the  Textual  and  the  Topical.  In  the  textual  division, 
the  words  or  clauses  of  the  text  either  form  or  suggest  the  heads 
of  the  sermon.  In  topical  division,  the  subject  or  proposition  which 
is  usually  derived  from  some  text  is  made  the  groundwork  of  the 
principal  parts  of  the  discourse. 

Subsection  I. — Textual   Divisions. 

These  are  of  three  kinds — the  Natural,  the  Selective,  and  the 
Supplementive. 

^  I.  The  Natural  Divisioif  resolves  into  parts  the  ideas  ex- 
pressed in  the  text  by  following  the  order  of  its  words  or  clauses, 

or  else  by  reversing  that  order,  as  in  the  following  examples : 

* 
Exodus  i.  6. — I.  And  Joseph  died  :     II.  And  all  his  brethren  ;     III.  And  all 
that  generation. — Dr.  Candlish.  - 

1  Tim.  i.  5. — I.  Charity  out  of  a  pure  heart ;  II.  And  of  a  good  conscience  ; 
III.  And  of  faith  unfeigned.  i  "^ 

1  John  iii.  2. — I.  For  we  shall  see  him  as  he  is ;     II.  But  we  know  that  when       j 
he  shall  appear  we  shall  be  like  him ;     III.  And  it  doth  not  yet  appear  what  we 
shall  be.     IV.  Beloved,  now  are  we  the  sons  of  God. 

Gal.  iii.  28.— I.  In  Christ  Jesus  ;     II.  All  one  ;     III.  Ye  are. 

^  II.  The  Selective  Division"  picks  out  the  principal  ideas 
conveyed  by  the  text,  and  arranges  them  either  in  a  logical  or  a 
rhetorical  order.  This  kind  of  division  has  two  forms,  the  interro- 
gative and  the  indicative. 

1.  The  interrogative  division  introduces  the  leading  parts  of 
the  text,  with  the  words,  who  ?  what  ?  where  ?  why  ?  etc.,  as  in  the 
following  example : 

1  Gestiindnisse. 


Nj 


S62  TOPICAL  DIVISIONS. 

1  Cor.  xvi.  2. — I.  Who  should  give?  'Let  every  one  of  you,"  etc.  II, 
When  ?  "  Upon  the  first  day  of  the  week."  IIL  How  much  1  "  As  God  hath 
prospered  him."     IV.  Why  ?     "  That  there  be  no  gatherings  when  I  come." 

This  kind  of  division  is  abused  when  it  is  applied  to  texts  which 
do  not  properly  admit  of  it,  and  when  the  interrogative  heads  are 
too  numerous  for  one  text  or  one  sermon.     Cf  Division  by  Inquiry. 

2.  The  indicative  division  suggests  elliptically  the  matter  of 
the  chief  members  of  the  text  by  means  of  the  implied  questions 
or  answeKS  by  which  they  are  introduced.  This  division  is  either 
re^-ular  or  irregular ;  regular  when  in  representing  action3  or  events 
the  natural  order  is  followed,  c.  g.  : 

rhil.  ii.  13. — I.  Cause:  "God."  II.  Operation:  "  Worketh  in  you  to  will 
and  to  do."     III.  Result :  "  His  good  pleasure." 

This  division  is  irregular  when  the  order  of  sequence  cannot  be 
observed,  e.  g. : 

Heb.  xii.  3.— I.  The  trial  spoken  of:  "Contradiction  of  sinners."  II.  The 
danger  to  be  feared:  "Lest  ye  be  wearied  and  faint,"  etc.  III.  The  example 
and  protection  offered  :  "  Consider  him  that  endured,"  etc. 

Psa.  cxis.  62.— I.  The  puspose  :  "  I  will  rise  to  give  thanks  unto  thee."  II. 
The  motive:  "  Because  of  thy  righteous  judgments."  III.  The  time  :  "  At  mid- 
night." 

^  III. — Analysis  by  Moveable  Emphasis. 

1  Chron.  xxviii.  9.— I.  If.  The  prize  is  obtainable  on  a  condition.  II.  li  ihou 
seek  Him.  The  words  stop  with  thee;  do  not  glance  by  thee.  III.  If  thou 
seek  Him,  not  inquire,  not  read,  not  hear,  not  desire.  IV.  If  thou  seek  Jlim. 
The  chiefest,  whom  angels  adore,  Immanuel.  V.  He  will  be  found  of  thee,  not 
his  angel,  not  a  merely  human  mediator.  VI,  He  irill  be  found  of  thee.  He  is 
willing  to  be  found— certainly  will  be  found.  VII.  Of  thee.  Yes,  even  of  thee. 
Though  mean  in  origin,  poor  in  resources,  obnoxious  to  wrath,  unbelieving, 
plagued  with  an  evil  heart. — Ti\e  Rev.  Geo>ge  Botoen,  of  Bombai/. 

^  IV. — SUPPLEMENTIVE  DIVISION  adds  one  or  more  such  heads 
to  the  strictly  texual  division  as  are  implied  by  the  text  or  context, 
or  arc  expressed  in  the  context,  or  expressed  or  implied  in  some 
other  part  of  Scripture. 

Text,  Ezek.  xxxvi.  31. — I.  "Then  .shall  ye  remember,"  etc.  II.  "  And  shall 
loathe  yourselves,"  etc.     III.  Such  repentance  is  a  sign  of  returning  pro.<»perity. 

Text,  Matt.  vii.  17.— I.  Trees  that  bring  forth  good  fruit  II.  Trees  that  bring 
forth  evil  fruit.     III.  Trees  that  bring  forth  no  Umi.— Thomas  Aquinas. 

SuusECTiox  II. — Toric.vT,  Divisions, 

Divisions  of  this  class  are  too  multiform  to  admit  of  being  here 
fully  enumerated  and  exemplified.     In  these  the  topic  or  general 


EXAMPLES  OF  TOPICAL  EXPOSITORY  PLANS. 


363 


proposition  is  the  basis  of  division,  fundamentwn  dlvidencU.  The 
mode  of  division  in  a  given  case  must  depend  more  or  less  on  the 
immediate  object  of  the  sermon,  which  should  be  either  explanation, 
conviction,  excitation,  or  other  application.  And  hence  the  object  of 
the  sermon  should  determine  the  form  of  its  main  proposition.  Nor 
can  the  proper  divisions  and  subdivisions  be  made  before  this  pro- 
position has  been  carefully  limited  and  qualified. 

In  giving  the  following  examples,  our  object  is  not  to  present 
skeletons  and  sketches  that  are  full  and  symmetrical,  but  to  exem- 
plify the  principal  and  various  forms  in  which  divisions  may  be 
made  in  the  material  parts  of  a  sermon.  Yery  seldom  have 
we  occasion  to  preach  a  sermon  that  contains  all  these  parts  or 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  them.  Some  discourses  admit  either 
no  explication,  or  no  confirmation,  or  no  application,  although  the 
last  should  very  rarely  be  excluded. 

§  I.— Examples  of  Topical  Expository  Plans. 

TJie  Time- Server.— Ecolea.  vii.  16,  17. 

I.  Show  what  these  words  cannot  import ;  II.  Show  the  true  signification  of 
the  passage  ;  III.  Answer  some  objections  to  these  views  of  the  text. 

The  State  of  the  Messed  Dead. — Phil.  i.  23. 

Regard  this  revelation  negatively  and  positively  :  I.  As  to  what  it  disproves- 
II.  As  to  what  it  implies.— i)e«w  H.  Alford.  /T  ■■  ,  ' 

Christ  Knocking  at  the  Door. — Kev.  iii.  20. 

I.  What  the  text  expresses;  II.  What  the  text  imphes.  1.  It  imphes  that 
those  who  are  addressed  are  not  forsaken  by  the  Saviour ;  2.  That  a  person 
may  delay  opening  the  door  until  Jesus  has  not  only  knocked  but  spoken ;  3. 
Until  he  has  offered  not  only  to  become  his  guest  but  his  host  also  ;  4.  That 
we  are  in  some  sense  able  to  admit  Christ. 

The  Duty  of  lies  i gnat  ion. —MoXt.  xxvi.  39. 

I.  Consider  what  is  consistent  with  resignation. 

,      1.  An  earnest  deprecation  of  an  impending  judgment ; 

(1.)  Because  afflictions  are  evils  which  the   will  naturally  declines,  and 
are  not  desirable  things  in  themselves. 

(2.)  There  are  temptations  that  attend  afflictions  ; 
2.  A  mournful  sense  of  afflictions  sent  from  God ; 

(1.)  A  pensive  feeling  of  them  is  suitable  to  the  law  of  our  creation ; 

(2.)  If  we  do  not  feel  the  stroke,  how  shall  we  regard  the  hand  that 
smites  us  1 

II.  What  is  implied  in  resignation,  etc. — I)r.  W,  Bates. 


364  NARRATIVE  AXD  DESCRIPTIVE   PLANS. 

y      VII. — DiVISIOXS  ACCORDING  TO  DepTII   OF   MEANING. 

^  ^/v''        The  Pi-opheci/  of  Caiphas. — John  xi.  47-53. 

Vy-  Let  us  consider  the  words  in  their  twofold  meaning  :  I.  As  intended  by  the 
Njc-*^  High  Priest;  II.  As  expounded  by  the  Evangelist.— 2).  G.  Uhlhorn,  of  Got- 
'^  tingen. 

The  I'abicss  of  Christ.— Col  i.  19. 

I.  Wiiat  ideas  tliese  words  shut  out. 

II.  What  ideas  they  $hitt  in:  (1)  By  expression  ;  (2)  By  implication. 

III.  What  ideas  they  dratv  after  them  :  (1)  By  logical  inference  ;  (2)  By  prac- 
tical inference. 

The  Traitor.— John  xiii.  18. 

I  The  text  A (>^onw%  considered  (Psa.  xli.  9) ;  II.  rrophetically  ;  III.  Appli- 
cation. 

The  Duties  of  Marriage. — John  ii.  1. 

Four  kinds  of  marriage  arc  spoken  of  in  Scripture.  First,  historical,  Esth. 
ii.  18;  Second,  allegorical,  Malt.  xxii.  2;  Third,  tropological,  Hosea  ii.  19; 
Fourth,  anagogical,  Matt.  xxv.  10.  1.  The  literal  marriage  is  the  union  between 
the  n"ian  and  the  woman  ;  2.  The  allegorical  is  between  Christ  and  his  Church  ; 
3.  The  tropological  between  God  and  the  soul  ;  4.  The  anagogical  between  God 
and  the  Church  triumphant.  We  now  treat  of  the  literal  marriage,  which,  I.  God 
sanctioned  in  four  ways.  II.  In  marriage  there  should  be  present  three  good 
qualities. — Thomas  Aquinas. 

^  III. — TuE  Scholastic  Division  consists  in  distributing  the 
proposition  or  text  treated  as  a  proposition  iuto  three  parts,  name- 
ly, the  siihjcct,  the  predicate,  and  the  copula.  This  division  is  prin- 
cipally useful  for  the  exposition  of  short  but  weighty  texts. 
Subject:  Saloatlon  by  Hope. — Rom.  viii.  l24. 
T.  What  is  it  to  bo  saved?  II.  What  is  hope?  III.  The  certainty  that  all 
that  have  a  good  hope  shall  be  saved. 

Subject :  Living  by  Faith. — Ileb.  x.  38. 

I.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "just,"  as  used  in  the  text?  II.  Explain 
the  nature  of  "  faith."  III.  In  what  sense  may  it  be  said  that  the  just  live  by 
faith  ? 

Subject :  Salvation  Gratuitous.— Eph.  ii.  8. 

I.  What  is  salvation!  II.  What  is  grace?  III.  Prove  that  it  is  by  grace 
alone  that  we  are  saved. 

^  IV.— Examples  of  Narrative  and  Descriptive  Plans. 

The  Great  Assize.— Horn.  xiv.  10. 
Consider,  I.  The  chief  circumstances  which  will  precede  our  standing  before 
the  judgment-seat  of  Christ;  II.  The  judumcnl-seat  itself;  III.  A   few  of  tho 
circumstances  which  will  follow  it. — John  Wesley. 


DIVISION  BY  SYNTHESIS.  365 

The  Great  Shi  of  Rejecting  Christ. — John  xv.  22. 

I.  How  greatly  aggravated  the  sin  of  the  Jews  was  in  rejecting  Christ ;  II. 
How  much  more  inexcusable  we  are  if  we  reject  Christ.  Address,  1.  Those  who 
make  excuses  for  their  neglect  of  Christ ;  2.  Those  who  desire  to  attain  the  sav- 
ing knowledge  of  him. — Charles  Simeon. 

The  Interview  at  JacoVs  Well. — John  iv.  4-29. 

I.  The  Preparation,  ver.  4-15;  II.  The  Crisis,  ver.  16-27;  III.  The  Decision, 
ver.  23,  29.— i^.  TF.  Enunmacher.  ,^'^0^.^^^' " 

The  Dying  Malefactor. — Luke  xxiii.  39-43.  . 

I.  The  state  of  the  man's  mind  before  the  time  of  his  conviction  ; 

II.  The  circumstances  and  means  of  his  conversion  ; 

III.  The  nature  and  results  of  the  change  show  that  the  turning-point  of  his 
conversion  was  the  belief  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ. 

IV.  Lessons. — James  Buchanan.  L».^»<ti,— «.   'J^ 

The  liaising  of  the  Young  Man  at  JVain. — Luke  vii.  11-16. 

I.  An  account  of  the  occurrence.  II.  This  miracle  proves,  1.  The  matchless 
philanthropy  of  Jesus  ;  2.  That  he  is  invested  with  unlimited  power;  .3.  That  he 
is  the  resurrection  ancl  the  life  ;  4.  That  he  is  the  Redeemer  of  mankind.  (Brief 
application). — Van  Der  Palm. 

§  Y. — DlVISIOX  BY  AssociATio:^'. 

And  there  icere  set  there  six  water-pots  of  stone. — John  ii.  6. 

There  were  six  water-pots,  from  which  wine  was  poured  out ;  and  there  are 
as  many  persons  or  groups  of  persons  from  whom  we  may  take  pattern.  I. 
Christ;  II.  Mary;  III.  The  Disciples;  IV.  Bride  and  Bridegroom;  V.  The 
Ruler  of  the  Feast;  VI.  The  Servants.— -S.  Baring-Gould. 

The  Three  Refuges  of  the  Soul. 

Our  Lord  found  refuge,  I.  In  a  ship;  II.  In  a  mountain;  III.  In  a  desert. — 
Matthew  Faber. 

§  VI. — DiYisioH  BY  Synthesis. 

The  lnterpositio7i  of  the  Saviour  Vindicated. — Isa.  lix.  1. 

A.  The  notion  of  intervention  in  other  matters  is  familiar  to  us  all,  and  rea- 
sonable. 

a.  Peoples  have  often  by  revolutions  interfered  with  the  successions  of  royal 
families,  with  ancient  constitutions  and  laws,  for  the  purpose  of  redressing 
wrongs  and  securing  privileges. 

[5.  Civil  justice  does  not  ignore  mercy;  the  regular  administration  of  laws  is 
often  set  aside  by  the  pardoning  power. 

y.  The  transgressors  of  "the  laws  of  nature"  are  saved  from  suffering  full 
penalties  by  physicians  and  other  humane  persons.  Sailors  are  saved  from 
drowning  without  lengthening  the  ship's  voyage.  Children  found  asleep  on  rail- 
ways are  saved  from  instant  death  Avithout  causing  any  detention  to  the  ap- 
proaching trains.  * 


u 


366  EXAMPLES  OF  DISTINGUISHING  OUTLINES. 

B.  If  man  can  thus,  in  spite  of  our  tlieorles  concerning  "the  laws  of  na- 
ture "  and  "  second  causes,"  interfere  to  save  the  body,  how  much  more  can  God 
do  it  to  save  the  soul. 

a.  If  the  creature,  how  much  more  the  Creator;  if  the  feeble,  how  mucli 
more  the  Almighty  ;  if  the  ignorant  and  unwise,  how  much  more  the  All-Know- 
ing and  the  All-Wise,  etc. 

/?.  If  man  may  interpose  to  save  the  body  from  death,  how  much  more  God 
to  save  the  soul  from  perdition,  etc. 

The  Lord  Jesus  the  Desire  of  all  Nations. — John  i.  29. 

N.  Christ  was  typified  by  the  lamb  of  the  Passover,  and  of  the  regular  morn- 
ing and  evening  sacrifice. 

2.  The  vicarious  offerings  of  the  Patriarchs. 

j.  The  antediluvian  notions  of  sacrifice;  their  mysterious  origin. 

T.  The  sacrificial  rites  of  ancient  pagan  nations. 

n.  The  immolations  of  modern  heathens. 

"|.  All  men  of  all  ages  and  nations  are,  by  nature  and  practice,  sinners,  and 
therefore  feel  more  or  less  the  need  of  some  atonement,  etc. 

^  Hence  the  Lord  Jesus  is  the  one  great  want  of  all  men. 

n.  Hence  the  Gospel  should  be  preached  to  all  nations. 

§  YIL— ^Examples  of  Diyisiox  by  Analysis. 

The  Disbelief  of  a  Future  State  of  Hetrihution. — Luke  xvi.  19-31. 

A'.  The  true  nature  of  this  disbelief.  B.  Its  sources.  C.  Its  influence  on  the 
heart  and  life.     D.  Preventives  and  Remedies. — /.  IL  B.  Briiseke. 

What  is  Justifying  Faith? — Kom.  iii.  25. 

I.  What  this  faith  is  not. 

1.  It  is  not  a  mere  belief  that  Christ  is  come,  or  that  the  New  Testament 
is  inspired,  etc.  2.  It  is  not  a  belief  in  the  truth  of  all  the  principal  doc- 
trines of  the  Gospel.  3.  It  is  not  to  believe  in  our  own  safety  through 
Christ. 

II.  But  justifying  faith  is  the  trust  which  a  sinner  feels  in  Christ  to  save  him 
from  hell,  as  a  divine  Saviour,  in  the  method  he  has  revealed  by  his  atoning  sac- 
rifice and  by  his  sanctifying  Spirit. 

1.  It  must  be  a  trust  in  Christ  to  save  us.  2.  A  trust  in  him  to  save  us 
ft  om  hell.  3.  A^  a  divine  Saviour.  4.  In  the  method  he  has  revealed  by /as 
sacrifice.     5.  By  the  power  of  his  sanctifi/ing  Spirit. 

III.  To  ivhat  extent  does  this  faith  justify  ? 

IV.  The  manner  in  which  this  faith  justifies.     Application. — B.  Tf'.  Soel. 

§  VIII. — Examples  of  Distinguishing  Outlines. 

The  Fear  of  Death.— lleh.  ii.  14,  15. 

1.  Some  fear  death  from  a  pure  instinct  of  nature ;  2.  Others  from  a  prin- 
ciple of  their  religion,  having  a  suspicion  of  their  state;  3.  Some  from  a  sj)irit 
of  infidelity,  or  a  mere  want  of  faith;  4.  Others  from  an  attachment  to  this 
world;     5.  Others,  again,  from  a  mere  weakness  of  the  imagination. — Bertheau. 


SKETCHES  DETERMINED  BY  RELATIONS.  367 

The  Difference  Between  the  Joy  of  the  World  and  the  Joy  of 
Christians. — John  xvi.  20. 

A.  Tliey  differ  in  their  sources. 

a.  The  former  proceeds  from  the  indulgence  of  uncontrolled  desires  ;  b. 
The  latter  from  a  pure  and  devout  mind. 

B.  They  differ  in  their  objects. 

a.  The  former  depends  on  the  objects  of  sense ;     b.  The  latter  on  spirit- 
ual benefits. 

C.  They  differ  in  their  modes  of  expression. 

a.  The  former  is  disorderly  and  violent;     b.  The  latter  deliberate  and 
regular. 
B.  In  their  consequences. 

a.  The  former  is   converted  into  sorrow  ;     b.  The  latter  is  followed   by 
still  more  exalted  happiness. — Reinhard. 

The  Meaning  of  Suffering. — John  ix.  1-3. ' 

I.  How  Christ  conceals  the  cause  of  it.     II.  How  he  reveals  the  design  of  it. — 
Dr.  Steinmei/cr. 

^IX. — A   PARTITIOlSr   FORMED    ON   A   DIVISION    OF   TiME. 

Chrises  Love  for  the  Church  in  its  Threefold  Manifestations. 
Eph.  V.  25-27.    v^jv'i-    > 

I.  In  past  time  :  gave  himself  for  the  Church. 

II.  In  the  present:  that  he  might  wash  and  sanctify  it. 

III.  In  the  future :  that  he  might  present  it  to  himself  spotless. — Rev.  Br,  II. 
G.  Weston. 

^X. — Sketches  Determined  by  Relations. 

Sorroioing  Souls  and  Starry  Systems. — Psa.  cxlvii.  3,  4. 

I.  God's  relation  to  sorrowing  souls  ; 

II.  His  relation  to  starry  systems ; 

III.  The  relation  of  three  classes  of  men  to  this  subject. 

1.  Those  who  deny  God's  active  relation  to  both  souls  and  stars; 

2.  Those  who  admit  his  active  relation  to  stars,  but  deny  it  to  souls  ; 

3.  Those  who  profess  faith  in  his  active  relation  to  both,  but  are  destitute 
of  the  spiritual  feelings  which  ai"e  suitable  to  faith. —  William  Rees. 

The  Shame  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ   is  its    Glory. — Rom.   i.    16. 

We  are  not  ashamed  of  the  Gospel, 

I.  In  its  relation  to  the  human  intellect — its  mysterious  character ; 

II.  In  its  relation  to  man's  moral  nature  and  powers — its  humiliating  char- 
acter ; 

III.  In  its  relation  to  other  kinds  of  religion — its  exclusive  character  ; 

IV.  In   its  relation   to   this   life — its   unworldly  character. — Rev.  Br.  R.   G, 
Weston. 


868  A  SKETCH  BY  ALTERNATION  OR  DISJUNCTION. 

^      ,\^  §XI: — Partitions  by  Correlation. 

tf*  The  Church  and  the   'World. — Acts  viii.  14-25. 

I.  The  Clmrch  in  the  world.  1.  The  extension  of  the  Church  in  the  world ; 
2.  The  unity  of  tiie  Church  in  the  world;  3.  The  testimony  of  the  Church  in  the 
world. 

II.  The  world  in  the  Church.  1.  The  gathering  of  the  world  into  the  Church; 
2.  The  .'spirit  of  the  world  in  the  Church  ;  3.  The  Church's  judgment  of  that 
spirit. — Br.  Ch.  E.  Luthardt. 

The  Correlation  of  SeeJcing  and  Finding. — Matt.  vii.  7. 

I.  There  is  no  finding  without  seeking;  II.  There  is  no  seeking  without  find- 
ing.— Eev.  H,  J).  Game. 

{iXII. — Syllogistic  Division. 

The  Duty  of  Growing  in  Holiness. — Lev.  xix.  2. 

r  I.  The  moral  character  of  man  ought  to  resemble  the  moral  character  of  God ; 

II.  God  is  holy  ;  III.  Therefore  man  ought  to  be  holy. — Anon. 

^  XIII. — Figurative  Partition. 

The  Raising  of  the   Widoio's  Son. — 1  Kings  xvii.  24. 
I.  The  pruning  of  a  branch  that  bore  fruit;  II.  Its  bearing  more  fruit ;  III. 
The  satisfaction  and  joy  that  ensued. — F.  TJ\  Knunmachcr. 

Acts  i.  1-14. — Practical  deductions  : 

I.  The  place  of  his  j)artings,  the  place  of  his  sufferings;  II.  Veiled  is  his  ingress 
veiled  is  his  egress  ;  III.  When  we  are  brought  to  a  stand,  it  is  by  a  benedictive 
hand ;  IV.  lie  is  separated //•(»»  us,  and  yet  he  continues  icith  its ;  V.  From  his 
own  he  will  remain  concealed  until  he  can  be  clearly  revealed. — Dr.  Tholuck. 

For  another  instance  see  Latimer's  sermon  for  all  saints  on  the 
Beatitudes,  where  the  partition  is  made  under  the  figure  of  a  pil- 
grimage of  eight  miles  (Works,  vol.  i.,  p.  476). 

§  XIV. — An  Example  of  a  Sketch  by  Alternation  or  Dis- 
junction. 

The  Importance  of  a  Sinner^  Repentance. — Luke  xv.  1-10. 
Proposition  :  The  conversion  of  a  sinner  is  an  event  which  gives  joy  in  heaven. 
I.  The  meaning  of  this  proposition. 

It  admits  of  a  double  meaning,  and  is  to  be  understood  either  as  an  emphatic 
description  of  the  great  importance  of  the  sinner's  moral  iini)rovement  or  as  an 
express  announcement  that  this  event  does  rejoice  the  hearts  of  beings  in  heaven. 
In  other  words,  it  is  either  a  figurative  and  rhetorical  sentence,  or  a  literal  and 
historical  one. 

A.  It  may  be  an  emphatic  but  figurative  description  of  the  great  importance 
of  the  sinner's  conversion.     Such  i)lirases  are  used  in  this  rhetorical  manner : 
a.  Reason  proves,  and,  h.  the  Bible  teaches  that  the  reformation  of  a 
man  is  thus  inconceivablv  momentous. 


EXAMPLES  OF  DIVISION  BY  DEGREES.  369 

B.  The  proposition  may  be  a  literal  and  historical  announcement  that  a  sin- 
ner's conversion  pleases  the  inhabitants  of  heaven.  They  actually  feel  this  in- 
terest in  his  spiritual  condition. 

a.  Reason  makes  this  statement  probable,  and  b.  the  Scriptures  favour  it. 
II.  In  the  application  of  this  proposition,  I  remark : 

A.  It  teaches  that  human  nature,  even  in  its  degraded  estate,  merits  our 
high  regard. 

B.  It  is  fitted  to  touch  the  hearts  of  the  impenitent  especially,  and  make 
them  zealous  for  their  own  moral  transformation. 

C.  It  should  encourage  the  regenerate  to  perseverance  and  progress. 

D.  It  should  stimulate  all  who  can  contribute  to  the  moral  improvement 
of  their  brethren,  to  do  so  with  an  unwearying  zeal. — Translated  hij  Br.  Park 
from  F.  V.  Reinhard's  Prcdlgten,  180i,  Band  1,  ss.  373-390. 

§  XY. — Examples  of   Distributive  Partition's,  or  Accord- 
ing TO  Different  Aspects, 

This  kind  of  division  may  be  distinguished  from  the  kind  last  il- 
lustrated, by  the  fact  that  it  is  not  founded  on  two  or  more  allow- 
able interiyretations  of  a  text,  but  on  various  vieios  or  uses  of  a  topic 
or  2)ropositio)i,  as  presented  by  discussion  or  application.  Besides^ 
it  is  conjunctive^  or,  in  other  words,  the  and  is  here  naturally  em- 
ployed in  preference  to  the  or. 

The  Passion  of  Christ. — John  i.  29. 

Exhibit  it  from  three  different  points  of  view :  I.  As  a  melancholy  scene  of 
human  passions  and  vices;  II.  As  a  sublime  spectacle  of  human  greatness;  III. 
As  the  cause  of  all  human  hapjiiness. — Tan  Ber  Palm. 

The  Deprecation  of  Ecil  in  the  LorcVs  Prayer. — Matt.  vi.  13. 

Consider,  I.  The  cry  of  the  text  stammered,  as  by  the  unregenerate  and  heathen 
world  it  universally  is ;  II.  That  crj^  articulated,  as  by  the  penitent  and  Christian, 
now  taught  the  j^lague  of  his  own  heart,  it  is  ;  III.  That  cry  answered,  as  it  is  by 
God,  come  down  to  our  deliverance. — W.  R.  IFilliams. 

The  various  JVays  in  zchich  31en  may  deny  that  they  are  Sinners. 

1  John  i.  8. 

I.  By  denying  the  essential  distinction  between  right  and  wrong  ;  II.  By  call- 
ing good  evil  and  evil  good ;  III.  By  admitting  the  reality  of  sin,  but  denying 
its  consequences  ;  IV.  By  owning  it  in  general,  but  denying  it  in  particular  ;  V. 
By  confessing  it  in  particular,  but  at  the  same  time  attempting  to  make  their 
goodness  outweigh  it. — E.  Be  Pressense. 

§XVI. — Examples  of  Division"  by  Degrees. 

The  Gift  of  God.— John  iv.  10.  cj  ^^  c.','  '^^^ 

I.  God's  greatest  gift — The  gift  of  Christ.  II.  Christ's  best  promise — "  Living 
water."  III.  The  world's  worst  error — "  Not  knowing  the  gift  of  God."  IV. 
The  sinner's  strongest  encouragement — "  He  would  have  given." — Richard  Cecil. 


I' 


370  EXAMPLES  OF  ILLUSTRATORY  SKETCHES. 

TJie  Precioiisness  of  Christ. — 1  Pet.  ii.  7. 

I.  Show  that  Christ  is  precious  to  behevers,  (1)  Positively,  (2)  Comparative- 
ly, (3)  Superlatively.  II.  Why  faith  regards  Christ  as  thus  precious.  III.  Ap- 
plication. 

Grounds  of  Tlianksgiving. — Rom.  i.  8. 

I.  We  give  thanks  for  tliose  among  you  who  have  begun  to  manifest  a  con- 
cern for  your  souls. 

II.  But  with  greater  delight  will  we  return  thanks  for  those  who  have  made 
some  progress  in  the  divine  life. 

III.  Most  of  all  must  we  bless  God  for  those  among  you  who  are  walking 
worthy  of  their  high  calling. — Charles  Simeon. 

The  JEncl  of  the  Christian  Strife  is  Better  than  the  Beginning. 
2  Thn.'iv.  7,  8. 

I.  The  beginning  is  good ;  II.  Tlie  continuance  is  better ;  III.  Persever- 
ance to  the  last  is  best  of  all. — Rieger. 

§XYII. — Divisioisr  by  Analogt. 

Christ  greater  than  Solomon  in  those  Besjjects  in  7chich  Solomon 
teas  greater  than  other  Jlonarc/is. — Matt.  xii.  42. 

I.  Wisdom  ;  II.  Inherited  wealth  ;  III.  In  temple  building  ;  IV.  Homage 
of  other  monarchs  ;  Y.  Extent  of  dominions  ;  VI.  Happiness  of  his  subjects  ; 
VII.  The  duration  of  his  reign. — HeiK  George  Brooks. 

§  XVIII. — Partition  by  Negation". 

Christianity  Inviolable. — Gal.  i.  8. 

I.  The  import  of  the  Gospel  cannot  be  vague;  II.  Its  divine  origin  cannot 
be  controverted  ;  III.  Its  efficacy  cannot  be  denied  ;  IV.  Its  authority  cannot 
be  superseded ;  V.  Its  existence  cannot  be  endangered. — Rev.  Br.  R.  Winter 
Hamilton. 

^XIX. — Examples  of  Illustkatory  Sketches. 
Of  Divine  Grace. — John  iv. 

The  sweetness  and  power  of  grace  exemplified  in  the  conversion  of  the  Sa- 
maritan woman  : 

A.  See  how  the  grace  of  Christ  uses  all  the  attraction  of  its  sweetness  in  order 
to  convert  the  woman  of  Samaria. 

a.  The  grace  of  Jesus  waits  for  sinners,  "  wearied  with  his  journey,"  etc. 

b.  The  Saviour  takes  a  favourable  opi)ortunity  of  conferring  with  her. 

c.  The  converting  grace  of  Jesus  anticipates  the  etTorts  of  sinners. 

d.  In  wliat  manner  does  grace  prevent  or  anticipate  1 

e.  Grace  in  order  to  act  with  more  sweetness  adapts  itself  to  our  weak- 
nesses and  imperfections. 

/.  He  leads  us  to  renounce  the  world  by  convincing  us  that  it  cannot 
make  us  happy. 


EXAMPLES  OF  ILLUSTRATORY  SKETCHES.  371 

B.  See  how  the  grace  of  Christ  Jesus,  by  its  force  and  efficacy,  converts  the 
Samaritan  woman. 

a.  Consider  the  miraculous  power  of  grace  in  the  victory  it  gains  over 
the  intellect  of  this  woman. 

h.  The  miracle  of  grace  in  changing  her  heart. — Boiirdaloue. 

Keeping  the  Heart. — Prov.  iv.  23. 

I.  The  heart  is  to  be  kept,  1.  As  thou  wouldst  keep  a  temple;  2.  As  a  treas- 
ure ;     3.  As  a  garden ;     4.  As  a  garrison  ;     5.  As  a  prisoner  ;     6.  As  a  watch. 

II.  The  frame  and  posture  in  which  it  should  be  kept :  1.  Awake;  2.  Jeal- 
ous ;     3.  Serious ;     4.  Humble ;     5.    Sublime. 

III.  Keep  the  passages,  forts,  and  outworks  of  the  heart :  1.  The  senses  ; 
2.  The  thoughts  and  impulses. 

Conclusion  :  If  we  do  not  keep  our  hearts,  the  devil  will. — Thomas  Watson. 

The  S inner'' s  Choice. — John  xviii.  40. 

...  I  did  not  select  these  words  to  speak  particularly  of  the  Jews.  Thej^  are 
to  be  viewed  as  the  expression  of  the  choice  of  a  carnal  mind.  In  pursuing 
this  subject  I  remark : 

I.  The  great  and  peculiar  sin  of  man,  under  the  Christian  dispensation,  is  the 
rejection  of  the  authority  and  offices  of  the  Saviour  for  the  sake  of  some  op- 
posing interest  or  proposition.  ,  .  .  He  prefers  Barabbas  to  Christ. 

II.  I  would  illustrate  this  choice  in  some  instances  which  display  it. 

1.  I  see  the  young  man  following  the  pleasures  of  sense,  and  for  these 
despising  and  driving  from  him  the  claims  of  piety.  .  .  What  is  the  expression 
of  every  act  of  his  life  but  the  vehemently  declared  choice?  "  Not  this  man, 
but  Barabbas." 

2.  I  see  the  giddy  daughter  of  vanity  and  fashion  studious  of  a  vain  exhibi- 
tion of  herself ;  her  whole  thoughts  are  occupied  with  the  changing  scenes  of 
this  world.  .  .  She  is  daily  shouting  in  her  insensate  giddiness  :  "  Not  this 
man,  but  Barabbas." 

3.  I  see  the  man  of  business  in  his  neglect  of  godliness,  devoting  all  the  en- 
ergies of  his  mind  to  the  amassing  of  wealth.  .  .  The  whole  language  of  his 
life,  and,  if  you  press  upon  him  the  obligations  of  piety,  the  language  of  his 
lips  is  :  "  Not  this  man,  but  Barabbas." 

4.  I  see  the  toiling  aspirant  for  human  honor  climbing  the  slippery  steeps, 
the  summit  of  which  so  few  have  gained.  Reputation  is  the  all  with  him.  For 
this  he  studies,  plans,  and  labors.  He  will  not  seek  his  life  from  Christ.  The 
language  of  his  unchanging  coursS  as  it  speaks  in  every  act  and  in  every  de- 
termination of  life  is  :  "  jS!ot  tliis  man,  but  Barabbas." 

5.  I  see  the  self-righteous  man  in  the  false  estimate  of  his  own  character. 
.  .  The  choice  which  his  whole  heart  makes  is,  "  Not  this  man,  but  Barabbas." 

6.  I  see  the  healthful,  the  prosperous,  and  the  young.  .  .  And  as  I  see 
these  things  I  cannot  but  mourn  that  even  God's  blessings  to  man,  health  and 
prosperity  and  youth,  should  be  converted  into  a  Barabbas  of  opposition  to 
him. 

III.  Consider  how  fearful  is  the  guilt,  how  alarming  is  the  danger  of  this 
choice.     Barabbas  was  a  robber,  and  is  not  Barabbas  a  robber  still  1 

1 .  You  are  robbed  of  the  favour  of  God  forever  ; 

2.  You  are  robbed  of  the  compassionate  intercession  of  a  Saviour ; 

3.  You  are  robbed  of  the  welfare  of  your  immortal  soul. — Ih:  S.  S.  Tf/i!j. 


372         rARTITION  IN  INDUCTIVE  OR  ANALYTIC  REASONING. 

§  XX. — Examples  of  Sketches  by  Comparison  or  by  Con- 
trast. 

The  JBrazen  Serpent  cm  Emblem  of  our  Saoiour. — John  iii.   14. 

I.  Compare  the  physical  condition  of  the  bitten  Israelites  with  the  moral  con- 
dition of  all  mankind. 

II.  For  both  dangerous  conditions  some  remedy  was  indispensable. 

III.  Neither  of  the  remedies  provided  was  or  could  liave  been  the  invention 
of  human  reason. 

IV.  As  no  other  remedy  was  found  for  Israel,  so  no  other  Saviour  can  avail 
for  us. 

V.  Both  then  and  now  the  Remedy  must  be  received  by  faith,  and  by  faith 
alone. 

Life  to  he  Chosen  Mather  than  DeatJi. — Deut.  xxx.  19. 

I.  Guilt  and  depravity,  on  the  one  hand  ;  on  the  other,  pardon  and  renewal. 

II.  Death  by  the  first  Adam ;  resurrection  by  the  second. 

III.  By  the  law  condemned;  by  the  Lord  Jesus  justified. 

IV.  Left  to  ourselves,  we  walk  towards  hell ;  redeemed  by  the  blood  of  Christ, 
we  are  admitted  into  heaven. 

Application:  1.  Refutation  and  instruction;  2.  Exhortation  and  advice;  3. 
Reproof  and  encouragement ;  4.  Lamentation  and  rejoicing. 

In  a  sermon  on  John  xvi.,  Joseph  De  Barzla  sets  the  sorrow  of 
the  first  disciples  because  of  their  Lord's  departure  over  against  the 
indifference  of  modern  professors  to  the  danger  of  being  forsaken 
by  the  Spirit. 

The  Broad  and  the  Narrow  "Way. — Matt.  vii.  13,  14. 

I.  If  you  incline  to  the  former  of  these  ways,  it  has  many  tilings,  it  must  be 
owned,  to  recommend  it,  particularly  : 

1.  You  have  no  difficulty  in  entering  upon  it.  2.  You  have  also  full  scope 
for  your  tnclinations  in  your  progress.  3.  Moreover,  you  will  be  in  no  want 
of  company. 

II.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  incline  to  the  latter  of  these  ways : 

1.  There  may  be  great  difficulties  at  tjie  entrance.  2.  There  maj-  be  hard 
struggles  attending  your  progress.  3.  You  may  have  but  little  company. — An- 
drew Fuller. 

^XXI. — Example  of  Partition  in  Inductive  or  Analytic 

Reasoning. 

The  Orir/ln  and  JligJit  of  JIunian  Judicature. — 2  Chron.  xix.  G. 

Proposition :  The  administration  of  justice  is  for  the  Lord. 

I.  Tiie  potiTr  of  judgment  is  God's  »«V/A/.  II.  Tlie»Ma</rr  of  judgment  is  God's 
cause.  III.  Tlie  issue  of  judgment  is  God's  end.  IV.  The  formal  judgment  or 
sentence  is  God's  sentence. — Edward  Young,  Dean  of  Sarum. 


ORATORICAL  PLANS.  373 

^  XXII.— An-  Example  of  ai^  Outline  by  Dilemmas. 
The  Lamb  that  loas  Slain. — Mark  xiv.  65. 

I.  Either  the  person  mentioned  in  the  narrative  bore  the  guilt  of  our  sins,  or 
what  we  have  been  taught  of  a  Divine  Providence  is  a  delusion. 

II.  Either  this  person  suffered  what  our  sins  deserved,  or  the  whole  transac- 
tion is  an  inexplicable  enigma. 

III.  Either  the  sufferer  in  this  scene  made  satisfaction  to  the  divine  justice 
on  our  account,  or  we  are  irremediably  lost. 

IV.  Either  we  are  at  variance  with  sin  and  hate  it,  or  we  do  not  love  the  Lord 
Jesus. 

V.  Either  no  regenerate  person  will  be  saved,  or  the  condemning  power  has 
been  taken  from  the  blasphemous  thoughts  of  believers. 

VI.  Either  the  scene  which  has  this  day  been  presented  to  you  has  moved 
your  hearts  to  say  with  the  apostle.  "  Let  us  go  forth  to  him  without  the  camp, 
bearing  his  reproach,"  or  you  are  not  the  friends  of  Jesus. — F.  W.  Krummacher. 

§  XXIII.— Oratorical  Plans. 

Here  the  plan  is  formed  according  to  the  laws  of  rhetorical  pro- 
gress and  the  method  which  is  most  conducive  to  persuasion.  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen,  Vieyra,  Segneri,  Hall,  Irving,  and  John  Harris  ex- 
celled in  composing  "  propositional  "  sermons.  In  ^the  first  example 
the  rhetorical  objects  of  the  sermon  (viz.,  explanation,  conviction, 
and  excitation)  are  cryptically  bound  up  with  the  partition. 
On  the  Resurrection. — 1  Cor.  xv.  42. 

^\  Ir'' V       I-  Its  essential  character.     II.  The  certainty  of  it.     III.  Its  glory.— 2)n  /.  /. 
''  Van  Oostcrzee. 

The  Spirituality  of  the  Divine  JSTaticre. — Isa.  xxxi.  3, 

It  is  my  design  to  suggest  to  you  some  of  those  views  of  the  character  of  the 
Supreme  Being,  inseparably  connected  with  the  spirituality  of  his  nature,  in 
which  he  stands  contrasted  with  all  other  beings  whatsoever  : 

a.  The  spirituality  of  the  Deity  is  intimately  connected  with  the  possession 
of  that  infinite  power  which  renders  him  the  proper  object  of  entire  confidence. 

/3.  The  spirituality  of  God  stands  in  close  and  intimate  connection  with  his 
invisibility. 

y.  That  God  is  a  spirit  and  not  flesh  is  inseparably  connected  with  his  im- 
mensity and  omnipresence. 

S.  Because  God  is  a  spirit,  and  not  flesh,  he  is  possessed  of  infinite  wisdom 
and  intelligence. 

s.  The  doctrine  of  the  spirituality  of  the  divine  nature  establishes  a  most  in- 
timate relation  and  bond  of  union  between  him  and  all  the  intellectual  part  of  the 
creation. 

C  The  spirituality  of  the  divine  nature  renders  him  capable  of  the  exalted 
prerogative  of  being  the  satisfying  portion,  the  supreme  good,  of  all  mtelligent 
beings. 

(A  brief  improvement  concludes  the  sermon.) — Eobert  Sail. 


374  A  TARTITION  BY  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  PROPOSITION. 

^XXIV. — Outlines  Suggested  by  Emotions. 

The  Conversion  of  the  Eunuch. — Acts  viii.  26-39. 

I  find  in  this  narrative  fuiir  subjects  of  astonisliinent,  which  go  on  heighten- 
ing, one  upon  the  other : 

I.  A  courtier  who  reads  holy  Scripture — a  thing  which  is  already  surprising. 

IT.  A  courtier  who  confesses  his  ignorance — a  fact  wliich  is  more  surprising 
still. 

III.  A  courtier  who  asks  instruction  from  his  inferior — this  ought  to  redouble 
our  surprise. 

IV.  Finally,  in  order  to  crown  tliis  surprise,  a  courtier  who  is  converted. — 
Pastor  F.  J.  Courtonne. 

A   Vieio  of  the  Tonih  of  Jesus. — Matt,  xxyiii.  6. 
As  we  enter,  I.  Our  first  emotion  is  wonder;  II.  Gratitude;  III.  Admiration; 
IV.  A  feeling  of  tranquillity. — Anon. 

The  Five   Wonders.— Rqy.  iii.  20  (A  Sermon  to  Children). 

The  first  wonder  is  found  in  the  person  mentioned  in  that  little  word  '■  I." 

Tlie  second  wonder  is — His  object  in  knocking  there. 

The  third  wonder  is— that  Jesus  is  permitted  to  stand  there  without  being 
admitted. 

The  fourth  wonder  is — the  patience  of  Jesus  in  standing  so  long  at  the  sin- 
ner's heart. 

Tlie  fifth  and  last  of  these  wonders  is— Christ  sujjping  with  the  sinner. — Dr. 
W.  r.  Breed. 

§!3^XV. — An  Ex.vmple  of  a  Skeleton  by  Observations. 

The   Church  th'Z  Lord's   Vineyard. — Ileb.  vi.  7. 

A,  Observations : 

a.  God  in  his  word  exhibits  his  Church  under  the  image  of  a  vineyard  or 
piece  of  ground  which  he  cultivates. 

h.  As  the  cultivator,  so  God  uses  means  adapted  in  the  order  of  nature  to 
make  this  ground  productive. 

c.  He  asks  for  corresponding  fruits. 

d.  He  blesses  those  who  bring  forth  fruits  meet  for  him  by  whom  it  is 
dressed. 

li.  Improvement: 

a.  Show  the  richness  of  the  dispensation  of  grace  which  sinners  now  en- 
joy. God  is  working  through  his  AVord  and  Spirit  in  cultivating  the 
ground. 

b.  Warn  sinners  that  they  are  now  under  trial,  etc. 

c.  Exhort  them  to  bring  forth  fruit  meet,  etc. 

d.  Encourage  the  pious  to  bring  forth  more  fruit,  inasmuch  as  more 
blessing  is  promised,  etc. — Br.  J.  S.  Cannon. 

§XXVI. — A  Partition  by  Analysis  of  the  Proposition. 
-1   Prai/cr  for  a  Revival  of  the  Lord's   Work.—l\^\).  iii.  2. 
I.   The  Lord's  work;  II.  .\  revival  of  it ;  III.   A  prayer  for,  etc. 


EXAMPLES  OF  SKELETONS  BY  SUPPOSITIONS.  375 

§  XXVII. — Plans  by  Questions  Expkessed  or  Implied.    .^(J' 

Christ  is   Waiting, — Rev.  iii.  20. 

I.  Who  knocks  without  1  II.  What  is  his  errand  1  III.  Why  is  not  tlie  door 
opened  1 — Anon. 

Was  it  not  Seemly  ? — Luke  xxiv.  26. 

I.  Yea,  Lord,  thine  attributes  teach  us  the  propriety  of  thy  sufferings.  IL 
Yea,  Lord,  thy  achievements  teaqli  us  the  propriety  of  thy  sufTerings. — Anon. 

Partial  Ivnoioledge. — 1  Cor.  xiii.  9. 

A.  Partial  hnowledge  is  a  calamity  ivhen,  a.  traceable  to  early  prejudice  ;  h. 
traceable  to  false  teaching,  c.  to  inability  to  learn.  B.  Partial  knowledge  is  a  crime 
ivhen,  a.  owing  to  prayerlessness,  b.  to  wilfulness,  c.  lethargy,  d.  inattention.  C. 
Partial  hiowledge  is  a  blessing  ivhen.  a.  it  exercises  faith,  b.  evokes  inquiry,  c.  dis- 
plaj'S  filial  fear.  B.  Partial  knowledge  is  an  argument  for,  a.  humility,  b.  alarm,  c. 
hope,  d.  praise. — Anon, 

^  XXVIII.— Division  by  Cumulative  Arguments. 

The    Day  of  Judgment  Appointed. — Acts  xvii.  31. 
Such  a  day  is,  I.  Possible  ;  II.  Probable  ;  III.  Certain. 

^  XXIX. — An  Example  of  Sketches  by  Climax  or  Grada- 

The  Hidden  JIauna,— Rev,  ill.        1    -^^-''^ytv  •*  *"  *" 

I.  No  man  knoweth  the  new  name,  save  he  that  receiveth  it ;  I 

II.  No  man  receiveth  it,  but  he  that  hath  the  white  stone ; 

III.  No  man  hath  the  white  stone,  but  he  that  eateth  the  hidden  manna  ; 

IV.  No  man  eateth  the  hidden  manna  but  he  to  whom  it  is  given  ; 

V.  It  is  given  to  none  to  eat  thereof  but  to  him  that  overcometh. — Anon, 

The  JVature  of  Christian  Love. — Matt.  v.  20. 

I.  Love  for  the  commandments,  yet  not  separated  from  love  to  God  ; 
]I.  Love  to  God,  yet  not  separated  from  love  to  man  ; 
•  III.  Love  to  man,  yet  not  separated  from  love  to  our  neighbour. — Marheincke. 

Paid  at  Ephesus. — Acts  xix.  19. 

I.  Notice  what  produced  this  excitement.  II.  Notice  what  this  excitement 
produced.  — Anon . 

§  XXX. — Examples  op  Skeletons  by  Suppositions. 

Prayer  Co7isidered  as  a  Privilege. — Dan.  vi.  7. 

I.  Suppose  that  it  were  now  possible  to  make  a  law  which  should  forbid  your 
praying  to  God  for  thirty  days,  as  Daniel  was  forbidden,  would  you  not  then  be 
able  to  form  some  estimate  of  prayer  as  a  privilege  1 

1.  Were  such  a  law   passed,   now  what  would  various  classes  of  men  be 
likel}^  to  say  and  do  about  it  1 

25 


376  APPLICATION  BY  MIXED  PARTITION. 

2.  What  woukl  probably  be  the  course  Christians  and  professors  would 
adopt  1 

3,  AVlio  would  then  regard  it  a  cross  or  duty  ? 

II.  Suppose  that  in  such  case  there  were  only  otic  place  where  it  were  lawful 
to  pray. 

III.  That  in  that  place  only  one  person  could  lawfully  pray  either  for  himself  or 
others. 

IV.  Suppose  a  large  sum  of  money  were  exacted  to  procure  the  intercessions 
of  that  privileged  person,  etc. 

Christ  at  the  Feast. — John  xi.  56. 

I.  He  may  be  at  this  annual  festival.  There  is  nothing  in  such  a  feast  incon- 
sistent with  Christ's  presence. 

II.  Suppose  he  should  be  here,  how  different  from  all  former  feasts  would  this 
feast  be. 

III.  Suppose  Jesus  Christ  should  not  come  to  the  feast;  then  it  will  not  be 
worth  coming  to. 

IV.  He  will  be  here. — Thos.  Toller,  of  Kettering. 

§  XXXI. — Divisio:n"  by  Assumptions. 
The  Christian  waiting  until  the  Lord  shall  he  revealed. — Actsi. 

Like  the  disciples  who  abode  at  Jerusalem,  I.  He  obeys,  for  he  is  full  of  faith. 
II.  He  dwells  with  others  in  unity,  for  he  is  full  of  love.  III.  He  prays,  for  he 
is  full  of  hope. — F.  G.  Lisco. 

The  Lord  the  Keeper  of  the  Saint. — Psa.  cxxL  5. 

I.  Thou  art  willing  to  be  kept  of  him ;  II.  Thou  knowest  the  voice  of  thy 
keeper,  not  that  of  strangers. — Rev.  George  Bowen,  of  Bombay. 

6  XXXII. — Application  by  Concomitaxts  axd  Adjuncts. 

Christian  Knowledge. — 2  Tim.  iii.  7. 

I.  Its  excellence.     II.  Its  necessity. 

III.  Its  attendants  are:  1.  Wisdom.  2.  Benevolence.  3.  Humility.  4. 
Faith.     5.  Self-denial. 

Death  of  Christ. — 1  Cor.  xv.  3.  • 

I.  Its  nature. 

II.  Some  of  the  adjuncts  which  commend  it  to  our  regard : 

a.  The  result  of  God's  eternal  decree,  b.  A  matter  of  compact  between 
the  Father  and  tlie  Son.  c.  Anciently  i)refigured  and  predicted,  d.  Jlxecutcd 
by  God,  man  concurring,  e.  The  excellence  of  the  person  who  died  for  us, 
etc. — Isaac  Barrow. 

§  XXXIII.— Application  by  Mixed  Partition. 

On  the  Birth  of  Christ.— LwVc  ii.  10,  11. 

I.  Are  you  one  of  those  who,  seduced  by  false  maxims,  quit  the  way  of  sal- 
vation for  the  way  of  the  world  1     Be  afraid,  because  this  mystery  will  lay  open 

to  you  afllicting  truths. 


DISTINGUISHING  KINDS  OF  USES.  377 

II.  Are  you,  or  would  you  be,  one  of  those  who  seek  Almighty  God  in  spirit 
and  in  truth  1  Be  glad,  because  this  mystery  will  discover  to  you  infinite  treas- 
ures of  grace  and  mercy. — Bourdaloue. 

Christ  our   Wisdom. — 1  Cor.  i.  30. 

I.  He  is  the  righteousness  in  which  it  is  our  wisdom  to  believe. 

II.  He  is  the  sanctification  for  which  it  is  our  wisdom  to  strive  and  suffer. 

III.  He  is  the  redemption  in  which  it  is  our  wisdom  to  hope  and  rejoice. 

The  Prodigal  Son. — Luke  xv.  11-32. 

I.  The  history  of  us  all.  II.  A  warning  for  us  all.  III.  An  encouragement 
for  us  all. — Kern. 

§  XXXIV. — AppLicATioisr  by  Negation". 

The  Rich  FooI.—L\x\q  xii.  16-21. 

I.  What  was  his  true  character  as  described  1  etc.  II.  What  were  not  his 
faults  and  vices  1 

I.  What  was  his  true  character  ?     Explication. 

1.  He  heaped  up  riches  from  selfish  motives  ;  2.  He  was  a  man  of  pleas- 
ure ;  3.  He  imagined  that  his  wealth  would  make  him  happy ;  4.  He  cher- 
ished the  delusive  hope  of  a  long  life ;  5.  He  was  not  rich  towards  God  ; 
6.  He  was  consequently  a  fool. 

II.  What  were  not  his  faults  and  vices  1     Application. 

1.  He  did  not  accumulate  a  fortune  by  dishonesty;  2.  He  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  in  great  haste  to  be  rich ;  8.  Did  not  aim  to  gratify  pride 
and  vanity  ;  4.  He  was  no  unsociable  and  ungenerous  miser ;  5.  He  seems 
not  to  have  desired  riches  in  order  that  he  might  by  bribery  procure  oflSce 
or  distinction ;  6.  We  are  not  told  that  he  either  contradicted  or  derided 
God's  revelation  of  his  folly  and  danger. 

§XXXY. — Hortative  Divisiojst. 

The  Terms  of  lieconciliation. — 2  Cor.  v.  20. 

I.  The  nature  of  the  controversy  existing  between  God  and  man. 

II.  The  terms  on  which  it  may  be  settled. 

III.  Urge  on  the  unreconciled  the  immediate  acceptance  of  these  terms. — 
Albert  Barnes. 

§  XXXVI. — DisTiN^GuiSHiKG  Kinds  of  Uses. 

Use  of  Exhortation :  Consider  the  difference  between,  («)  A  finite  and  an 
infinite ;  (5)  A  seeming  and  a  real  good,  etc. — Bp.  Beveridge,  in  his  Thesaurus, 
text  Jer.  ii.  13. 

Use  of  caution :  {a)  Be  tvisehj  righteous ;  {h)  Be  truly  righteous ;  (c)  Be 
righteous  enough. — Chas.  Simeon,  text  Eccles.  vii.  16,  17. 

(«)  The  Gospel  may  be  heard  with  pleasure  but  without  profit :  (h)  It  may 
be  heard  with  profit  but  without  pleasure  ;  (c)  It  is  desirable  that  it  should  be 
heard  both  with  pleasure  and  profit. — Anon. 


378  PRACTICAL  INFERENCES  BY  INTERROGATION. 

^  XXXVII. — Application's  by  a  Repetitio^^^  of  the  Text. 
Great  Sinners  Encouraged  to  Metum  to  God. 

•  "  But  if  from  thence  thou  shalt  seek  the  Lord  thj'  God,  thou  shall  find  him,  if 
<hou  seek  him  with  all  thy  heart  and  with  all  thy  soul." — Deut.  iv.  29. 
.  .  .  Notice  a  few  cases  to  which  thi.s  language  applies  : 

1.  One  would  say:  I  have  gone  great  lengths  in  sin.  I  was  a  drunkard  and 
a  blasphemer.  God  has  now  brought  me  into  trouble — I  'cannot  live  long,  and 
3'et  I  fear  to  die.     £ut  if  from  thence  thou  shall  seek  the  Lord,  etc. 

2.  Another  saj'S  :  I  was  born  of  religious  parents.  I  was  long  weary  of  re- 
ligion, and  wished  to  be  free.  At  length  my  father  died,  and  I  gave  myself  up 
to  evil,  and  now  no  one  respects  me  and  no  one  cares  for  my  soul.  But  if  from 
thence,  etc. 

3.  Another  may  say :  My  conduct  has  been  correct  and  orderly,  but  I  have 
valued  myself  upon  it.  I  have  lived  a  Pharisee.  Now  I  feel  the  need  of  some- 
thing with  which  to  appear  before  God.     Well,  if  from  thence  thou  shalt  seek,  etc. 

4.  Another :  I  have  made  a  profession  of  religion,  and  thought  well  of  my 
state,  but  indulged  secret  sins,  and  afterwards  outward  transgressions  ;  and  now 
I  am  an  outcast.     Every  one  shuns  me.     But  if  from  thence,  etc. 

5.  Yet  another:  Though  I  have  not  lost  my  character,  yet  I  have  lost  my 
peace  of  mind.     I  am  a  back.slider.     But  if  from  thence,  etc. 

II.  The  grounds  on  which  this  encouragement  rests. — Andrew  Fuller. 

Lot's  Wife.—Lvike  xvii.  32. 
A.  Remember,  she  was  warned  ;  B.  Remember,  she  left  Sodom ;  C.  Remem- 
ber, she  loitered  ;  I).  Remember,  she  looked  back ;  E.  Remember,  she  became 
a  monument  of  divine  wrath. — Anon. 

John  Foster,  in  his  9tli  lecture,  ap])hes  by  repeating  the  text  at 
the  heyinn'uig  of  each  division.  Melvill  furnishes  some  happy  ex- 
amples of  such  repetitions  pf  the  text.  Cf  Dr.  Tyng's  ser.  under 
Division  by  Illustration. 

:  ^XXXYIII. — Division  by  Moods  axd  Tenses. 
Our  Change. — Job  xiv.  14. 
I.  It  mai/  be  a  sudden  change  ;     II.  It  will  be  a  great  change  ;     III.  It  shotdd 
he  a  joyful  change. — Anon. 

^  XXXIX. — Practical  Inferences  by  InterPvOGation 

either  Expressed  or  Implied. 

The  Treason  of  Judas. — Matt.  xxvi.  47-49. 

.  .  Did  Judas  sell  Christ  for  money  1     'V^at  a  potent  conqueror  is  the  love 

of  tliis  world.  .  .  Did  Judas,  one  of  the  twelve,  do  this?     Learn  hence  that  a 

dro])  of  grace  is  better  than  a  sea  of  gifts,  etc. — John  Flavcl. 

Tribulatio7i. — John  xvi.  33. 
I.  In  the  world  we  must  have  tribulation,  but  we  must  not  court  it.     II. 
In  the  world,  etc.,  but  we  must  not  avoid  it.     III.  In  the  world,  etc.,  and  we 
may  make  much  out  of  it.     IV.  In  the  world,  etc.,  but  we  shall  be  delivered 

from  it. — Anon. 


EXAMPLES  OF  CONTINUAL  APPLICATION.  379 

§XL.  — Uses  by  CoNFESSioisr. 

The  Servant'' s  Story. — Psa.  cxLx.  G5. 

I.  Though  he  knew  my  faults,  he  engaged  me. 

II.  Though  I  am  far  beneath  him,  yet  he  famiharly  teaches  me. 

III.  Though  one  of  his  meanest  servants,  he  feasts  me  at  his  own  table. 

IV.  While  my  master  is  all  this  to  me,  I  murmur  if  he  cross  me  in  anything. 
— Anon. 

§XLI. — Examples  of  Continual  Application". 

JIar/cs  of  Love  to  God. — John  v.  42. 

I.  I  suggest  a  variety  of  marks  which  indicate  love  to  God : 

1.  What  is  the  bent  of  your  thoughts  when  disengaged  from  any  partic- 
ular occurrence"?     These  show  the  general  temper  and  disposition. 

2.  Consider  seriously  how  you  stand  disposed  to  the  exercises  of  religion. 

3.  How  do  you  stand  affected  towards  the  word  of  God  1 

4.  Keflect  with  what  sentiments  you  regard  the  people  of  God. 

5.  Consider  the  disposition  j'ou  entertain  towards  the  person  and  office 
of  the  Son  of  God. 

6.  Examine  how  you  are  affected  by  his  benefits. 

7.  In  what  manner  are  you  impressed  with  the  sense  of  your  sins  % 

8.  Finally,  how  are  you  affected  to  the  present  world  % 

II.  Supposing  that  any  of  j'ou  have  now  reached  the  conviction  that  you 
have  not  the  love  of  God  in  you,  permit  me  to  point  out  the  proper  improvement 
of  such  a  conviction : 

1.-  It  should  be  accompanied  with  deep  humiliation  ; 

2.  And  let  your  humiliation  be  accompanied  with  concern  and  alarm. 

3.  This  is  an  awful  state  ;  but,  blessed  be  God,  it  is  not  a  hopeless  situa- 
tion.— Robert  Hall. 

The  Gospel  ITessage. — Mark  xvi.  15,  16. 

I.  What  knowledge  have  we  of  the  Gospel  1 

II.  What  effect  have  its  sanctions  produced  upon  us  1 

III.  AVhat  evidence  have  we  that  our  faith  is  saving  1 

Application:  1.  To  the  unbelieving ;  2.  To  those  who  are  weak  in  faith; 
3.  To  those  who  are  strong  in  faith. —  Charles  Simeon. 

The  Actions  and  Feelings  of  those  xoho  looidd  he  Saved. — Phil.  ii.  12. 

I.  Some  considerations  on  our  salvation. 

II.  The  acts  by  which  we  work  it  out. 

III.  The  fear  and  trembling  by  which  these  acts  are  accompanied. — John 
Claude. 

Examples  of  perpetual  aj)plication  m  sermons  on  biographical 
and  historical  subjects  may  be  found  everywhere  in  Robinson's 
■'Scripture  Characters,"  and  see  particularly  Dr.  Schaff's  sermon 
on  Gen.  xxxii.  24-31,  in  Dr.  Fish's  "  Masterpieces  of  Pulpit  Elo- 
quence in  the  Nineteenth  Century.' 


BOOK  III. 

STYLE. 


Many  and  stout  are  the  prejudices  which  hinder  the  cultivation 
of  Style,  especially  the  style  proper  for  the  pulpit.  This  is  partly 
the  result  of  that  ignorance  which  refuses  instruction,  and  partly 
of  those  misapprehensions  which  have  been  occasioned  by  inune- 
thodical  and  superficial  teaching.  To  place  style  before  invention 
is  to  put  the  soul  in  subjection  to  the  senses ;  and  to  talk  of  words 
as  ''  the  dress  "  of  ideas,  and  figures  as  "  the  ornaments  "  of  style, 
is  virtually  to  calumniate  rhetoric  and  to  enfeeble  and  corrupt  the 
minds  of  proficients.  The  apostle  Paul's  disavowal  of  the  use  of 
the  false  rhetoric  of  the  sophists  of  his  day  has  been  interpreted 
to  the  disparagement  of  true  eloquence ;  so  that  if  such  interpre- 
tation is  to  be  accei')ted,  it  was  not  a  curse  but  a  blessing  when  Je- 
hovah took  away  from  Judah  "  the  eloquent  orator,"  and  the  elo- 
quence of  Apollos  deserved  no  mention  among  the  things  that 
made  him  very  serviceable  to  believers  and  mighty  in  convincing 
the  Jews  that  Jesus  was  Christ.  Nay,  if  this  is  so,  then  the  apos- 
tle himself  sinned  against  his  own  declared  duty  when  he  tempted 
the  Lystrians  to  propose  to  sacrifice  to  him  as  tlie  god  of  eloquence. 

We  begin  with  the  study  of  Figures,  Avhich  are  in  some  sense 
the  alphabet  of  style.  The  contempt  in  which  this  study  was  once 
held  by  pedagogues,  essayists,  and  reviewers,  like  the  serpent's  tail, 
was  not  expected  to  die  until  the  sun  of  rhetoric  went  do^vn.  But 
another  morning  is  dawning,  and  therefore  it  cannot  now  \)v  said 
of  figures  that  "they  may  be  so  observed,  in  an  hour  or  two,  as  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  them  sufficient  for  a  lifetime.'' 

380 


OF  FIGURES  IN  GENERAL.  381 


CHAPTER   I. 
OF  FIGURES  U  GEXERAL. 

The  term  Figure,  called  by  the  Greeks  schema,  and  the  Romans 
Jif/ura,  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  stage. 
The  word  schema  and  its  derivatives  were  employed  by  Greek 
writers  to  designate  the  gestures  and  attitudes  of  the  actors  and 
the  characters  assumed  by  them.i  It  is  not  uncommon  in  our  own 
language  to  say  of  a  person's  dress  or  actions,  "  He  makes  an  awk- 
ward figure  ;  "  "  he  makes  a  handsome  figure ;  "  "  his  conduct  is  out 
of  character."^  It  was  therefore  natural  and  suggestive  to  call  any 
striking  form  of  speech  or  turn  of  thought  a  figure.  Now  this 
idea  may  assist  us  in  making  such  a  definition  of  the  term  figure  as 
will  include  the  notion  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans  expressed 
by  the  term.  In  spite  of  their  own  definitions,  their  practice  shows 
that  they  understood  by  it  any  noticeable  form  or  turn  of  language 
without  regard  to  the  question  whether  the  word  or  words  were 
changed  from  their  proper,  natural,  or  principal  sense.  They  re- 
garded the  striking  peculiarities  of  diction  as  characters  into  which 
words  of  whatever  signification  had  been  transformed.  Where- 
fore they  are  termed  by  Cicero^  "  attitudes  of  style." 

The  Greek  and  Roman  rhetors  made  a  distinction  between  the 
trope  and  the  figure.  Modern  writers  on  the  subject  have  re- 
spected this  distinction,  and  yet  have  often  employed  the  latter  term 
in  so  wide  a  sense  as  to  embrace  the  idea  of  trope.  A  trope  is, 
according  to  Quintilian,*  the  change  of  a  word  or  phrase  from  its 
proper,  natural,  or  principal  meaning  into  another,  in  order  to  in- 
crease its  force  or  to  adorn  style.  This  definition  is  faulty  m  sev- 
eral particulars.     It  ignores  the  fact  that  the  most  natural  significa- 


1  Aristoph.  Vesp.,  1525;    Pac,  324,  325;    Plato,  Protag.,  p.  342;    Eustath. 
Com.  ad  Horn.  II.,  B.  ii.,  p.  185;  Demetrius,  de  Eloc,  p.  293. 

2  Dr.  John  Ward's  System  of  Rhetoric,  vol.  ii.,  p.  33.     Loud.,  1759. 

3  Orator,  c.  xxv. 

•1  Inst.,  Orat.,  L.  viii.,  c.  vi.,  sec.  1,  and  Lib.  ix.,  c.  i.,  sec.  4. 


382  OF  FIGURES  IN  GENERAL. 

tion  of  a  -word  or  phrase  may  be  tropical,  and  the  word  that  is 
supposed  to  be  turned  from  its  primitive  sense  is  perhaps  in  reality- 
turned  from  a  derivative  one.  The  literal  or  original  import  of  a 
word  is  not  always  its  proper  and  principal  import.  Nor  is  it  phil- 
osophical to  say  that  one  word  can  be  changed  from  its  own  signifi- 
cation to  that  of  another  ;  for  many  words  have  several  well  known 
senses.  A  word  may  indeed  take  the  j^lace  of  another,  but  it 
stands  there  for  itself  and  in  one  of  its  own  significations.  The 
moderns  confine  tropes  to  single  words,  while  they  consider 
figures  as  belonging  either  to  words  or  phrases  or  sentences. 
We  agree  with  those  who  take  exception  to  the  correctness  and 
utility  of  the  distinction  between  the  trope  and  the  figure. 

The  most  philosophical  and  serviceable  classification  of  figures 
is  that  which  is  made  by  Dr.  Alexander  Carson  : 

a.  Figures  founded  on  resemblance,  as  metaj)hor,  comparison,  and 
allegory. 

b.  Figures  founded  on  relation,  as  metonomy,  metalepsis,  synec- 
doche, antonomasia,  onomatopajia,  periphrasis,  emphasis,  or  insinua- 
tion, equivocation. 

c.  Figures  in  which  there  is  an  apparent  inconsistency  between 
their  literal  and  their  figurative  meaning.  To  this  class  belong 
irony,  sarcasm,  epitrope,  oxymoron,  "Hibemicon,  or  the  Irish 
trope,"  apophasis,  sj-noeceiosis,  allusion,  paradox,  litotes,  "  callida 
junctura,"  hyperbole,  interrogation,  "  designation  by  opposite  ex- 
tremes." 

(I  The  elliptical  figures.  To  this  class  belong  ellipsis,  aposiope- 
sis,  interruption,'  asyndeton. 

e.  The  pleonastic  figures.  To  this  belong  pleonasm,  polysynde- 
ton, repetition,  parenthesis,  epanorthon. 

./.'  Figures  of  arrangement,  as  hyperbaton,  antithesis,  and  climax. 

g.  Personification,  apostrophe,  exclamation,  interjection. 

h.  Grammatical  figures.  Change  of  cases,  of  tenses,  of  persons^ 
of  names,  of  numbers. 

i.  Figures  of  a  complex  nature,  as  dJitachresis,  euphemism, 
vision. 

Some  have  classified  the  figures  according  to  the  various  excel- 
lences of  style  which  they  serve  to  produce.  Part  of  the  follgw- 
ing  classification  is  borrowed  from  Segneri : 

1.  Grandeur  of  style  is  expressed  by  periphrasis,  circumlocutio, 
epiphonema,  emphasis,  and  gnome. 

2.  Vehemence  demands  interrogation,  dubitatio,  admiratio,  cx- 
clamatio,  apostrophe,  synonymiti,  OBtiologia,  enumoratio,  pleonasm, 
and  hyperbole. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  AND  NECESSITY  OF  USING  FIGURES.      383 

3.  Beauty  and  grace  require  clescriptio,  gradatio,  simile,  antithe- 
ses, synceceiosis,  divisio,  distributio,  and  suspensio. 

4.  The  middle  or  familiar  style  employs  extenuatio,  definitio,  di- 
alogismus,  epexegesis,  gnome,  parable,  permissio,  confession,  obtes- 
tatio,  communicatio,  concessio. 

5.  Severity  demands  irony,  reticence,  prceteritio,  rejectio,  licen- 
tia,  preoccupatio,  prosopopieia,  dialogisraus,  correctio,  climax,  para- 
dox, and  imprecatio. 

6.  Force  or  energy  calls  for  similes,  metaphors,  parables,  the  di- 
alogism,  asterismus,  personification,  apostrophe,  metonymy,  hypoty- 
posis,  hyperbole,  interrogation,  repetition,  climax,  asyndeton,  po- 
lysyndeton, and  synechdoche.  It  sometimes  increases  energy  to 
employ  pronomis  in  the  first  and  second  persons,  to  change  the  fu- 
ture tense  into  the  present,  and  to  adopt  the  Hebrew  form  of  epi- 
thet, as  "  trees  of  God,"  "  hearts  of  stone." 

SECTioif  I.— Of  the  Importance  and  Necessity  of  Usikg 

Figures. 

Of  late  years  it  has  come  to  be  no  uncommon  thing  for  teachers 
of  rhetoric  either  to  condemn  or  to  ignore  the  use  of  figurative 
language.  The  most  distinguished  writers  on  this  science  devote 
but  little  space  to  the  discussion  of  figures,  define  only  a  few  of 
them,  and,  what  is  more  censurable,  do  not  so  much  as  intimate 
that  there  are  any  more  tropes  and  figures  than  they  have  defined 
and  illustrated.  But  the  disparagement  of  figurative  language  is  a 
fault  not  peculiar  to  our  times.  Plutarch  says  that  the  most  of 
those  who  are  delighted  with  figures  are  the  childish  and  the  sen- 
sual. Such  early  writers  as  Aristotle^  have  favoured  the  neglect 
of  figures  by  confining  their  cliief  attention  to  the  simile  and  the 
metaphor,  while  such  later  rhetoricians  as  Hermogenes  have  con- 
fused and  wearied  their  pupils  with  over-nice  distinctions.  Many 
authors  have  made  the  whole  subject  still  more  distasteful  by  uni- 
formly quoting  their  examples  of  figures  from  the  poets,  thus 
conveying  the  impression  that  these  forms  of  style  are  only  suitable 
to  poets.  We  need  not  wonder,  therefore,  that  able  writers  on  rhet- 
oric still  quote  with  admiration  the  epigram  Ansonius  wrote  under 
the  portrait  of  the  rhetorician,  Rufus : 

"  Ipse  rhetor,  est  imago  imaginis." 

No  wonder  that  modern  grammarians  still  love  to  quote  Butler's 
docffferels : 


1  See  not  only  his  Rhetoric,  but  his  "  Topics  "  also. 


384     THE  IMPORTANCE  AND  NECESSITY  OF  USING   FIGURES. 

"  For  ali  a  rhetorician's  rules 
Teach  nothing  but  to  name  his  tools." 

But  a  rhetorician's  rules  teach  a  man  also  what  to  do  with  his  mate- 
terials  and  Jioio  to  rise  his  tools.  Then,  just  as  if  it  were  of  no  use 
for  a  mechanic  to  have  a  name  for  his  tools,  and  so  keep  them  in 
their  place  and  be  able  to  call  for  them  when  wanted.  But  mere 
grammarians  ever  did  Quixotically  assail  the  language  of  imagina- 
tion and  passion.  If  it  would  but  submit  to  rules  and  sutler  itself 
to  be  parsed,  it  might  be  allowed  to  ride  prosperously  past  them, 
and  even  to  live  in  good  estate  imder  the  protection  of  their 
chivaliy. 

Archbishop  Whately  and  his  disciples  have,  both  by  precept  and 
example,  opened  the  mine  of  figures  only  to  close  it  and  conceal  it 
forever  after.  Mr.  Henry  Rogers,  their  reviewer,  says  truly  of 
their  style,  that  "  of  all  its  characteristics  the  most  striking  and  the 
most  general  is  the  moderate  use  of  the  imagination."  He  might 
have  added  that  they  were  compelled  to  use  in  moderation  a  fac- 
ulty Avhich  in  the  most  of  them  appears  to  have  been  feeble.  We 
must  of  course  except  here  such  men  as  Dr.  Pusey,  Henry  Mclvill, 
and  others  equally  worthy  of  mention.  The  brothers  Hare  are 
also  exceptions  to  this  remark ;  and  when  Augustus  William 
composed  his  "  Sermons  to  a  Country  Congregation,''  he  studiously 
employed  figures.  Having  resolved  so  to  express  himself  that  all 
should  Understand  him,  he  used  many  familiar  similes,  and  no 
doubt  considered  that  he  who  does  not  abundantly  use  figurative 
language  in  preaching  to  plain  country  people  runs  the  hazard  of 
not  only  not  being  understood,  but  not  even  heard  by  them  with 
attention  and  patience. 

Learned  men  not  a  few  have  been  taught  that  figures  are  not 
the  natural,  clear,  and  ordinary  utterances  of  the  human  mind. 
But  a  little  observation  and  refiection  would  have  disabused  them. 
"  Nothing,"  says  M.  De  Bretville,i  "  is  so  easy  and  so  natural  as  a 
figure.  It  has  often  given  me  pleasure  to  listen  to  peasants  using 
in  their  talk  figures  so  varied,  so  animated,  and  so  free  from  vul- 
garity that  our  artificial  rhetoricians  were  quite  outdone;  and 
when  I  have  heard  this  rhetoric  of  Nature,  I  have  been  ashamed  of 
myself  for  having  made  eloquence  a  study  so  long  and  to  so  little 
purpose."  To  which  Du  Marsais-  adds:  "I  am  convinced  that 
more  figures  are  made  in  a  single  day  at  the  market  tlian  in  many 
days'  sessions  of  the  Academy."     The  language  of  barbarous  na- 

1  Elocj.  de  la  Chaire  et  du  Barreau,  L.  iii.,  c.  i. 

2  (Euvres,  tome  iii.,  p.  16,  Paris,  1707;  An.  V. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  AND  NECESSITY  OF  USING  FIGURES.     385 

tions  abounds  in  figures.  Thus,  as  Mr.  Henry  Rogers  and  others 
have  observed,  the  old  Scandmavian  laws  forbid  trespass  on  the 
unfenced  field,  "  inasmuch  as  it  hath  heaven  for  its  roof,"  and  is 
"under  God's  lock."  Sir  Philip  Sidney  found  'the  whisperings 
and  disputations  of  the  common  people  of  his  day  to  taste  of  a  po- 
etic vein.' 

The  utility  of  figures  has  been  often  and  clearly  set  forth,  but  no 
writer  has  done  justice  to  the  subject,  for  the  reason  that  none 
has  taken  views  of  it  that  are  sufficiently  broad.  As  figurative 
language  is  in  some  sense  language  itself,  figures  being  its  chief  dis- 
tinguishing features,  and  openly  or  secretly  pervading  almost  all 
words  and  phrases,  he  who  would  enumerate  the  various  uses  and 
benefits  of  figures  ought  first  to  consider  whether  he  can  adequate- 
ly show  the  many  purposes,  necessities,  advantages,  blessings,  and 
excellences  of  that  human  speech  which  hides  so  many  sunken  ar- 
gosies ;  for  concrete  words  are  continually  descending  into  abstrac- 
tions. The  metaphor  by  passing  into  common  speech  degenerates 
into  a  literal  term ;  and  the  symbolic  phrase  comes  at  length  to  be 
debased  into  a  trite  and  unimaginative  idiom.  The  silver  coin,  by 
daily  circulation  and  occasional  clippings,  loses  at  last  the  image 
and  superscription  of  Caesar.  The  angular  fragment  wliich  some 
mad  storm- wave  smites  out  of  the  ocean  wall  rolls  down  among 
the  shingle,  and  there,  in  all  weathers,  runs  regularly  uj)  and  down 
the  beach,  along  with  its  more  polished  acquaintance,  until  it  be- 
comes as  round  and  smooth  as  they.  To  the  common  observer  its 
parentage  is  now  a  mystery ;  but  the  curious  summer  stroller  finds 
in  its  complexion  and  veins  the  immistakable  evidences  of  its 
origin. 

Some  have  contracted  a  prejudice  against  figures  by  confoundmg 
them  with  "  flowers  "  and  "  ornaments  "  of  speech,^  which  have  no 
proper  place  in  real  eloquence  and  none  in  any  true  rhetoric  except 
that  part  of  it  devoted  to  their  reprobation.  There  is  no  necessary 
connection  between  a  figurative  style  and  one  that  is  florid  or  mer- 
etriciously ornate.  Others  again  shun  figures  from  a  just  abhor- 
rence of  the  mock  sublime.  Longinus-  makes  a  difference  between 
hi/psela,  words  truly  sublime,  and  meteora,  or  words  which  have 
only  the  empty  appearance  of  elevation.  Once  these  terms  were 
synonymous ;  but  the  sopliists  and  other  declaimers,  having  become 
addicted  to  making  allusions  to  the  clouds  and  stars,  were  re- 
proached with  the  name  of  meteorologoi,  which,  as  Hesychius  says, 

1  Quintilian  has  used  the  same  deprecatory  terms,  anji  so  have  Keckerman 
and  Whately.  2  De  Subhm.,  sec.  iii.,  ^2. 


386      THE  IMPORTANCE  AND  NECESSITY  OF  USING  FIGURES. 

denotes  those  "vrho  are  always  talking  about  the  meteors  of  the  sky. 
And  accordingly,  from  a  too  frequent  allusion  to  Phoebus,  a  man 
who  makes  extravagant  flights  in  declamation  is  said  in  French, 
"  parler  Phoebus. '"^  This  prejudice  may  be  traced  to  imperfect  no- 
tions of  figurative  diction ;  for  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  prove 
that  they  Avho,  from  poverty  of  passion  or  imagination  are  least 
capable  of  producing  figures,  are  most  liable  to  be  puffed  up  with 
mock  sublimity,  grandiloquence,  and  bombast. 

To  avoid  this  false  sublime,  writers  and  speakers  of  taste,  as 
Dugald  Stewart  has  well  remarked,  find  it  in  most  cases  expedient, 
when  they  wish  to  produce  the  emotion  of  sublimity,  to  touch  on 
some  of  its  less  familiar  adjuncts,  or  some  of  the  associated  ideas 
which  follow  in  their  train,  rather  than  to  dwell  on  the  idea  of  lit- 
eral sublimity  or  any  of  its  worn-out  and  traditional  imagery.  An- 
other way  to  shun  the  appearance  of  the  false  sublime  is  to  express 
the  lofty  idea  or  emotion  with  dignified  yet  guarded  and  reserved 
language.  Robert  HalP  abounded  in  this  excellence  of  style.  One 
other  method  is  to  write  and  speak  on  such  subjects  Avith  that  sim- 
jilicity  and  familiarity  of  diction  which  is  seemingly  employed  be- 
cause the  author  is  ignorant  of  the  up-in-the-air  style.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  think  that  sublime  ideas  cannot  be  expressed  in  common 
and'  matter-of-fact  language.  Thus  by  way  of  illustration  read  the 
following  extract  from  the  poet  Gray's  journal :  '"  On  the  cliffs 
above  hung  a  few  goats ;  one  of  them  danced  and  scratched  an  ear 
with  its  hind  foot,  in  a  place  where  I  would  not  have  stood  stock 
still  for  all  beneath  the  moon." 

But  Ave  were  considering  objections  against  figurative  language. 
Tiie  most  plausible  of  those  that  have  ever  been  levelled  against 
the  legitimate  use  of  figures  are  best  refuted  by  an  appeal  to  the 
style  of  holy  Scripture.  To  object  to  the  employment  of  figures 
in  speaking  and  Avriting,  particularly  on  religious  subjects,  is  to  cen- 
sure the  very  oracles  of  God  and  to  criticise  the  communications 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  contain  tropes  and  figures  far  more  nu- 
merous and  various  than  are  to  be  found  in  any  other  production 
of  equal  size.  And  we  boldly  add  that  by  defining  and  illustrating 
the  tropes  and  figures  which  are  employed  in  the  oratorical  parts 
of  holy  Scripture,  and  by  showing  that  the  most  useful  preachers 
have  either  wittingly  or  unwittingly  imitated  them,  we  hope  that 
we  have  done  something  to  restore  figurative  language  to  its  proper 
..^ . ■ 

1  Samuel  Werenfelsius,  Disserta.  de  Meteoris  Orationis,  ^1 ;  Segneri,  .\ite  di 
Parlar,  Trat.  iv.,  cap.  xi.,  in  Opere,  vol.  iv.,  p.  1018. 

2  Philosophical  Essays,  Pt.  ii.,  Essay  ii.,  chap.  v. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  AND  NECESSITY  OF  USING  FIGURES.      387 

dignity,  and  to  settle,  among  preachers  at  least,  the  question  of  the 
duty  and  importance  of  intelligently  and  deliberately  using  it. 

We  have  said  among  preachers  at  least :  for  how  well  soever  an 
abstract  and  unimaginative  style  may  become  the  lawyer,  the  judge, 
the  statesman,  or  the  man  of  science,  let  it  ever  be  remembered 
and  deeply  considered  that  the  preacher  has  to  deal  with  matters 
of  divine  revelation,  and,  consequently,  with  themes  that,  froni  the 
intense  secularity  and  atheism  of  the  diction  of  the  cultivated  and 
refined,  cannot  be  touched,  much  less  handled,  without  the  assist- 
ance of  figures.  Not  more  essential  is  the  atmosphere  as  a  mfidium 
of  solar  light  than  figurative  diction  as  a  medium  of  divine  com- 
munications. God's  mifathomable  thoughts  and  feelings  towards 
us  can  by  no  ©ther  language  be  conveyed;  and  even  this,  w^hen  em- 
ployed by  its  best  masters,  strives  in  vain  to  embrace  and  carry 
their  golden  gleanings.  Revealed  religion  is  fraught  with  subjects 
too  vast  for  any  human  vehicles  however  seemingly  extravagant. 
The  broadest  hyperbole  refuses  to  encompass  their  immensity,  and 
the  highest  climax  does  not  begin  to  scale  their  secret  summits. 

There  is,  however,  one  kind  of  sermons  in  which  figures  should 
be  employed  but  seldom,  and  then  very  guardedly ;  that  is,  in  ar- 
gumentative and  controversial  sermons;  for  few  tough  debaters 
understand  their  use  and  feel  their  force.  If  your  adversary  be 
malicious  he  will  find  it  no  difiicult  thing  to  make  them  appear  far- 
fetched or  irrelevant  or  in  bad  taste,  and  so  raise  a  horse-laugh  at 
your  expense.  If,  therefore,  you  are  tempted  in  such  addresses  to 
employ  any  figure,  state  plainly  what  you  do  not  mean  by  it,  and 
for  what  purpose  you  do  noi  employ  it.  A  sophist  hates  such  a 
limitation,  very  much  as  Satan  is  said  to  hate  ink,  because  it  reveals 
his  devices. 

The  above  caution  is  founded  on  the  deplorable  fact  that  very 
many  intelligent  minds  have  somehow  learned  to  associate  figures 
with  the  ideas  of  exaggeration  and  sophistry,  or  else  an  unscrupo- 
lous  disregard  of  plain  and  exact  truth.  But  the  history  of  heresies 
proves  that  our  greatest  danger  is  in  the  attempt  to  translate  fig- 
ures into  the  language  of  metaphysics.  Poets,  on  the  other  hand, 
who  abound  in  figures,  have  been  found  nearer  the  truth  of  religion 
and  even  of  philosophy  than  contemporary  men  of  science,  who 
trusted  in  their  technical  terms  and  cold  abstractions.  For  figures 
are  not  the  utterances  of  blind  impulse  ;  they  are  rather,  in  many 
cases,  the  result  of  the  mind's  endeavours  to  illustrate  the  truth,  and 
to  prove  from  an  appeal  to  the  visible  world  that  its  existence  is 
both  possible  and  probable.  '  Every  metaphor,' according  to  Cicerog 

1  De  Oratore,  L.  in- 


888  •     OF  THE  SIMILE. 

'expresses  the  things  spoken  of  to  the  senses,  especially  to  the 
eyes ; '  and  Seneca^  says  that  '  by  reason  of  human  infirmity  the 
teacher  may  by  the  help  of  figures  bring  into  the  very  presence 
of  his  hearers  those  ideas  which  they  could  not  otherwise  under- 
stand.' Herewith  accords  Horace's  celebrated  couplet,  ending, 
Qiur'  sunt  oculls  siihjecta  fidelibus.  Yes,  those  who  honestly  speak 
out  th'eir  images  of  the  true  and  the  good  will,  excepting  some  dissent- 
ing voices,  call  forth  a  general  responsive  amen  from  earth  and  time, 
man  and  life;  while  those  who  condemn  figures  and  practically 
reason  on  the  supposition  that  there  can  be  nothing  in  heaven  and 
earth  but  what  is  dreamt  of  in  their  philosophy,  will  ultimately  be 
found  to  have  opposed  not  only  the  facts  of  the  material  world,  but 
also  the  archetypes  of  those  facts  as  they  existed  in  the  divine 
mind  from  all  eternity. 

Generally,  those  who  oftenest  employ  figures  think  they  will  best 
conceal  their  art  by  calling  them  "  tricks  of  rhetoric,"  as  if  all 
rhetoric  were  false  ;  whereas,  there  is  more  popular  rhetoric  in  the 
Bible  than  in  all  the  existing  speeches  of  all  the  classic  orators. 

Sectiois'^  II. — Of  the  Simile. 


This  is  a  figure  by  which  tAVO  things  are  brought  together  m 
thought,  and  sometimes  in  fact  also,  while  one  or  more  of  the  attri- 
butes of  each  is  formally  likened  or  contrasted.  Aristotle  repeat- 
edly teaches  that  the  simile  is  a  metaphor,  with  the  mere  difference 
of  the  addition  of  a  particle  denoting  similitude.^  Whately,  who 
everywhere  acknowledges  Aristotle  as  his  favourite  master,  defines 
and  distinguishes  the  two  figures  as  follows :  "  The  metai)hor  is  a 
word  substituted  for  another  on  account  of  the  resemblance  or  an- 
alogy between  their  significations.  The  simile  or  comparison  may 
be  considered  as  differing  in  form  only  from  metaphor,  the  resem- 
blance being  in  that  case  stated,  which  in  the  metaphor  is  implied." 
But  neither  master  nor  disciple,  in  their  directions  as  to  the  use  of 
these  figures,  makes  the  difference  to  consist  in  form  only  ;  for  the 
former  says  that  the  simile  may  be  used  in  prose,  though  but  sel- 
dom, for  it  is  poetical  {poetikon).  Aristotle  docs  not  here  mean 
that  the  simile  is  merehj  poetical,  but  he  evidently  intends  that  it  is 
associated  with  poetry  more  than  with  prose.  The  similes  of  Ho- 
mer were  in  this  philosopher's  day  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  all; 
imleed,  he  has  himself  just  before    quoted    one   from  this  poet. 

1  Epist.  lix.  2  Rhet.,  13.  iii.,  chaps,  iv.,  x.  and  xi. 


OF  THE  SIMILE.  389 

Among  the  Orientals  this  figure  occurs  more  frequently  in  lyrics 
than  in  other  kinds  of  composition.  It  is  often  found  in  the 
Psalms,  but  is  by  no  means  absent  from  the  sermons  of  the  proph- 
ets and  of  our  Lord. 

But  Whately  is  wrong  when  he  says  that  Aristotle  teaches  that 
"  the  metaphor  is  the  only  ornament  of  language  in  which  the  ora- 
tor may  freely  indulge."  As  several  writers  on  rhetoric  have  un- 
happily copied  this  mistake  of  Whately,  it  is  deserving  of  further 
notice  in  this  place.  Not  to  mention  that  Aristotle  very  seldom 
speaks  of  a  figure  as  "  an  ornament  of  language,"  it  should  be  ob- 
served, in  the  first  place,  that  he  is  so  far  from  inculcating  the  no- 
tion that  the  orator  may  freely  indulge  in  the  metaphor  alone,  that 
in  the  preceding  chapter  on  Frigidity  of  Style  he  says  that  this  bad 
quality  may  be  produced  by  such  metaphors  as  the  comic  and  tragic 
poets  employ.  Mark,  secondly,  that  Aristotle  is  probably  aiming 
to  warn  the  young  orator  against  the  imitation  of  Homer's  similes, 
for  he  tells  him  that  they  are  to  be  introduced  in  the  same  manner 
as  metaphors,  i.  e.,  as  we  understand  him,  the  subject,  or  antapodo- 
sis,  or  redditio  contraria,  is  to  precede  the  similitude,  or  2^}'otasis ; 
e.  g.,  The  army  like  a  sioarm-of  bees,  instead  of,  As  a  swann  of 
bees  £0  the  army,  etc.  This  accounts  for  his  remark  that  the  simile 
is  less  pleasing  in  oratory  because  it  is  longer  than  the  metaphor.i 
And  yet  Cicero^  dared  to  oratorise  similes  in  this  poetic  way. 
Thirdly,  Aristotle  himself  gives  us  approved  examples  of  the  sim- 
ile from  the  2)7-ose  of  Androtion,  Theodamas,  Plato,  Pericles,  De- 
mosthenes, Democrates,  and  Antisthenes — examples,  as  he  goes  on 
to  say,  which  the  orator  may  employ  at  his  option  either  in  the  form 
of  metaphors  or  of  similes.  Elsewhere  he  recommends  the  orator 
to  diversify  the  matter  of  demonstrative  speeches  by  comparing 
the  character  eulogised  with  some  other  in  high  estimation. 

Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  this  figure  occurs  oftenest  in  those 
kinds  of  poetry  which  most  nearly  resemble  oratory — namely,  the 
passionate.  The  Psalms  were  for  the  most  part  written  by  the 
Hebrew  prophets,  and  some  of  them  were  originally  the  beginnings 
or  endings  of  their  sermons.  And  accordingly  Mr.  Gladstone  has 
well  observed  that  in  frequency,  length,  and  picturesqueness  of  sini- 
iles,  the  peaceful  Odyssey  is  far  behind  the  stormy  lUad.  Instead 
of  one .  hundred  and  ninety-four  it  has  only  forty-one,  and  these, 
with  few  exceptions,  are,  as  Mr.  Coleridge  thinks,  imitated  from  the 
earlier  poem.  Cicero^  compares  the  use  of  figures  to  the  exercises 
of  the  Palaestra.    .    .    As  those  who  study  fencing  and  polite  exer- 

1  Rhet.,  L.  iii.,  c.  x.        2  Pro.  Murae,  c.  xiii.  and  xvii.  De  Orat.,  L.  iii.,  c.  lii. 


390  OF  THE  SIMILE. 

cises  not  only  think  it  necessary  to  acquire  skill  in  parryino;  and 
striking,  but  also  grace  and  elegance  of  motion,  so  the  orator  must 
use  such  words  as  not  only  contribute  to  elegance,  but  also  to  im- 
pressiveness.  To  the  same  purpose  Quintiliani  says :  "  Figures 
penetrate  imperceptibly  into  the  mind  of  the  judge.  Indeed,  as  in 
a  passage  of  arms,  it  is  easy  to  see,  parry,  and  -ward  oif  direct  and 
undisguised  strokes,  while  side-blows  and  feints  are  less  observable; 
and  as  it  is  a  proof  of  art  to  aim  at  one  part  when  you  intend  to 
hit  another,  so  that  kind  of  oratory  which  is  free  from  artifice  can 
fight  only  with  its  own  mere  weight  and  force ;  but  that  kind  which 
disguises  and  varies  its  attacks  can  assail  the  flank  or  rear  of  an 
enemy,  can  turn  aside  his  weapons  and  deceive  him,  as  it  were,  with 
a  nod."  These  words  of  Quintilian's  should  be  received  with  due 
allowance  for  the  common  ethnic  notions  of  honesty  and  fairness. 
Father  Lamy,2  the  best  of  all  the  French  writers  on  rhetoric,  has 
in  a  more  Christian  tone  compared  the  orator  to  a  soldier,  and  the 
figures  of  the  former  to  the  weapons  of  the  latter. 

This  digression  shows  that  the  secular  orator  ought  not  be  de- 
nied the  simile.  But  the  preacher,  who  is  at  once  peaceable  and 
peace-making,  will  not  hence  infer  that  he  may  not  use  figurative 
language  in  general,  and  the  simile  in  particular.  There  are  other 
passions  than  those  which  animated  the  breasts  of  Homer  s  martial 
heroes.  Besides,  the  examples  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  James, 
and,  above  all,  the  Great  Teacher  himself,  are  a  sufficient  warrant 
for  the  frequent  employment  of  the  simile.  The  parable  itself  is 
an  extended  and  modified  simile. 

This  figure  is  often  employed  with  happy  effect  by  Chrysostom, 
Gregory  Nazianzen,and  Augustine.  But  of  all  ancient  and  modern 
preachers,  Jeremiah  Seed  has,  perhaps,  managed  it  with  the  most 
admirable  skill.  Twenty  similes  of  his  might  be  quoted  to  show 
that  it  is  not  the  inspired  speakers  alone  that  have  becomingly  em- 
ployed this  figure. 

As  to  the  mmiber  of  similes  that  maybe  permitted  in  one  sermon, 
there  is  no  better  general  rule  than  that  which  the  Scottish  worthy, 
John  Livingstone,  laid  down  for  his  own  guidance:  "Neither  too 
many  similitudes  nor  none  at  all."  And  yet  the  study  of  inspired 
examples  of  the  simile  is  of  more  value  than  many  rhetorical  rules, 
c.  //.,  Isa.  xi.  19;  xxxi.  4,  5;  xxxviii.  \'l-\\\  lix.  7-11;  Ixiv.  G;  IIos. 
V.  10-14 :  xiii.  3,7,8;  xiv.  58.    What  Ewald^  says  of  Isaiah  is  hardly 

1  Inst.  Orat.,  L.  ix.,  c.  i.,  s.  20;  cf.  L.  i.,  c.  ix. 

2  La  Rhetorique,  on  L'Art  de  Parler,  Paris,  1757,  pp.  111.  171-17  >. 
8  rroi)lictpu  Alt.  Bum].,  vol.  i.,  p.  1G7. 


OF  THE  PARABLE.  89) 

less  applicable  to  the  minor  prophets  :  "  It  is  seldom  that  the  simile 
appears  apart  and  complete  in  itself;  generally  it  crowds  into  the 
delineation  of  the  subject  it  is  meant  to  illustrate,  and  is  swallowed 
up  in  it — yes,  and  frequently  simile  after  simile ;  and  yet  the  many 
threads  of  the  discourse  which  for  a  moment  appeared  ravelled  to- 
gether soon  disentangle  themselves  into  perfect  clearness."' 

We  will  only  observe  that  when  this  figure  is  derived  from  holy 
Scripture  it  is  often  stigmatised  as  either  quaint  or  irreverent,  but 
it  is  not  necessary  that  it  should  be  either  the  one  or  the  other. 
When  it  thus  originates,  other  considerations  being  equal,  it  has  to 
the  taste  of  all  who  are  familiar  with  the  oracles  of  God,  a  i^eculiar 
sweetness.  Read  for  Example  those  of  Thomas  Watson,  In  one 
place  he  compares  the  believer  clad  in  the- robe  of  Christ's  right- 
eousness to  JosejDh  after  his  prison  garments  were  taken  off  and 
he  was  arrayed  in  fine  linen.  Wm.  Archer  Butler,  if  we  recollect 
rightly,  com|;ares  the  Dissenters  to  the  "other  little  ships"  that 
sailed  on  the  lake  of  Galilee  along  with  that  in  which  Jesus  was. 
This  was  indeed  highly  favoured ;  but  when  the  great  tempest  arose 
they  also  shared  the  benefit  of  that  miraculous  power  which  re- 
buked the  wind  and  the  sea. 


SECTioisr  III. — Of  the  Parable. 

Anaximenes,  in  his  Rhetoric.^  gives  a  definition  of  the  "  prob- 
able "  which  is,  we  think,  both  more  profound  and  more  available 
than  that  of  Aristotle,  his  contemporary :  "  That  is  probable  which 
when  mentioned  immediately  suggests  similar  or  analagous  cases 
to  the  minds  of  the  hearers."  And  Professor  Mansel-  and  Dr.  Bu- 
chanan^ have  lately  shown  that  some  process  of  comparison  is  the 
mainspring  of  almost  every  kind  of  reasoning.  The  progress  of 
scientific  inquiry  is  thus  affording  fresh  justifications  of  the  wisdom 
of  the  Great  Teacher  in  adopting  a  parabolic  kind  of  discourse. 

We  are  about  to  examine  the  laws  in  obedience  to  which  the 
parables  of  our  Lord  were  sj)oken.  By  studying  these  utterances 
rhetorically,  we  discover  certain  principles  that  enable  us  to  com- 
pose usefitl  parables  for  ourselves,  and  to  judge  intelligently  and 
fairly  of  the  utility  of  other  men's  comparis'ons.  In  doing  this  we 
ought  not  to  content  ourselves  with  singling  out  two  or  three  of 
the  longer  and  more  popular  parables,  and,  having  subjected  these 
to  a  critical  analysis,  to  be  satisfied  with  a  few  general  deductions 


1  Rhet.  ad  Alex.,  c  vii.        2  Metaphysics,  p.  229,        3  Analogy,  pp.  154-2C6. 

26 


392  OF  THE  PARABLE. 

therefrom.  It  should  be  our  endeavour  to  survey  rhetorically  all 
the  parables,  and  to  lay  open  to  our  view  all  those  laws  which  lie 
beneath  their  surface,  and  which  help  us  to  compose  similes,  sup- 
positions, and  even  jiarables  of  kindred  form  and  object.  But  why 
not  employ  the  facts  of  history  and  biography  instead  ?  We  do 
not  forbid  this  common  practice.  Only  we  should  remember  that 
while  we  pursue  this  course  the  people  often  suspect  that  we  either 
coin  some  of  our  stories  or  embellish  them  for  our  service ;  where- 
as, if  we  avowedly  make  joarables,  we  preclude  this  suspicion  ;  we 
likewise  save  ourselyes  the  trouble  of  tracing  anecdotes  to  their 
sources,  relieve  the  memory  of  much  verbiage,  and,  what  is  often 
of  no  small  advantage,  we  frame  alike  for  our  subject  and  for 
our  audience  apologues  Avhich  are  more  suitable  than  anecdotes. 

The  parables  reported  in  the  first  three  Gospels  we  have  at  the 
end  of  this  work^  sufficiently  defined. 

The  parable  has,  from  the  earliest  ages,  been  a  favourite  medium 
of  instruction  among  the  Orientals.  It  is  found  in  the  discourses 
of  several  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  and  in-  the  writings  of  the  Rab- 
bins who  lived  previous  to  the  birth  of  the  Messiah.  The  simile, 
which  the  parable  is  essentially,  abounds  in  all  but  the  first  of  the 
books  of  Homer.  This  greatest  of  the  ethnic  poets  lived  in  Asia 
Minor,  which  bordered  on  the  Syrian,  Chaldaic,  and  Persian  prov- 
inces. This  accounts  for  the  Eastern  thoughts  and  style  M'hich  pre- 
vail in  his  compositions  more  genei'ally  than  in  those  of  any  other 
of  the  Greek  poets.  The  lips  of  Socrates,  the  greatest  of  the 
Greek  philosophers,  flowed  with  parables  of  another  form.  But,  as 
we  shall  presently  demonstrate,  it  M'as  reserved  for  our  Divine 
Master  to  bring  this  figure  to  perfection,  by  handling  it  in  the 
most  admirable  ways  and  with  deep  feeling — yes,  with  very  deep 
feeling ;  and  herein  our  Lord's  parables  are  infinitely  superior  to 
those  of  the  philosophers  and  sophists  of  Greece.  The  latter  are 
always  striving  to  reason  themselves  up  into  cold  abstractions ;  so 
that  when  they  press  a  simile  into  their  service,  it  is  immediately 
chilled  by  the  frigid  generalities  which  surround  it.  The  Great 
Teacher,  on  the  contrary,  aims  to  conduct  his  hearers  to  logical 
conclusions  by  reasoning  less  than  by  instructing.  With  him  the 
apologue  is  more  than  evidence  ;  for  while  it  demolished  the  idols 
wliicli  are  enshrined  in  reason,  it  also  peoples  the  imagination  and 
the  heart  with  living  and  attractive  creatures,  both  angelic  and  hu- 
man. 

It  has  not  escaped  the  reader's  attention  that  the  Great  Teacher 

1  See  Alpliabetical  List  of  Figiu-es. 


OF  THE  PARABLE.  393 

on  more  than  one  occasion  delivered  a  sa-les  of  parables.     In  doing 
this  he  seems  to  have  had  several  objects  in  view. 

In  some  cases  these  series  were  so  arranged  as  to  contribute  to 
the  progress  of  thought  and  the  increase  of  the  hearer's  interest. 
The  six  parables  that  are  recorded  in  the  15th  and  16th  chapters  of 
Luke,  and  which  were  obviously  delivered  on  the  same  occasion, 
ought  to  be  studied  in  their  connection  and  mutual  relations  by  all 
who  would  learn  to  speak  with  a  clearness  and  a  force  that  go  on 
increasing  to  the  very  last. 

He  sometimes  made  use  of  a  variety  of  parables  drawn  from  a 
number  of  very  different  objects,  in  order  that  each  of  them  might 
illustrate  a  different  as^ject  of  the  same  subject.  Thus  the  eight 
parables  recorded  in  the  13th  chapter  of  Matthew  were  spoken  on 
the  same  occasion,  and  were  intended  to  throw  light  on  the  inward 
and  outward  nature  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  Some  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  such  a  use  of  several  illustrations,  quite  unlike  one  an- 
other, are  the  following : 

They  give  us,  for  one  thing,  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the 
subject.  They  serve  a  purpose  similar  to  that  of  the  sun,  which, 
during  the  day,  shines  on  the  different  sides,  wings,  and  towers  of  a 
palace,  and  so  enables  us  to  take  a  number  of  photographs  of  all  its 
principal  features.  And  they  are  often  so  many  varied  confirma- 
tions of  the  truth  to  be  established.  In  the  15th  chapter  of  Luke 
a  shepherd,  a  housewife,  and  a  father  are  shown  to  be  actuated  by 
the  same  general  prmciple  which  j^rompted  the  rejoicings  of  angels 
over  the  repentance  of  one  sinner,  namely,  the  disposition  to  take 
more  pleasure  in  the  recovery  of  that  which  was  lost  than  in  the 
possession  of  that  which  is  secure.  Or,  again,  these  three  parables 
represent  the  work  of  the  Son,  of  the  Spirit,  and  of  the  Father  in 
redemption.^  For  the  rest,  they  keep  lis  from  committing  the  mis- 
take of  confounding  analogy  with  direct  resemblance,  a  mistake  to 
which  we  are  quite  as  liable  as  Ave  are  to  that  of  taking  metaphori- 
cal expressions  in  a  literal  sense.  Analogy,  as  Whately  has  defined 
it,  is  a  likeness  between  things,  not  in  themselves  as  in  direct  re- 
semblance, but  in  their  relation  to  certain  other  things  ;  either  in 
their  position,  or  in  their  use,  or  any  other  circumstances.  By  em- 
ploying a  variety  of  parables  to  illustrate  each  a  single  point  of  a 
subject,  our  Divine  Master  has  taught  us  to  understand  that  the 
different  objects  are  analagous  to,  but  do  not  resemble  in  them- 
selves, those  different  points.  In  this  way  the  parables  explain  and 
correct  one  another. 

1  This  view  is  set  forth  in  a  volume  of  three  discourses  by  Rev.  Dr.  W.  R.  Wil- 
liams, entitled  God's  Rescues.     (Randolph,  N.  Y.,  1871.) 


394  OF  THE  PARABLE. 

The  Great  Teacher  has  selected  for  his  parables  objects  differing 
much  from  the  thinfjs  represented  by  them  in  most  points,  except 
the  one  on  which  the  comparison  is  founded.  The  parables  of  the 
dishonest  steward,  the  unjust  judge,  and  the  unkind  neighbour  are 
instances  of  the  choice  of  objects  very  remote,  except  on  one  or 
two  points,  from  the  things  to  be  illustrated.  This  is  partly  to 
guard  us  against  the  mistake  mentioned  under  the  preceding  ob- 
servation. It  also  serves  to  keep  us  from  the  mistake  of  tracing 
and  applying  analogy  more  exactly  and  completely  than  was  in- 
teij^led  and  authorised.  And  illustrations  drawn  from  things  very 
dissimilar  to  what  is  to  be  illustrated  will  sometimes,  as  Storr  and 
Whately  remark,  have  the  effect  of  an  a  fortiori  argument ;  as 
where  Jesus  says  :  "  If  ye  then  being  evil,  know  how  to  give  good 
gifts  to  your  children,  how  much  more,"  etc. ;  as  also  in  Paul's  il- 
lustration drawn  from  the  Isthmian  games  :  "  Now  they  do  it  to 
obtain  a  corruptible  crown  ;  but  we  an  mcorruptible.".  , 

Some  of  our  Lord's  parables  are  of  the  nature  of  invented  ex- 
amples, or  cases  supposed  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  as  ]\Iark  iv.  13, 
Luke  xi.  5-9, 11-13.  Tlie  word  parable  was  employed  in  this  sense 
by  Aristotle,^  who  says  that  it  "  is  Socratic,  as  if  some  one  should 
say.  It  is  not  proper  that  magistrates  should  be  chosen  by  lot,  for 
this  is  just  the  same  as  if  some  one  were  to  choose  wrestlers  by 
lot,  not  selecting  such  as  were  able  to  contend,  but  those  on  Avhom 
the  lot  fell ;  or  as  if  a  crew  were  to  draw  lots  for  the  sailor  who 
was  to  take  the  helm,  as  if  it  became  the  person  on  whom  the  lot 
fell,  and  not  him  who  understood  the  art."  Yet  it  is  worthy  of 
note  that  though  some  of  the  parables  of  the  Great  Teacher  are  es- 
sentially cases  supposed,  they  are  never  formally  introduced  as  such. 
(For  good  examples  of  cases  supposed,  see  Segneri,  Quaresimale, 
ser.  iii.,  ^4  ;  ser.  xiii.,  ^7  ;  ser.  xxii.,  §9.) 

These  examples  are  sometimes  accumulated  to  an  amount  that  a 
mere  classical  taste  would  not  approve,  but  that  due  excitation  and 
persuasion  demand.  Tlie  prophets,  as  Ave  have  shown,  in  treating 
of  the  simile,  poured  forth  a  swelling  fulness  of  this  figure,  which 
is  the  archetype  of  the  parable ;  and  the  Great  Teacher,  as  we  have 
before  seen,  added  parable  to  parable  with  the  evident  aim  not 
only  to  convince  the  reason,  but  to  refurnish  the  imagination  with 
j)ictures  that  would  satisfy,  move,  and  strengthen  gracious  affec- 
tions. And  Cicero,  as  the  fruit  of  his  Rhodian  training,  and  Burke, 
as  the  result  of  his  early-formed  habit  of  reading  the  Bible,  did,  so 
fir  as  judicial  and  deliberative  oratory  admitted,  use  examples  in 

1  Rhet..  B.  ii.,  c.  xx. 


OF  THE  PARABLE.  395 

abundance.     It  has  been  truly  and  strikingly  said  of  Burke  that 
''  his  favourite  argument  is  the  example,  instances  real  and  fictitious 
being  crowded  upon  each  other,  as  if  the  speaker  were  resolutely 
determined  to  appropriate  one  to  every  individual  who  listened  to 
him."     Tholuck  also,  whose  taste  and  cast  of  mind  are  Oriental, 
very  frequently  rises  above  the  severe  simplicity  of  the  Attic  mod- 
els.    Take  the  following  passage  in  one  of  his  sermons :    "  '  It  is  too 
late  ! '     Oh  !  word  of  terror,  which  has  often  fallen  like  the  thunder 
of  God  upon  many  a  heart  of  man.     See  that  father,  as  he  hastens 
from  the  burning  house  and  thinks  that  he  has  taken  all  the  chil- 
dren with  him.     He  counts — one  dear  head  is  missing ;  he  hastens 
back — '  It  is  too  late  ! '  is  the  hollow  sound  that  strikes  his  ear.    The 
stone  wall  tumbles  under  the  roaring  torrent  of  flame.     He  swoons 
and  sinks  to  the  ground.     Who  is  that  hastening  through  the  dark- 
ness of  the  night  on  the  winged  courser  ?     It  is  the  son  Avho  has 
been  wandering  in  the  ways  of  sin,  and  now  at  last  longs  to  hear 
from  the  lips  of  his  dying  father  the  words,  '  I  have  forgiven  you.' 
Soon  he  is  at  his  journey's  end ;  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  he  is  at 
the  door — '  It  is  too  late  ! '  shriek's  forth  the  mother's  voice ;  '  that 
mouth  is  closed  forever  ! '  and  he  sinks  fainting  into  her  arms.    See 
that  victim  for  the  scaffold,  and  the  executioner  whetting  the  steel 
of  death.     The  multitude  stand  shivering  and  dumb#    Who  is  just 
heaving  in  sight  on  yonder  distant  hill,  beckoning  with  signs  of  joy  ? 
It  is  the  king's  express;    he  brings  a  pardon  !     Nearer  and  nearer 
comes  the  step.     Pardon !  resounds  through  the  crowd — softly  at 
first  and  then  louder  and  yet  louder.     '  It  is  too  late ! '     The  guilty 
head  has  fallen !     Yea,  since  the  world  began  the  heart  of  many  a 
man  has  been- fearfully  pierced  through  with  the  cutting  words,  '  It 
is  too  late  ! '     But  oh !  who  will  describe  to  me  the  lamentation 
that  will  arise  when  at  the  boundary  line  which  parts  time  from 
eternity  the  voice  of  the  righteous  Judge  will  say,  '  It  is  too  late ! ' 
Long  have  the  wide  gates  of  heaven  and  its  messengers  cried  at 
one   time  and  another,  '  To-day  if  ye  will  hear  his  voice  ! '     Man, 
man,  how  then  will  it  be  with  you  when  once  those  gates,  with  ap- 
palling sound,  shall  be  shut  for  eternity  !  " 

Where  short  examples  are  thus  accumulated,  the  resemblance  or 
the  analogy  should  not  in  each  case  be  carried  beyond  a  single 
point.  But  when  we  make  a  parable  in  imitation  of  some  of  the 
longer  ones  of  our  Great  Teacher,  we  may,  as  he  did,  indicate  two 
or  more  points  of  comparison.  It  is  a  sound  principle  laid  down 
by  Tholuck,  and  reaffirmed  by  Olshausen  and  others,  that  we  ought 
to  seek  some  meaning  in  all  incidents  except  such  as  are  evidently 
added  for  the  sake  of  imparting  reality  and  life  to  the  narrative. 


396  OF  THE  PARABLE. 

The  Germans  err,  however,  m  applying  this  principle  to  the  short 
as  well  as  the  Ioikj  parables.  In  several  of  the  former  our  Divine 
,  Master  himself  has  jjointed  out  only  one  point  of  comparison  in 
each,  as  in  Matt.  xiii.  44-52.  In  the  latter,  as  in  the  parables  of  the 
Sower  and  of  the  Tares  (Matt.  xiii.  3-43),  there  is  a  fulness  of  import 
which  causes  them  to  resemble  allegories  in  the  modern  sense  of 
the  term. 

These  more  elaborate  and  suggestive  parables  of  our  Divine  Mas- 
ter cannot  easily  be  imitated  by  the  modern  preacher  except  in  the 
more  didactic  kind  of  discourses,  or  in  those  parts  of  such  other 
kinds  as  are  occupied  with  exposition  or  illustration.  When  a  long 
parable  is  so  constructed  as  to  have  a  directly  experimental  and 
l^ractical  tendency,  and  to  carry  several  ol)vious  meanings  and  ap- 
plications along  with  it  in  its  course,  it  may  be  safely  introduced  in 
the  more  animated  parts,  and  sometimes  even  in  the  conclusion  of 
a  sermon. 

There  is,  however,  be  it  remembered,  in  the  longest  of  the  Great 
Teacher's  parables  no  such  verbosity  and  mere  word-painting  as  are 
betrayed  by  some  modern  imitations,  or  rather  caricatures  of  them. 
In  this  respect,  as  in  others,  they  are  incomparably  better  than 
those  of  the  Rabbins  Hillel,  Schammi  and  Meir,  and  those  of  the 
Christian  preichers,  Ephrajm  Syrus,  Anselm,  and  Damascenus. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  given  to  "  much  speaking,"  not  only 
in  their  prayers  but  in  almost  all  their  communications  except  their 
fables  and  proverbs,  in  Avhich  they  studied  the  utmost  brevity.  But 
herein  they  are  surpassed  by  our  Divine  Master,  who,  while  he  ever 
keeps  within  the  bounds  of  probability,  says  nothing  for  the  mere 
purpose  of  attracting  attention  to  the  parable  itself  rather  than  the 
subject  it  illustrates,  confirms,  and  enforces. 

Hence  the  parable  may  be  easily  contracted  into  a  proverb,  and 
the  proverb  may  often  be  expanded  into  a  parable.  Wherefore  one 
of  the  significations  of  jiarable  is  })rovcrb,  as  in  Luke  iv.  23 :  "  Ye 
will  surely  say  unto  me  this  j)roverb,  Physician,  heal  thyself"  "It 
is  plain,"  says  Cardinal  AViseman,  "  that  this  exj)ression  corresponds 
exactly  to  what  we  should  call  a  proverb;  yet  who  does  not  see  in 
it  at  once  a  full  parable  which  scarcely  requires  development  ?  A 
physician  loudly  proclaims  his  skill  in  curing  every  or  some  pai'tic- 
ular  complaint ;  a  patient  sentls  for  him,  and  sees  at  once  that  he  is 
as  sick  as  himself,  and  that  his  boasted  method  of  cure  has  not  an- 
swered in  his  own  case.  lie  very  naturally  rejects  him  as  an  em- 
piric, and  bids  him  first  cure  himself  with  liis  nostrums  l)efore  he 
tries  them  on  others.  'Physician,'  he  exclaims,  'heal  thyself"  Next 
to  the  making  of  parables  in  actual  preaching  it  would  be  useful  lor 


OF  THE  PARABLE.  397 

the  young  student  to  grow  parables  out  of  the  many  seeds  or  fruits 
of  parables  which  he  finds  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs  and  other  parts 
of  Scripture ;  for  though  proverbs  are  more  portable  they  are  less 
digestible  than  parables. 

Some  of  these  are,  rhetorically  speaking,  allusions  as  to  their 
form;  as,  " Enter  in  at  the  strait  gate,"  etc..  Matt.  vii.  13,14; 
"  Can  the  blind  lead  the  blind? "  etc.,  Luke  vi.  39;  xiv.  28,  31,  32; 
1  Cor.  ix.  24-27.  In  such  instances  there  is  merely  a  reference  to 
some  well  known  or  supposable  case.  To  put  a  parable  in  this  • 
form  is  best  in  the  more  animated  parts  of  discourse,  where  a 
formal  narration  might  dampen  ardor  or  wear,  the  appearance  of 
repeating  what  is  already  well  known. 

Some  of  the  parables  are  introduced  by  the  figure  A2:)oria,  Dia- 
2?oresis,  or  Doubt ;  as,  Mark  iv.  30 ;  Luke  vii.  31 ;  xiii.  20.  By  this 
form  of  speech  ovu-  Lord  excited  curiosity,  sustained  attention,  and 
kept  awake  the  spirit  of  inquiry.  There  is  also  an  air  of  honesty 
and  humility  in  thus  revealing  the  deliberations  of  his  own  mind, 
and  in  showing  that  he  was  not  ashamed  to  hesitate  in  order  to  fix 
upon  the  best  among  several  parables  that  occurred  to  him.  This 
may  m  part  account  for  the  exceeding  variety  of  the  objects  from 
which  he  drew  his  parables.  Herein  they  are  far  superior  to  the  il- 
lustrations of  Socrates,  which  were  almost  always  founded  on  the 
analogy  of  each  one's  duty  to  some  special  vocation.  So  often  did 
he  repeat  this  kind  of  comparison  that  men  reproached  him  with 
wearing  it  threadbare.  They  complained  of  his  ever  talking  of 
"  carpenters,  and  smiths,  and  fullers,  and  cooks ;  "  and  all  preachers 
are  liable  to  fall  into  this  error  unless,  like  the  Divine  Master,  they 
seek  out  illustrations  from  many  different  objects.  Some  stigmatise 
as  "  far-fetched  "  all  figures  that  are  not  trite.  The  true  orator  will 
sometimes,  for  the  sake  of  variety,  bring  figures  from  afar. 

We  do  well,  moreover,  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  Great 
Teacher  avoids  all  formality  in  bringing  forward  his  parables  and 
in  explaining  and  applying  them.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule 
that  the  explanation  of  a  parable  is  made  at  its  conclusion.  The 
Hebrew  prophets  almost  always  gave  the. explanation  of  their  para- 
bles in  the  epilogue;  as,  Isa.v.  1-7.  Our  Lord  did  not  in  general 
depart  from  the  common  rule  (Matt.  xxii.  1-14).  And  the  mspired 
writers  have  not  mifrequently  given  us  the  occasion,  scope,  and  de- 
sign of  the  parables  in  the  words  that  go  before  them ;  as,  Luke 
xviii.  2,  9,  xix.  11.  But  we  are  not  hence  to  infer  that  in  these  and 
some  other  instances  the  Great  Teacher  himself  gave  any  intima- 
tion of  his  purpose.  In  some  cases,  however,  he  notified  his  hear- 
ers of  the  general  subject  of  the  parables  he  was  about  to  utter. 


398  OF  THE  PARABLE. 

One  parable  would  sometimes  suggest  the  subject  and  scope  of 
otliers  Avhicli  followed  it.  Yet  in  seA'eral  cases  our  Divine  Master 
both  began  and  ended  his  parables  with  declarations  Svhich  served 
to  explain  them ;  as,  Matt,  xviii.  21,22,35;  xix.  30;  xx.  1-16;  Luke 
xii.  15,  21.  Again,  he  sometimes  begins  and  ends  his  parables 
with  the  same  words,  or  the  same  with  some  variations  or  addi- 
tions (Luke  xiii.  3,  5 ;  xiv.  7,  10).  Occasionally  we  meet  with  em- 
phatic rejjetitions  in  a  parable ;  as.  Matt.  xxv.  21.  It  is  also  to  be 
Ik  remarked  that  our  Lord,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  breaks  the 
formal  imity  of  his  discourse,  either  for  the  sake  of  putting  forth 
some  groat  principje  or  for  deferring  till  the  A-ery  last  a  severe  sen- 
tence or  some  denunciation  that  might  otherwise  appear  an  out- 
burst of  unbridled  anger.  In  Matt.  xxv.  28-30  the  sentence 
against  the  unprofital)le  servant  is  delayed  until  the  very  last  mo- 
ment. So  in  Luke  xix.  12,  14,  27,  the  citizens  who  sent  a  messen- 
ger after  the  nobleman,  saying.  We  will  not  have  this  man  to  reign 
over  us,  are  represented  as  receiving  their  sentence  after  the  reck- 
oning with  the  servants  (15-26).  The  modern  rhetorician  Avould 
be  likely  to  slay  the  rebellious  citizens  first,  and  then  proceed  to 
reckon  with  the  servants.  But  how  does  this  delay  of  the  heaviest 
demand  illustrate  the  forbearance  of  the  Great  Teacher,  and  the 
long-suflering  of  the  Supreme  Judge  ?  In  both  of  these  examples 
the  great  principles  on  which  eternal  justice  proceeds  are  inculcated 
before  the  words  of  doom  are  pronounced.  What  pauses  and  di- 
gressions these  !  Another  purpose  was  equally  well  served.  The 
people  wei'e  deceiving  themselves  with  the  expectation  that  the 
kingdom  of  God  Avould  appear  immediately.  The  parable  teaches 
us  that  the  Lord  must  ascend  to  heaven,  while  his  j^eople  remain 
here  in  a  trial  state,  and  that  upon  his  return  he  will  call  them  to 
an  account,  and  punish  his  secret  and  avowed  enemies.  Here  is  a 
climax  at  the  expense  of  a  superficial  rhetorical  unity,  and  yet  what 
other  method  could  so  vividly  represent  God's  long  delay  in  pun- 
ishing the  finally  impenitent  V  , 

Various  as  the  parables  of  our  Lord  are,  a  few  of  them  were,  we 
judge  (some  of  them  in  fprm  and  others  in  substance),  repeated  on 
different  occasions  with  the  same  or  different  applications.  The 
jiarable  of  tlie  Pounds  (Luke  xix.  11-),  which  is  within  another  par- 
al)le,  is  in  many  points  similar  to  that  of  the  Talents  (Matt.  xxv.  14-). 
But  the  former  was  spoken  in  the  house  of  Zaccheus;  the  latter  is 
a  part  of  that  last  prophetic  discourse  whirh  he  spoke  some  days 
later  while  he  was  sitting  <»n  the  siile  of  the  ]Mount  of  Olives.  The 
parable  of  the  Friend  at  Midnight  (Luke  xi.  5),  and  that  of  the  Vn- 
just  Judge  were  related  on  different  occasions,  but  for  the  same 


OF  THE  PARABLE.  399 

purpose ;  and  the  fundamental  idea  is  identical  in  both.  (See  the 
parable  of  the  Lost  Sheep,  Matt,  xviii.  12-14;  Luke  xv.  3-7.) 
"  Judging  d  2)rion'j^  says  Dean  Alford  (rather  too  roundly,  as  ^ye 
think),  "  the  probability  is  that  he  repeated  most  of  his  important 
sayings  many  times  over,  with  more  or  less  vai'iations,  to  different 
audiences,  but  in  the  hearing  of  the  same  apostolic  witnesses." 
That  he  repeated  them  "  many  times  "  is  hardly  probable  ;  it  is  not 
incredible,  however  (and  this  admission  is  all  that  is  demanded  to 
reconcile  the  different  reports  of  his  addresses),  that  he  repeated 
some  of  them  once  or  twice. 

Any  how,  these  repetitions  disprove  the  fashionable  opinion  that 
our  Lord  set  great  store  by  originality  and  novelty.  Of  the  texts 
that  are  quoted  in  support  of  this  opinion  none  is  more  powei'ful 
than  Matt.  xiii.  52  ;  and  yet  in  this  passage  the  words  "  scribe  "  and 
"  old "  are  conservatively  coupled  with  the  words  "  kingdom  of 
heaven  "  and  "  new."  Some  are  apt  to  apologise  for  parables  and 
illustrations  as  if  they  were  necessary  to  save  the  Gospel  from  the 
reproach  of  triteness  and  worn-out  familiarity.  They  do  indeed 
bedew  the  dryness  of  sermons ;  but  still  we  have  to  consider  it  well 
that  there  are  many  other  ways  of  imparting  to  sermons  a  peren- 
nial newness.  Every  fresh  theme  ;  every  higher  degree  of  feeling; 
every  improved  explanation  of  an  obscure  text ;  a  narration  or  de- 
scription "of  unusual  fidelity  to  fact  and  probability ;  an  original 
argument  or  refutation  in  answer  to  the  latest  phase  of  old  error, 
or  else  the  most  telling  reproof  of  some  stylish  form  of  ancient  sin  ; 
any  new  and  needful  application  of  some  plain  old  text  (to  say 
nothing  of  the  endless  variety  of  method,  style,  and  delivery, 
which  a  living  and  manly  preacher  will  command) — these  things  make 
it  pretty  manifest  that  the  preacher  is  not  reduced  to  the  invention 
of  illustrations  or  any  such  thmg  in  order  to  gratify  a  healthy  ap- 
petite for  a  moderate  variety,  and  even  to  go  far  to  satisfy  a  morbid 
desire  for  novelty. 

Many  of  the  Scripture  parables  are  of  the^  nature  of  argumen- 
tum  ad  hominem,  or  else  e  concessis.  They  apply  the  admitted 
principles  and  practices  of  the  persons  addressed,  and  press  them 
with  consequences  drawn  from  their  own  concessions.  Almost  all 
the  parables  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  are  of  this  nature ; 
that  of  Nathan  is  an  admirable  and  familiar  example  of  this 
description.  Such  also  was  Socrates'  method  of  reasoning.  Li 
pursuing  an  argument  he  proceeded  from  admitted  principles,  and 
he  was  wont  to  say  that  Homer  had  ascribed  to  Ulysses  the  merit 


1  See  chap,  on  Conviction. 


400  OF  THE  PARABLE. 

of  being  a  true  orator  on  account  of  his  ability  to  conduct  a  discus- 
sion by  reasoning  from  such  principles  as  men  acknowledged. 

Some  have  gone  farther  than  this,  and  found,  as  they  think,  in  the 
parables  of  our  Divine  Master  positive  accommodations  to  popular 
errors.  Where  the  Master  speaks  of  the  unclean  spirit  going  out 
of  a  man  and  walking  through  dry  places,  seeking  rest  and  finding 
none,i  it  is  pretty  evident  that  he  alludes  to  a  popular  belief  re- 
specting da3mons.  But  we  should  show  how  far  that  belief  was 
erroneous  before  we  accuse  the  Holy  One  of  encouraging  supersti- 
tion. If  this  could  be  proved  to  be  a  popular  delusion  it  Avould 
only  follow  that  our  Lord  used  such  delusion  to  illustrate  the  ten- 
dencies and  effects  of  the  fancied  perfection  of  those  who  enter- 
tained that  delusion.  And  it  is  observable  that  the  Great  Teacher 
never  employed  any  thing  that  bears  the  faintest  resemblance  to 
Hebrew  superstition  in  those  parables  which  illustrate  any  of  the 
leading  principles  and  duties  of  the  new  dispensation.  The  modem 
Germans  make  a  distinction  between  a  positive  or  material  and  a 
negative  or  formal  accommodation.  According  to  their  teachings 
our  Lord  and  his  apo.stles  did,  for  pedagogic  or  didactic  reasons,2 
adopt  expressions  and  representations  as  they  existed  in  common 
life  without  stopping  to  mvestigate  the  erroneous  ideas  which  were 
associated  with  them  ;  but  in  doing  this  they  did  not  oirn  caul  es- 
tablish, but  only  for  the  time  being  tolerated  error.3  But  these 
distinctions  are  founded  on  the  hypothesis,  which  cannot  be  estab- 
lished, that  the  popular  ideas  wei-e  erroneous  to  Avhich  Jesus  and 
his  apostles  adapted  their  language.  It  is  certain  that  some  errors 
and  sins  were  tolerated  without  being  approved  by  our  Lord  and 
his  apostles.  But  while  they  may  have  been  wisely  silent  as  to 
some  errors  and  sins,  they  were  so  l)ecause  they  were  too  busy  in 
striking  at  the  roots  of  flourishing  heresies  and  thriving  vices  to 
occupy  themselves  any  long  time  in  cutting  away  limbs  or  plucking 
off  fruit.  We  may  unhappily  show  the  most  bitter  intolerance  of 
effects  while  we  allow  the  largest  liberty  to  causes.  The  maxim 
illustrated  by  primitive  preaching,  as  it  should  be  by  ours,  is,  rrincl- 
pils  ohstn. 

The  perspicuity  of  our  Lord's  parables  is  another  of  their  ob- 
vious qualities ;  so  obvious  that  it  seems  almost  needless  to  do 
jTiore  tlian  remind  the  reader  of  what  he  must  often  have  noticed. 
We  <lo  not  indeed  deny  that  this  clearness  was  relative  to  those 
whom  he  intended  especially  to  address,  nor  that  he  sometimes  em- 


1  Matt.  xii.  44  45.  2  j„li„  xvi.  12. 

8  Acts  xvi    1-3;  xxi.  17-2G  ;   1  Cor.  iii.  1  ;  ix.  20;   Gal.  iii.  lo  ;  Heb.  v.  11-14 


OF  THE  PARABLE.  "       401 

ployed  the  argumentum  ad  doctrinani,  or  reasoning  adapted  to  the 
capacity  of  his  advanced  disciples. 

But  ^ve  must  here  dispose  of  an-  objection  which,  if  it  be  un- 
answerable, wrests  from  these  parables  the  claim  of  clearness.  It 
is  said :  "  Did  not  our  Lord  at  a  certain  stage  of  his  ministry  begin 
to  practice  reserve  and  reticence  towards  some  of  his  hearers  by 
casting  the  parable  as  a  veil  over  the  knowledge  of  the  truth? 
On  one  occasion^  when  some  asked  our  Lord  why  he  spoke  to  the 
people  in  parables,  he  answered :  '  In  them  is  fulfilled  the  prophecy 
of  Isaiah,  which  saith.  By  hearing  ye  shall  hear  and  shall  not  un- 
derstand ;  and  seeing  ye  shall  see  and  not  perceive  ;  for  this  people's 
heart  is  waxed  gross,  and  their  ears  are  dull  of  hearing,  and  their 
eyes  have  thy  closed,  lest  at  any  time  thy  should  see  with  their  eyes, 
and  hear  with  their  ears,  and  should  understand  with  their  heart, 
and  should  be  converted,  and  I  should  heal  them.'  Were  not 
these  parables  evidently  spoken  to  the  multitude  that  they  might 
not  understand,  and  for  the  purpose  of  sealing  the  eyes  of  their 
mind  in  penal  blindness  ?  " 

Let  the  Scriptures  themselves  answer  this  objection,  and  may  the 
Divine  Spirit  enable  us  to  hear  and  keep  their  answer  in  an  honest 
and  good  heart. 

1.  What  is  the  import  and  aim  of  the  text  which  our  Lord  here 
quotes  from  the  6th  chapter  of  Isaiah  ?  The  vision  which  the  pro- 
phet saw  represented  Jehovah  as  judge,  sitting  on  a  higli  throne, 
and  withdrawing  his  visible  and  gracious  presence  from  the  temple, 
and  filling  the  place  which  the  glorious  Shekinah  had  deserted,  with 
smoke.  The  chosen  people,  for  the  sins  which  are  rebuked  in  the 
preceding  chapters,  have  forfeited  the  farther  abiding  of  the  She- 
kinah in  the  temple,  and  therefore  the  Seraphim  exclaim :  "  The 
whole  earth  full  of  his  glory ! "  They  declare  prophetically  that 
the  thrice  holy  Lord  of  hosts  will  forsake  the  polluted  sanctuary 
and  fill  all  Gentile  nations  with  the  presence  of  the  Divine  Spirit  ; 
thus  fulfilUng  the  oath  of  the  great  Eternal  addressed  to  the  mur- 
murers  at  Kadish,  and  the  last  prayer  of  David,  and  the  prophecy 
of  IIabakkuk.2  The  prophet  finds  himself  and  the  chosen  people 
"  of  polluted  lips  "  like  the  heathens,  and  enveloped  in  smoke  in- 
stead of  a  heavenly  radiance  ;  a  smoke  that  was  the  fit  emblem  of 
the  judicial  blindness  which  their  natural  depravity  had  induced. 
The  Jews  were,  accordingly,  in  consequence  of  their  sins,  deprived 


1  Matt.  xiii. 

2  Num.  xiv.  21 ;  Psa.  Ixxii.  19;  Halj.  ii.  14.     The  Hebrew  words  in  these  pas- 
sages are  radically  the  same  as  those  in  Isa.  vi.  3. 


402       '  OF  THE  PARABLE. 

of  the  illuminating  grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost.^  Now  he  it  ohserved 
tliat  in  the  various  accounts  of  this  retrihutive  blindness  of  mind 
and  liardncss  of  heart,  nothing  is  said  from  which  mc  can  infer  that 
there  Avas  any  thing  either  in  the  matter  or  style  of  Isaiah's  preach- 
ing that  was  divinely  intended  or  naturally  calculated  to  bring 
about  this  moral  insensibility.  We  find,  on  the  contrary,  that  of 
all  tlie  propliets  the  utterances  of  Isaiah  are,  as  to  matter,  tlie  most 
plain,  and,  as  to  style,  the  most  jicrspicuous. 

2.  What  meaning  does  our  Lord  give  to  this  text  as  quoted  in 
reply  to  those  who  asked  him  why  he  spoke  to  the  people  in  para- 
bles ?  The  very  same,  we  answer,  that  it  conveyed  to  Isaiali  and 
to  his  contemporaries.  In  neither  case  is  there  intended  any  allu- 
sion to  the  matter  and  manner  of  discourse ;  in  both  cases  there 
is  a  declaration  of  God's  •  agency  and  a  description  of  this  self-in- 
vited and  penal  insensibility  of  the  people. 

Our  Divine  Master  (mark  it  well)  did  not  regard  this  obduracy 
as  limited  to  the  hearing  of  the  people ;  it  was  equally  visible  in 
their  seehig.  On  the  same  day  that  the  parables  in  question  were 
spoken,  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  had  ascribed  his  miracles  to  Beel- 
zebub.- And  John"*  quotes  this  text  from  Isaiah  as  fulfilled  by  the 
fact;  that  though  Jesus  had  done  so  many  miracles  before  the  Jews, 
yet,  with  some  exceptions,  they  believed  not  on  him.  And  this  is 
in  harmony  with  his  declaration  on  tlie  jjresent  occasion,  ''  Unto 
them  that  are  without,  all  tJihujs  are  done  in  parables.'-'  His  mir- 
acles no  less  than  his  parables  were  incomprehensible  and  incred- 
ible. 

But  the  more  full  interpretation  which  our  Lord  himself  gave  to 
his  disciples  of  these  words  of  Isaiah  has  been  very  generally  over- 
looked by  learned  expositors.  In  explaining  to  them  the  jjarable 
of  the  sower,  he  revealed  to  them  and  to  us  the  nature  and  elfeets 
of  this  insensibility  and  obduracy  in  their  relation  to  jiarabolic 
preaching.  Here  are  represented  three  classes  of  unprofitable  hear- 
ers, and  three  causes  of  their  unprofitableness.  So  far  from  teach- 
ing that  Jesus  hardened  hearers  tlirough  the  instrumentality  of 
I)arables,  these  explanations  inform  us  that  Satan  is  the  author  of 
this  obduracy  and  spiritual  unproductiveness  of  men.  "Tiien  com-  , 
cth  the  devil  and  taketh  away  the  word  out  of  their  Iiearts,  lest 
they  should  believe  and  be  saved."*     In  two  other  classes,  Satan 

1  John  xii.  37-41  ;  Acts  xxviii.  22;  Rom.  xi.  8. 

2  Matt.  xii.  22-32;  xiii.  1;  John  xii.  .37-42.  •'  Mark  iv.  11. 

••  Luko  viii.  12.  The  last  clause  of  thi.s  soiitencp  should  be  coiuparrd  with 
like  words  in  Malt.  xiii.  15,  "Lest  at  any  time,"  etc.  Cf.  also  the  repeated 
word,  "  understand,"  Matt.  xiii.  1.3-lC,  10,  23. 


OF  THE  PARABLE.  403 

operates  through  persecutors  and  terrene  tempters.  In  the  follow- 
ing parable  of  the  tares,  the  agency  of  the  devil  in  hindering  the 
work  of  the  Gospel  is  yet  more  clearly  illustrated.  It  is  the  same 
sower  and  tlie  same  seed  that,  though  coming  impartially  to  each 
kind  of  ground,  are  rewarded  with  such  diverse  results.  The 
Great  Teacher  had  spoken  many  parables  before,  as  he  did  many 
after,  the  day  in  question.  His  preaching  was  parabolic  whenever 
he  spoke  to  the  people  in  general.  It  was  only  in  the  more  private 
circle  of  his  disciples  that  he  was  wont  to  speak  in  abstract  and 
unfigurative  language.  The  seed  was  of  the  best  description. 
The  parable,  in  all  its  forms,  has  ever  been  considered  the  most  fit- 
ting and  effectual  means  of  instruction  for  the  mass  of  mankind.^ 
The  seed  w^as  good,  and  all  the  fault  lay  in  the  soil,  and  especially 
in  the  adversary  who  went  before  and  came  after  the  benevolent 
sower. 

Nor  should  it  be  overlooked  that  the  apostle  Paul-  was  compelled 
by  the  Spirit  of  God  to  quote  this  same  passage  from  Isaiah  as  a 
testimony  against  the  Jews  of  Rome,  where  he  spoke  to  them  in 
his  lodgings  no  2)cirahles  ichafever,  but  '^  exjjoimded  and  testified  i\\Q 
kingdom  of  God,  persuading  them  concerning  Jesus,  both  out  of 
the  law  of  Moses  and  out  of  the  prophets,  from  morning  till  even- 
ing." 

As  many  of  our  Lord's  parables  are  of  the  nature  of  illustrations, 
it  would  be  casting  a  great  slur  upon  his  manner  of  teaching  to 
maintain  that  any  of  his  illustrations  served  but  to  obscure  a  sub- 
ject. No,  no  ;  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  any  illustration  merely 
human  which  is  as  perspicuous  as  the  most  abstruse  of  these  para- 
bles of  the  Great  Teacher.  "  The  parable,"  according  to  the  for- 
cible words  of  Fred.  Arndt,  "  is  nature's  own  language  in  the  hu- 
man heart.  Hence  its  universal  intelligibility,  its  permanent  sweet 
scent,  so  to  speak,  its  healing  balsam,  its  mighty  power  to  attract 
one  again  and  again  to  hear.  In  short,  the  parable  is  the  voice  of 
the  people  and  hence  the  voice  of  God." 

To  treat  adequately  the  excellence  of  the  parable  and  its  various 
and  peculiar  uses  would  demand  a  large  volume.  Much  has  already 
been  said  on  these  themes  by  able  and  celebrated  writers ;  but 
much  more  will  need  to  be  said  before  the  riches  of  these  themes 
will  have  been  exhausted.  A  few  words  on  the  utility  of  this  fig- 
ure, when  employed  in  intelligent  imitation  of  the  Great  Teacher's 
example,  seem  to  require  our  attention  before  dismissing  this  sub- 
ject: 

The   Scripture  parables  are  to  such  an  extent  drawn  from  na- 

1  John  iii.  12.  ii  Acts  xxviii.  23-28. 


404  OF  THE  PARABLE. 

ture,  limnnn,  liruto,  and  inanimate,  tliat  the  employment  of  parables 
composed,  in  this  respect,  according  to  the  divine  rules  which  the 
Holy  Spirit  evidently  observed  when  he  spoke  in  Jesus  and  the 
other  prophets,  will  preserve  the  preacher  from  those  theoretical 
and  practical  errors  which  result  from  separating  the  natural  and 
the  spiritual,  and  keeping  them  ever  and  in  all  things  at  war  with 
each  other.  Luther,  in  bis  sermon  on  the  Descent  into  Hell,  says 
that  one  of  the  uses  of  images  and  comparisons  is  that  "  they  serve 
to  keep  off  from  us  the  devil"  with  his  fiery  darts,  who  seeks  to  se- 
duce us  from  the  word  with  high  and  subtle  thoughts,  while  these 
clear  and  simple  images,  which  every  man,  even  the  most  ignorant, 
can  well  conceive,  keep  us  in  the  right  understanding  of  the  word." 
It  has  likewise  been  remarked  by  Whately  that  the  extreme  com- 
oitonwss  of  the  images  introduced  in  our  Lord's  parables  guards  men 
against  the  mistake  they  are  so  prone  to,  of  laying  aside  their  com- 
mon sense  altogether  in  judging  of  any  matter  connected  with  re- 
ligion ;  as  if  the  rules  of  reasoning  which  they  employ  in  temporal 
matters  were  quite  unfit  to  be  applied  in  spiritual.  Some  of  the 
most  deadly  heresies  of  the  Gnostics,  Manichseans,  Mystics,  and 
Schoolmen  appear  to  have  sprang  out  of  a  neglect  of  our  Divine 
Master's  exam^de  in  this  particular.  Hence  we  need  not  wonder 
that  the  preacher  who  is  invisible  all  the  week  should  be  incom- 
prehensible on  Sundays — two  wonderful  attributes  which  one  of 
the  old  Huguenot  ministers  was  perhaps  slanderously  reported  to 
possess. 

Those  who  in  Christian  times  have  attempted  to  make  parables, 
have  too  often  been  the  copyists  rather  than  the  imitators  of  their 
Divine  Master.  They  have  copied  not  only  the  thoughts  but  even 
the  language  of  the  originals.  The  modern  practice  of  makiiig 
similitudes  by  weaving  together  passages  of  the  common  English 
version  is  most  reprehensible.  We  make  a  right  rhetorical  use  of 
Scripture  parables  only  when  we  compose  parables  of  our  own  in 
the  light  of  the  principles  on  which  the  sacred  parables  were  con- 
structed. 

The  most  of  modern  parabolists  are  also  wanting  in  a  lively  sym- 
pathy with  common  life  and  the  daily  duties  of  the  Christian. 
They  address  the  intellect  rather  than  the  feelings,  and  they  in- 
tend not  so  much  to  instruct  and  move  as  to  entertain  and  en- 
chtmt.  They  are  content  to  make  out  of  generalities  and  abstrac- 
tions such  individuals  as  the  cultivated  few  will  recognise,  not  such 
as  are  known  and  familiar  to  the  mass  of  the  i)eo])le  all  the  world 
over.  The  difference  between  them  and  those  of  the  Master  is 
somewhat  similar  to  the  difference  between  the  allegories  of  Bun- 


OF  THE  TARABLE.  405 

yan  and  those  of  Spencer,  Addison,  and  Johnson.  The  latter,  as 
Macaulay  has  observed,  only  amuse  the  fancy;  but  the  former  have 
this  peculiarity,  that  they  "  possess  a  strong  human  interest."  Herein 
the  parables  of  Socrates,  although  sometimes  needlessly  coarse  and 
vulgar,  are  deservmg  of  study.  Hence,  also,  their  infixedness. 
Alcibiades,  in  Plato,  says  that  men,  after  hearing  Pericles,  went 
away  filled  with  admiration  of  his  speech,  but  soon  ceased  to  think 
about  it ;  whereas  the  the  talks  of  Socrates  left  stings  in  the  minds 
of  his  hearers  which  could  in  no  wise  be  extracted.  But,  alas ! 
the  great  philosopher  was  ignorant  of  that  ruby  balm,  the  blood  of 
Jesus,  which  can  remedy  the  smart  of  the  sting  of  truth,  and  even 
of  death  itself 

It  may  be  observed  of  all  true  parables,  that  they  are  especially 
helpful  in  the  indirect  yet  efiectual  application  of  unpopular  and 
unwelcome  truths.  Of  all  parables,  those  of  our  Divine  Master  arc 
the  most  varied,  close,  and  beneficent  in  their  application.  ISTor 
was  there  in  general  such  mystery  wrapped  around  these  parables 
that  their  application  was  blunted.  When  the  chief  priests  and 
Pharisees  heard  the  parables  of  the  Two  Sons  and  the  Husband- 
men, "  they  perceived  that  he  spake  of  them."^  The  parable  of  the 
Rich  Man  and  Lazarus  was  intended  as  a  warning  to  the  covetous 
Pharisees  who  derided  our  Lord.2  Again,  the  parable  of  the 
Pharisee  and  the  Publican  was  spoken  in  reproof  of  "  certain  which 
trusted  in  themselves  that  they  were  righteous,  and  despised 
others."^  The  same  remark  holds  good  of  most  of  the  other  para- 
bles and  fables.  Those  which  are  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  as 
that  of  the  trees  which  choose  a  king  (Judges  ix.  8-15),  that  of  Na- 
than (2  Sam.  xii.  1-14),  that  of  the  prisoner  (1  Kings  xx.  35-43), 
that  of  the  thistle  and  cedar  (2  Kings  xiv.  9),  are  indeed  very  in- 
genious and  close  in  their  application,  but  it  is  observable  of  them 
that  they  were  employed  rather  for  censure  than  for  encourage- 
ment ;  and  were  intended  more  to  reclaim  mdividual  sinners  than  to 
bring  whole  classes  of  men  to  repentance,  or  to  illustrate  and  en- 
force great  and  positive  virtues  and  duties.  So  most  of  the  para- 
bles of  Socrates  were  levelled  against  men's  dogmatism  and  conceit 
of  knowledge.  If  we  study  the  parables  of  his  which  Plato  and 
Xenophon  have  reported,  this  is  the  conclusion  to  which  we  must 
come.  They  were  not  in  general  followed  by  precepts  and  exhor- 
tations that  were  designed  to  establish  men  in  new  truths,  and  to 
move  them  to  the  practice  of  moral  and  religious  duties. 

It  is  well  worthy  of  note  that  in  some  applications,  and  particu- 

1  Matt.  xxi.  45  ;  Luke  xx.  19.  2  Luke  xvi.  13-31.        3  Luke  xviii.  9-14. 


406  OF  THE  PARABLE. 

larly  such  as  are  hortatory,  the  parable,  in  the  Socratic  form  as  ex- 
hibited by  Aristotle,  may  be  preferable  to  the  parable  in  the  He- 
brew and  Hellenistic  form,  that  is,  as  a  case  supposed,  assumed  as 
possible  or  probable,  provided  only  that  i:)robability  be  very  evi- 
dent at  i/ie  2^oints  of  resemblance.  In  Socrates's  supposed  case  of 
mariners  choosing  their  steersman  by  lot,  though  we  have  no  rea- 
son to  suppose  such  a  case  ever  occurred,  "we  see  so  plainly  the 
probability  that  if  it  did  occur  the  lot  might  fall  on  an  unskilful 
person,  that  the  argument,  as  Whately  observes,  has  considerable 
weight  against  the  practice,  and  he  adds^  that  "  it  often  answers 
very  well  to  introduce  an  instance  not  only  fictUious,  hnt  even  man- 
ifestly impossible,  provided  it  be  but  conceioable.  'A  case  may  thus 
be  exhibited  more  striking  and  apjDosite  than  any  real  or  possible 
one  that  could  be  found."  But  in  arguments  or  addresses  to  the 
intellect,  with  a  view  to  produce  conviction,  we  will  ever  find  it 
Avise  to  employ  such  parables  as  have  the  quality  of  verisimilitude 
and  possibility ;  for,  unhappily,  many  persons  are  either  so  ignorant 
or  so  obstinate  that  in  discussions  they  treat  your  supposed  cases  as 
if  they  were  facts  asserted,  and  your  parables  as  if  they  were  in- 
tended to  be  historic  narratives.  This  mistake  or  fault  has,  it 
seems,  been  committed  in  all  ages.  Plato  introduced  into  his  dia- 
logues, as  a  case  supposed,  the  celebrated  Gyges,  who,  as  the  fable 
is,  whenever  he  turned  the  stone  of  his  gold  ring  to  the  palm  of  his 
hand,  was  visible  to  no  person,  while  he  himself  saw  everything, 
and  whenever  he  turned  the  ring  into  its  proper  place  he  again  be- 
came visible.  "  And  here,"  says  Cicero,^  "  some  philosophers,  and 
they  indeed  by  no  means  unA\  orthy  men,  but  not  very  acute,  say 
that  the  story  told  by  Plato  is  false  and  fabulous,  just  as  if  he  in- 
deed maintained  either  that  it  happened  or  could  have  happened. 
The  import  of  this  ring  and  of  this  example  is  this:  If  nobody 
xcere  to  know,  nobody  even  to  suspect  that  you  were  dohuj  anything 
for  the  sake  of  riches,  2)0iccr,  dominion,  lust ;  if  it  icould  be  for- 
ever unknoion  to  gods  and  men,  woidd  you  do  it  ?  They  deny  that 
the  case  is  possible.  But  though  indeed  it  be  possible,  I  only  in- 
quire what  they  would  do  if  that  were  possible  which  they  deny  to 
be  so  ?  They  argue  very  stupidly,  for  they  simply  deny  that  it  is 
possible,  and  they  persist  in  that  answer.  They  do  not  perceive 
what  is  the  force  of  that  expression,  '  If  it  were  possible.' "     It.  is 

1  Rhetoric,  Pt.  i.,  chap,  ii.,  ()8;  Pt.  ii.,  chap,  ii.,  ()4.  Sae  also  his  admirable 
examiilos  from  Wolfe's  Sermons  ;  Appendix  K,  Id.  See  also  other  examples  at 
the  end  of  this  section. 

2  De  Officiis,  Lib.  iii.,  c.  ix. 


OF  THE  PARABLE. 


407 


the  more  important  to  heed  this  caution,  as  the  logical  but  unim- 
aginative, the  very  class  of  jDersons  to  whose  cajjacities  parables 
would  be  the  most  useful,  are  more  liable  than  any  other  to  commit 
this  fault  or  make  this  mistake.  For  the  sake  of  such  our  cases 
supposed  should  be  at  least  conceivable.  And  herein  we  are  sup- 
ported by  the  example  of  the  Great  Teacher,  whose  parables  are 
remarkable  for  their  verisimilitude.  They  have  such  an  air  of  truth, 
and  there  is  such  keeping  in  all  the  characters  and  circumstances, 
that  learned  men  have,  to  say  the  least,  wasted  their  time  in  en- 
deavouring to  show  that  some  of  them  are  authentic  narratives 
and  others  of  them  contain  historic  incidents ;  whereas,  rhetorically 
considered,  it  is  of  no  consequence  whether  they  allude  to  histori- 
cal circumstances  or  not. 

In  further  answer  to  the  question.  When  or  where  is  it  proper  to 
use  parables  ?  we  may  add  that  they  are  in  general  perhaps  less 
suited  to  the  purpose- of  exposition  and  illustration  than  of  applica- 
tion. We  have  the  example  of  our  Divine  Master  for  the  use  of 
this  figure  in  applications,  as  at  the  end  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  and  at  diiferent  points  in  his  other  discourses.  Nor  can 
anything  exceed  the  propriety  and  discrimination  which  the  Great 
Teacher  exhibits  in  the  use  of  the  parable.  In  St.  John's  Gospel, 
which  chiefly  records  what  Jesus  said  more  confidentially  and  af- 
fectionally  in  private,  and,  j^articularly  in  the  circle  of  his  disciples, 
not  long  before  his  crucifixion,  he  speaks  in  what  is  essentially 
metaphor  rather  than  in  what  is  essentially  simile.  It  is  remark- 
able, therefore,  but  not  at  all  strange,  that  John  has  transmitted  to 
us  so  few  parables,  strictly  so  termed.  We  have  one  in  chapter  iii. 
8  :  "  The  wind  bloweth  where  it  listeth,"  etc.  "  St.  John,"  as  has 
been  remarked,  "  while  he  avoids  the  exact  type  of  the  parable,  has 
preserved  the  relation  of  addresses  and  acts  which  are  only  para- 
bles transformed  ;"i  transformed,  we  may  add,  to  express  the  deep 
feeling  with  which  he  now  spoke.  The  more  didactic  like  is  melted 
and  moulded  into  the  fervent  is.  That  metaphor  is  the  language  of 
feelmg  may  be  shown  from  Paul's  epistles,  where  in  one  case  he 
transforms  a  well-known  fable  into  a  metaphor,2  or  what  in  modern 
terminology  would  be  called  allegory.  And,  accordingly,  in  many 
kinds  of  persuasive  sermons,  and  in  pathetic  and  animated  perora- 
tions it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  give  our  parables  the  form  of 
metaphors.     Herein  the  safest  rhetor  is  the  heart. 

The  reader  who  wishes  to  learn  how  to  employ  parables  by  con- 


1  John  iii.  29;  x.  1-13;  xii.  24;  xiii.  4-12;  xv.  1-6;  xvi.  21. 

2  1  Cor.  xii.  14-30. 

21 


408  OF  THE  PARABLE. 

siderlno"  some  of  the  uninspired  examples  of  success  and  failure  in 
the  use  of  this  figure  will  consult  with  advantage  the  following 
works : 

RABBINICAL    PARABLES. 

• 

The  Gemara  and  Midrash ;  Cocceius'  Excerpta  Gem. ;  Meu- 
schen's  N.  T.  ex.  Talmud.,  illust. ;  Wetstein's  Nov.  Test. ;  Jost's 
Judenthum ;  Herder's  Hebrew  Poetry  ;  Coleridge's  Works ;  John 
Damascenus'  Barlaam,  and  Josaphat,  in  Opera  Om.,and  in  De  Yora- 
gine's  Legende  Doree ;  Trench's  Parables,  Introduc,  chap,  iv.,  in 
notes  near  the  end ;  Hyman  Ilurwitz's  Hebrew  Tales. 

CHRISTIAX   PARABLES. 

Ephra?m  Syrus'  Opera,  Para^neses,  21,  28,  37;  In  Illiid,  Attende 
Tibi  Ipsi,  cap.  ii. ;  Works  of  Chrysosto'm  and  Augustine  ;  Works  of 
Anselm,  Benedict  ed. ;  De  Similitudi. ;  Works  of  Bernard  of  Clairv. 
(Benedict  ed.),  vol.  i.,  p.  1251;  Works  of  Hugo  of  St.  Victor;  De 
Sacrament. ;  Vincent  Ferrer  (ser.  on  St.  John  xx,  19 ) ;  Sermons  of 
Latimer;  Sermons  of  Wickliffe;  Jeremy  Taylor's  "Liberty  of 
Prophesymg  "  (at  the  end),  borrowed  from  the  Bostan  of  the  Per- 
sian Poet  Saadi;  Joseph  Hall's  sermon  on  Noah's  Dove;  Philip 
Skelton's  sermon  on  the  Cunning  Man;  John  Livingstone,  in  Select 
Biographies,  Wodrow  Soc,  vol.  i.,  pp.  202-212;  Alphonse  Sal- 
meron's  sermons  on  the  Parables,  p.  300 ;  Peter  Poiret's  De 
GEconomia  Divina  (in  7  vols.,  8vo,  1687),  vol.  ii.,  p.  554: ;  Brydayne, 
quoted  by  Maury,  Eloquence  de  la  Chaire,  chap.  xx. ;  Christmas 
Evans'  Sermons;  German  sermons  of  Xzschirner  and  of  Stiller; 
F.  A.  Krummacher's  Parables;  P.  B.  Girandeaus  Parables;  Dr. 
Payson's  Memoirs,  chap.  xiv. ;  Dr.  James  Hamilton's  Sermons; 
Spurgeon's  Sermons. 

We  here  subjoin  two  examples  of  cases  supposed.  The  first  is 
carried  so  far  as  to  have  the  efi'ect  of  vision : 

'•  I  fancy  in  some  sad  abode  of  this  city,  some  un visited  pallet  of  straw,  a 
man,  a  Christian  man,  pining,  perishing  without  an  attendant,  looking  his  last 
upon  nakedness  and  misery,  feeling  his  last  in  the  pangs  of  hunger  and  thirst. 
The  righteous  spirit  of  the  man  being  disembodied,  I  fancy  it  to  myself,  rising 
to  heaven  encircled  by  an  attendance  of  celestial  spirits,  daughters  of  mercy, 
who  waited  upon  his  soul  wlien  mankind  deserted  his  body.  Tiiis  attended  spirit 
I  fancy  rising  to  the  habitation  of  God,  and  reporting  in  the  righteous  ear  of  the 
Cfovernor  of  the  earth  how  it  fared  with  him  amid  all  the  extravagance  and  out- 
lay of  this  city.  And  saith  the  indignant  Governor  of  men,  '  They  had  not  a 
morsel  of  bread  nor  a  drop  of  water  to  bestow  upon  my  saint.  Who  of  my  an- 
gels will  go  for  me  where  I  shall  send  1  Go,  thou  angel  of  famine ;  break  the 
growing  ear  w'.tli  thy  wing,  and   let  mildew  feed  upon  their  meal.     Go,  thou  an- 


OF  THE  FABLE. 


409 


gel  of  plague,  and  shake  thy  wings  once  more  over  the  devoted  city.  Go,  thou 
angel  of  fire,  and  consume  all  the  neighbourhood  where  my  saint  suffered  un- 
heeded and  unpitied.  Burn  it,  and  let  its  flame  not  quench  till  their  pavilions 
are  a  heap  of  smouldering  ashes." — Edward  Irving. 

"  I  may  be  addressing  one  against  whom  the  decree  is  even  now  gone  forth 
and  in  whose  veins  the  disease  that  shall  accomplish  it  is  gathering  and  growinf^ 
while  I  speak— one  whose  preparation  for  an  eternal  state  of  being  must  be 
crowded  and  condensed  into  a  few  months,  or  weeks,  or  days— one  who  is  medi- 
tating what  he  shall  never  realise,  and  reckoning  on  that  to  which  he  shall  never 
attain;  who  contemplates  the  taking  heed  to  others,  and  yet  is  in  danger  of  be- 
ing swept  into  eternity  before  he  has  begun  to  take  heed  to  himself.l  One  who 
is  laden  with  a  prospective  responsibility,  which  aggravates  beyond  all  concep- 
tion the  pressure  of  present  guilt,  in  that  he  is  neglecting  or  betraying,  by  an- 
ticipation, the  flock  that  he  shall  never  feed.  Could  I  point  out  that  individual ; 
could  I  designate  and  describe  him  to  the  perception  of  this  assembly ;  still 
more,  could  I  raise  the  curtain  of  the  invisible  world,  and  reveal  to  you  his  per- 
ilous position  on  the  very  verge  of  the  abyss,  the  arm  of  death  outstretched 
above  and  the  grave  expanding  below,  oh,  how  every  eye  would  fix  upon  him 
and  every  heart  would  bleed  for  him,  and  every  voice  would  pray  for  him,  and 
one  cry  of  earnest  entreaty  would  go  up  from  all  this  congregation,  '  Sinner, 
have  mercy  upon  thine  own  soul !  0  God,  grant  unto  him  repentance  ere  it  is 
too  late! '  Brethren,  there  may  be  one  such  among  us  at  this  moment.  I  can- 
not tell  who  it  is;  but  let  that  man  only  set  light  by  the  things  that  have  been 
spoken ;  let  him  only  turn  a  deaf  ear,  and  object  a  dead  heart  to  the  words  of 
truth  and  soberness  ;  let /(/;»  only  defer  the  preparation  and  despise  the  warn- 
ing and  disregard  the  prayer— that  can  tell  me  who  it  is  not;  that  can  aflSrm, 
'  It  is  not  1 1 '  "— i?.  W.  Dale. 

Section  IV.— Of  the  Fable. 

The  fable  was  regarded  by  Aristotle  as  quite  diiFerent  from  the 
l^arable.  He  taught  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  examples,  the 
parable  and  the  Lof/os.  The  latter  is  the  fable:  "like  those  of 
^sop,  and  the  African  stories."  But  this  difference  is  owing  to 
his  having  considered  the  parable  as  a  casa  supposed,  and  not,  as 
we  do,  a  fictitious  narrative.  It  is  important  to  keep  in  view  this 
change  in  the  meaning  of  the  vrord  parable;  for  the  oriental 
Trench,  by  disregarding  it,  has  declared  logomachy  against  the 
classic  Lessing  and  Storr,  who  define  the  parable  according  to  the 
distinction  of  Aristotle,  Cicero,  and  Quintilian. 

To-day  the  distinction  between  the  parable  and  the  fable  is  appar- 
ently very  broad,  because  these  words  are  no  sooner  mentioned  than 
we  recall  the  parables  of  our  Lord  and  the  fables  of  ^sop.  But 
when  we  examine  more  closely  and  consider  more  deeply  the  distin- 
guishing features  of  each,  we  find  that  they  bear  a  nearer  resem- 


1  The  preacher  is  admonishing  lax  and  unwatcliful  pastors. 


410  OF  THE  FABLE. 

blance  than  we  at  first  supposed ,  especially  if  we  hase  our  defini- 
tion of  the  parable  on  some  of  the  longer  ones  of  our  Lord — 
parables  which  differ  from  the  simile  or  comparison  and  the  case 
supposed  in  having  the  form  of  a  fictitious  narrative.  We  do  not, 
however,  think  that  it  is  necessary  thus  to  limit  the  term  parable 
as  employed  in  the  New  Testament,  where  it  seems  to  comprehend 
all  that  Aristotle  meant  by  it,  along  with  the  Rabbinic  notion  of  its 
import.     The  chief  distinctive  features  of  the  fable  are  as  follows  : 

1.  In  the  fable  the  qualities  and  actions  of  men  may  often  be  at- 
tributed to  brutes.  We  say  often  may  be  so  attributed;  for  in 
many  of  the  best  jiagan  fables  the  principal  characters  are  men  and 
women  who  are  represented  as  thinking,  acting,  and  talking  as  is 
natural  and  habitual  to  men  and  Vt^omen;  and  in  fables  where 
brutes  are  introduced,  they  are  not  seldom  rejiresented  as  acting 
according  to  their  nature  and  habits.  The  above  feature,  however, 
serves  clearly  to  distinguish  the  fable  from  the  parables  of  our 
Lord. 

The  way  some  have  endeavoured  to  account  for  this  will  not 
bear  a  close  examination.  Archbishop  Trench  reasons  very  plaus- 
ibly thus  :  "  In  his  mind  the  creation  of  God,  as  it  came  from  the 
Creator's  hands,  is  too  perfect,  and  has  too  much  of  reverence 
owing  to  it,  to  be  represented  otherwise  than  as  it  really  is.  The 
Great  Teacher,  by  parables,  therefore,  allowed  himself  in  no  trans- 
gression of  the  established  laws  of  nature — in  nothing  marvellous 
or  anomalous.  He  represents  to  us  no  sj^caking  trees  nor  reasoning 
beasts,  and  we  should  be  at  once  conscious  of  an  unfitness  in  his  so 
doing.  Mr.  Trench  does  not  often  take  such  narroV  views  of  a 
subject.  He  forgets  that  since  the  Fall  nothing  exists  as  it  came 
from  the  Creators  hands,  and  that  in  Para*lise  itself  one  reptile  at 
least  M'as  caused  by  a  Satanic  miracle  to  speak  fabulously  hi  transgres- 
sion of  the  laws  of  its  Creator.  He  forgets  that  the  inspiried  apos- 
tle saw  the  Avhole  creation  groaning  and  travailing  in  paiii  together, 
and  hopefully  foresaw  the  happy  day  Avhen  that  creation  should  be 
delivered  from  the  bondage  of  corruption  into  the  glorious  liberty 
of  the  children  of  God.  Does  not  Jehovah  pronounce  a  curse 
upon  the  serpent,  as  if  he  could  imderstand,  be  humiliated,  and 
obey,  like  a  human  being?  Does  not  the  Divine  Spirit,  speaking 
out  of  the  whirlwind  to  Job,  say  that  Leviathan  laugheth  at  the 
shaking  of  a  spear  ?  Is  not  the  spider  represented  as  taking  hold 
with  her  hands  V  In  the  original  Hebrew  is  not  a  hand  ascribed  to 
the  dog,  the  lion,  and  the  beary  Does  not  the  Divine  S2)irit,  in 
Joel,  describe  locusts  as  an  invading  army  ? 

Though  our  Divine  Master  sjioke  no  fables  in  the  ethnic  sense 


OF  THE  FABLE.  411 

of  the  term,  yet  he  and  John  the  Baptist  personified  the  stones  of 
the  street  and  of  the  desert  (Luke  xix.  40  ;  Matt,  iii.  9).  Our  Lord 
calls  Herod  "that  fox."  He  also  said  :  "Beware  of  false  prophets 
which  come  to  you  in  sheep's 'clothing,  but  inwardly  they  are 
raving  wolves."  These  and  other  metaphors  are  condensed  fables. 
Indeed,  the  example  last  quoted  may  have  been  an  allusion  to 
-^sop's  fable  of  the  wolf  in  sheej^'s  clothing,  which  must  have  been 
Avell  known  at  that  time. 

2.  The  fable  is  further  distinguished  from  the  Christian  parable 
by  occasionally  indulging  itself  in  raillery  and  revenge.  In  one 
old  Greek  fable^  a  vine  says  to  a  he-goat,  "  Though  you  eat  me 
down  to  the  root  yet  will  I  yield  wine  enough  to  pour  upon  your 
head  when  you  are  sacrificed." 

3.  The  fable  is  more  commonly  than  the  i^arable  devoted  to  the 
inculcation  of  ethical  precepts  and  prudential  maxims.  We  are  by 
no  means  to  overlook  the  fact  that  some  of  the  pagan  fables  were 
vehicles  of  as  high  truths  as  natural  religion  could  imjDart.  Herder, 
in  his  Scattered  Leaves  {Zerstreiiten  Bldttern^  vol.  iii.)  divides  fables 
into  three  kinds. 

a.  Theoretic,  or  such  as  are  intended  to  form  the  understanding ; 
e.  rj.,  the  fable  of  the  dog  snapping  at  his  shadow  in  the  water,  the 
lamb  reasoning  with  the  wolf,  or  that  of  the  hare  hunting  with 
the  lion.  Fables  like  these  are  designed  to  inculcate  the  maxims 
of  secular  wisdom. 

h.  3Ioral,  or  those  which  contain  rules  for  the  regulation  of  the 
conscience  and  wall ;  as,  "  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard,  consider  her 
ways  and  be  wise,"  etc.  Here  we  learn  that  the  happiness  of  all 
living  creatures  is  connected  with  well-directed  activity. 

c.  Fables  of  destiny.  As  we  do  not  always  see  the  connection 
of  cause  and  efiect,  we  often  call  that  the  effect  of  fate  or  chance 
which  befalls  according  to  the  secret  purpose  of  God ;  e.  g.,  the 
eagle  carries  with  her  plunder  a  coal  from  the  altar  which  sets  fire 
to  her  nest,  and  so  her  vmfledged  brood  becomes  the  prey  of  ani- 
mals which  she  has  already  robbed  of  their  young.  To  these  classes 
Herder  might  have  added  another. 

d.  For  some  of  the  ethnic  fables  inculcate  relir/ious  duties  ;  e.  g., 
in  the  fable  which  represents  the  wagoner  praying  to  Jupiter  to 
lift  his  wagon  out  of  the  mire. 

Two  out  of  four  of  these  classes  illustrate  and  enforce  the  pro- 
foundest  truths  of  religion ;  so  that  we  are  to  receive  with  some 
reservations  the  declaration  that  the  fable  has  no  higher  aim  than 

1  Evenus,  in  the  Greek  Anthologies. 


412  OF  THE  FABLE. 

to  teach  the  maxims  of  a  worldly  and  atheistical  morality.  Abp. 
Trench,  in  attempting  to  exalt  our  Lord's  parables  in  this  regard, 
unduly  disparges  all  fables ;  yes,  even  those  that  are  found  in  the 
Old  Testament.  Jotham,  by  his  fable  (Judges  ix.  8-15),  it  appears 
to  him,  seeks  only  to  teach  the  men  of  Shechem  their  folly,  not 
rfheir  sin,  in  making  Abimelech  king  over  them.  And  Jehoash 
(2  Kings  xiv.  9),  in  the  same  way  would  make  Amaziah  see  his  pre- 
sumjition  and  pride  in  challenging  him  to  the  conflict,  not  thereby 
teachin'g  him  any  moral  lesson,  but  only  giving  evidence  in  the 
fable  which  he  uttered  that  his  own  pride  was  offended  by  the 
challenge  of  the  Jewish  king.  In  neither  case  is  it  God  that  is 
S2:)eaking,  nor  yet  messengers  of  his  delivering  his  counsel;  but 
men,  and,  from  an  earthly  standing  jioint,  not  a  divine.  But  is  this 
a  fair  account  of  these  men  and  their  resjjcctive  fables  ?  Jotham,  the 
youngest  and  only  surviving  son  of  the  believing  Gideon,  uttered  a 
true  prophetic  Avarning,  as  the  event  proved.  lie  stood  there  on 
Mount  Gerizim  to  speak  with  divine  authority  ;  for  he  said  to  the 
peoi:)le  at  the  beginning  of  his  fable  of  the  bramble :  ''  Hearken 
unto  me,  ye  men  of  Shechem,  that  God  may  hearken  mito  you." 
This  sounds  like  a  voice  from  heaven,  and  it  is  echoed  by  Isaiah 
Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel.^  His  fable  betrays  none  of  the  ambition  of 
the  'mere  demagogue.  It  might  be  regarded  in  some  of  its  asjiects 
as  a  funeral  sermon  for  his  slain  brothers,  whom  he  compares  to  the 
vine,  the  fig-tree,  and  the  olive.  But  it  concludes  with  a  terrible 
malediction  from  God,  which  thunders  over  Mount  Gerizim  during 
the  life  of  Abimelech,  and  tlicn  falls  upon  him  and  on  his  idolatrous 
subjects  :  "  And  all  the  evil  of  the  men  of  Shechem  did  God  render 
upon  their  heads ;  and  upon  them  came  the  curse  of  Jotham,  the 
son  of  Jerubbaal."  As  to  the  fable  of  the  thistle  and  cedar,  which 
was  sent  by  Joash  to  Amaziah,  it  was  probably  the  inspired  com- 
position of  some  prophet  at  the  court  of  the  king  of  Israel.  Heze- 
kiah  addressed  to  Sennacherib  a  divine  communication  which  Isaiah 
had  received,  rebuking  the  pride  and  predicting  the  destruction  of 
the  king  of  Assyria..  This  is  rendered  the  more  probable  from  the 
fact  that  Joash  had  been  the  friend  of  the  true  prophets.  He 
visited  Elishain  his  last  sickness,  wept  over  his  face,  and  addressed 
him  as  "  the  chariot  of  Israel  and  the  horsemen  thereof"  The 
dying  prophet  promised  him  three  victories  over  Benhadad,  king  of 
Syria.  Besides,  Amaziah  declared  war  against  Joash  without  pro- 
vocation, and  contrary  to  the  repeated  warnings  of  a  man  of  God.^ 
Here  also  the  event  sets  its  seal  that  the  proj)hccy  is  true.     Nor  is 

1  Isa.  Ixv.  12;  Ixvi  4;  Jer.  vii.  13;  Ezek  viii   18.  2  2  Chron.  xxv. 


OF  THE  FABLE.  413 

this  view  without  confirmation  from  the  words  of  the  inspired 
chronicler  which  close  the  fable  :  "  But  Amaziah  would  not  hear ; 
for  it  came  of  God  that  he  might  deliver  them  into  the  hand  of 
their  enemies,  because  they  sought  after  the  gods  of  Edom."  We 
have  dwelt  the  longer  on  this  well-meant  attempt  to  disparage  the 
Scripture  fables,  because  it  is  a  highly  important  question,  rhetori- 
cally considered,  whether  these  fables  are  given  by  inspiration  of 
God,  and  are,  consequently,  to  be  commended  to  the  intelligent 
imitation  of  the  young  preacher. 

So  far  from  the  fable  having  no  place  in  Scripture,  it  does  in  sub- 
stance, if  not  in  form,  occupy  a  large  and  honourable  space  therein. 
Even  the  transgression  or  temporary  suspension  of  the  laws  of  na- 
ture, though  in  itself  considered,  it  is  a  good  reason  why  the  Great 
Teacher  did  not  represent  speaking  trees  and  reasoning  beasts,  yet 
when  we  remember  that  all  men,  from  the  earliest  times,  have  be- 
lieved in  a  miraculcTus  power,  why  may  it  not  be  a  sufficient  offset 
to  the  above  hypothesis  to  say  that  the  fabulous  element  in  the 
Scriptures  was  intended  to  satisfy  the  cravings  and  to  nourish  the 
growth  of  this  faith  in  the  wonders  of  the  Almighty  ?  Does  not 
the  fable  stand  before  the  young  as  a  perpetual  witness  of  the  ex- 
istence and  the  anomalies  of  the  supernatural  ?  And  does  not  the 
biblical  fable  rebuke  the  ravings  of  our  inspired  Rationalists  just 
as  the  ass  once  rebuked  the  anger  of  a  prophet,  who  was  not  more 
blind  to  the  presence  of  a  sworded  angel  than  the  most  covetous 
and  the  most  worldly-wise  of  them  all.  Many  of  the  proverbs  of 
Solomon  are  distilled  fables  {e.  g.,  Prov.  xxvi.  11,  xxx.  15,  25-28), 
while  animals  are  prophetic  symbols  of  monarchies  (Ezek.  xvii. 
1-10 ;  Dan.  vii.  3-8).  And  some  of  the  allegories  bring  forward 
beasts  as  the  emblems  of  political  power  (Psa.  Ixxx.  8-16).  In  the 
parable  of  Nathan  the  lamb  represents  the  wife  of  the  slain  Uriah. 
The  two  inspired  and  prophetic  dreams  of  Joseph  were  constructed 
fable- wise,  in  marvellous  disregard  of  an  all-pervading  material  law. 

Even  the  classic  fable  has  an  honourable  descent.  Hesiod/  the 
first  of  the  Greeks  who  made  this  figure,  was  of  Asiatic  ancestry, 
and  was  the  most  religious  of  the  ethnic  poets.  It  has  been  infer- 
red from  Pausanius  and  others  that  he  was  a  priest  of  the  temple 
of  the  Muses  on  Mount  Helicon.  There  exists,  as  critics  observe, 
a  strong  resemblance  between  the  hexameter  oracles  of  Pythia  and 
the  verses  of  Hesiod.  There  is  a  verse  in  his  "Works  and  Days  " 
which  is  also  mentioned  by  Herodotus  as  a  Pythian  oracle,  and  the 
poet  himself  is  said  to  have  possessed  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  to 


1  Fable  of  the  Hawk  and  Nightingale,  Op.  et  Di.,  200. 


414  THE  FABLE. 

have  acquired  it  in  Acarnania.  As  to  iEsop,  he  also  appears  to 
have  been  of  Asiatic  origin.  He  is  said  to  liave  visited  Persia  and 
Egypt,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  he  was  the  same  fabulist  who 
is  in  the  East  called  Lokman,  Avhom  Oriental  tradition  represents 
as  an  ugly  black  slave.  At  any  rate,  ^sop  was  of  a  serious  and 
religious  turn  of  mind,  and  his  fables  were  related  not  for  the 
amusement  of  princes,  but  were  some  of  them  parts  of  actual 
speeches  delivered  in  behalf  of  piety,  justice,  and  mercy.  His  fable 
of  the  fox,  the  horse-leeches,  and  the  hedgehog  was  made  while 
pleading  at  Samos  in  behalf  of  a  demagogue  who  was  tried  for  his 
life.^  He  lost  his  life  while  on  a  pious  pilgrimage  to  Delphi,  whith- 
er he  was  sent  by  Croesus  with  a  large  sum  of  monkey  in  order  to 
offer  a  magnificent  sacrifice  to  Apollo,  and  also  to  present  a  gift  to 
each  inhabitant  of  the  sacred  city.  It  is  doubtful  whether  ^sop 
ever  icrote  his  fables,  but  they  were  circulated  orally  throughout 
Greece,  and  some  of  them  occupied  the  attention  of  Socrates  in 
his  last  days.  Diogenes  Laertius^  has  handed  down  to  us  the  be- 
ginning of  one  of  the  fables  which  Socrates  put  into  verse : 

"  yEsop  one  day  did  thifS  sage  counsel  give 
To  the  Corinthian  magistrates  :    Not  to  trust 
The  cause  of  virtue  to  the  people's  judgment." 

The  rest  is  wanting,  but  the  fable  Socrates  thus  rendered  into  verse 
from  recollection  was,  we  conjecture,  that  of  the  frogs  praying  for 
a  king.  This  is  the  only  genuine  fable  of  his  which  is  susceptible 
of  such  an  application.  We  are  told  that  they  desired  a  king  in 
order  that  by  his  authority  he  might  check  their  dissolute  morals. 
The  log  and  the  water-snake  correspond  to  the  annual  magistrate, 
and  the  despot  Clypselus,  who  having  made  himself  a  great  fa- 
vourite with  the  people,  overthrew  and  expelled  the  magistrates  or 
Bacchiadai.  The  only  objection  to  this  hypothesis  is  the  auchority 
of  Phcedrus,3  who  makes  the  Avater-snake  answer  to  Pisistratus,  the 
Tyrant  of  Athens,  and  the  log  to  Solon  the  Archon.  But  it  is  safer 
to  trust  Socrates.'*  Any  how,  this  passage  from  Plato  and  this  frag- 
ment from  Lacrtius  ser\e  to  show. how  the  great  fabulist  Avas  then 
regarded  at  Athens,  and  in  what  estimation  he  was  held  by  the 
great  philosopher  himself  at  a  time  when  he  was  anxious  to  dis- 
charge his  conscience  and  so  prepare  himself  for  death.  Demos- 
thenes is  said  to  have  related  ^Esop's  fable  of  the  sheep  and  the 
wolves  when  dissuading  the  Athenians  from  surrendering  the  ora- 
tors to  Alexander. 

1  .\rist.,  Rhet.,  L.  ii..  c.  xx.         2  De  Vitis,  L.  ii.,  sec.  42.         3  Fab.,  L.  i.,  F.ib.  ii. 
4  Plato,  Piix'do  V)12. 


OF  THE  FABLE.  415 

The  fables  of  iEsop,  with  then-  natural  accretions,  have  been  ad- 
mired and  quoted  by  many  learned  and  eloquent  preachers.  The 
first  of  the  principal  editions  of  this  fabulist  was  collected  by  Pla- 
nudes,  a  Greek  monk  of  the  14th  century.  And  Luther,  in  the 
castle  of  Coburg,  while  daily  employed  in  translating  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  occupied  his  moments  of  recreation  in  preparing  a  poj?- 
ular  edition  of  ^sop.  "  I  am,"  he  writes,  "  making  a  Zion  out  of 
this  Sinai,  and  build  here  three  tabernacles :  one  for  the  Psalmist, 
one  for  the  Prophets,  and  one  for  iEsop."  The  great  Reformer 
also  occasionally  used  fables  in  his  sermons  and  homilies.  "  There 
is  no  cause,"  says  Storr,  "  to  consider  the  very  ancient  and,  as  Lu- 
ther has  well  observed,  highly  excellent  method  of  teaching  by  fa- 
bles, as  trifling  or  unworthy  of  Christ,^  nor  are  we  immediately  to 
conclude  from  there  being  no  mention  of  the  apologue  or  com- 
pletely moral  fable  spoken  by  our  Lord,  that  he  never  spoke  any- 
thing of  the  kind." 

Nor  has  the  Divine  Spirit  disdained  to  make  an  allusion  to  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  ethnic  fables.  Li  1  Cor.  xii.  12-27, 
Paul  employs  metaphorically  a  fable  which  Livy  puts  into  the 
mouth  of  Menenius  Agrippa,2  who  is  said  to  have  reconciled  the 
people  to  the  senators  by  that  well-kpown  fable  about  the  mem- 
bers of  the  human  body  revolting  against  the  belly.  The  apostle 
here  uses  the  fable  most  skilfully  and  agreeably  to  the  counsel  of 
Aristotle^  (if  the  writer  of  an  epistle  which  is  to  be  read  to  the 
Church  may  in  this  case  take  the  advice  that  propei'ly  belongs  to 
the  orator).     "  For  an  orator,"  says  he,  "  ought  to  construct  tables 


1  May  there  not  be  an  allusion  to  a  fable  in  these  words  of  our  Divine  Master  1 
"It  is  like  unto  children  sitting  in  the  market  and  calling  unto  their  fellows,  and 
saying,  We  have  piped  unto  you,  and  ye  have  not  danced,"  etc.  (Matt.  xi. 
16-19).  Wolfius  (in  Curfe  Phil.)  quotes  a  similar  proverbial  saying  from^sop. 
We  conjecture  that  this  was  part  of  a  song  of  the  fish  boys  in  the  Oriental  mar- 
kets, founded  on  the  well-known  fable  made  by  Cyrus  at  Sardis  (Heroditus,  L. 
i.,  c.  cxli.),  in  reply  to  the  Ionian  and  jEolian  Greeks  :  "  There  was  a  certain 
piper,  who  was  walking  one  day  by  the  sea-side,  when  he  espied  some  fish ;  so 
he  began  to  pipe  to  them,  imagining  they  would  come  out  to  him  upon  the  land. 
But  as  he  found  at  last  that  his  hope  was  vain,  he  took  a  net,  and,  enclosing  a 
great  draught  of  fishes,  drew  them  ashore.  The  fish  then  began  to  leap  and 
dance ;  but  the  piper  said.  Cease  your  dancing  now,  as  you  did  not  choose  to 
come  and  dance  when  I  piped  to  you."  Since  writing  the  above,  we  find  a  simi- 
lar opinion  in  "  Bowyer's  Conjectures"  on  Luke  vii.  32. 

2  Hist.,  L  ii.,  c.  xxxii. ;  Lokman,  Fab.  xxxii.  ;  jEsop,  Denis  of  Halicarnassus 
and  Florus.  There  are  also  allusions  to  this  fable  in  Seneca,  De  Ira,  L.  ii.,  and 
in  Marc.  Antoni.,  Med.,  L.  ii.,  U.;  Quint.,  Inst.  Orat ,  Lib.  v.,  c.  si.,  ^20. 

3  Rhet.,  L.  ii.,  c.  xx. 


41G  OF  THE  FABLE. 

just  as  he  does  his  parables"  (illustrations,  or  cases  siipposed),  "if 
he  be  able  to  discover  the  point  of  similitude,  a  thing  wliich  will 
be  easy  if  he  be  of  a  philosophical  turn  of  mind."  As  the  Gospel 
is  to  be  preached  to  all  men,  fables  are  not  out  of  place  either  in 
the  sermon  or  the  ecclesiastical  letter ;  for,  as  Quintilian  has  ob- 
served, they  are  adapted  especially  to  attract  the  minds  of  rustic 
and  illiterate  people,  who  listen  less  suspiciously  than  others  to  fic- 
tions, and,  charmed  by  the  pleasure  they  find  in  them,  put  faith  in 
that  which  delights  them.  But  it  is  well,  in  the  more  animated 
parts  of  discourse,  and  particularly  in  addressing  the  learned,  and 
worldlings,  and  carping  critics,  to  follow  the  example  of  the  in- 
spired I'aul,  and  relate  fables  hypotheticalhj.  We  have  here  his 
authority  for  also  employing  fables  for  a  different  and  higher  ob- 
ject than  the  one  the  original  fabulist  had  in  view.  We  are  at  lib- 
erty to  use  fables  in  a  variety  of  other  w^ays :  by  mere  brief  allusion 
to  a  well-known  one,  by  repeating  only  such  a  part  as  suits  our 
purpose,  or  by  relating  the  whole  of  one  very  little  known  or  of 
one  of  our  own  invention,  either  with  the  original  or  with  a  new 
application.  In  short,  the  rules  we  have  elsewhere  laid  down  for 
the  use  of  the  i)arable  are  in  general  api)licable  to  the  treatment  of 
the  fable  also. 

But  the  skilful  employment  of  fables  is  best  learned  from  the 
example  of  Paul  and  other  preachers.  Not  only  Luther,  but 
Wiekliffe  also,  used  fables.  In  one  of  his  homilies  the  latter  dis- 
courses thus :  "  Christian  men  might  well  say,  as  the  poet  in  his  fa- 
ble represents  the  frogs  as  saying  to  the  harrow,  '  Cursed  be  so 
many  masters.'  For  in  this  day  Christian  men  are  oppressed  now 
with  popes,  and  now  with  bishoj^s,  now  with  cardinals  under  popes, 
and  now  with  prelates  under  bishops."  Thomas  Adams  compares 
any  sin  Avhich  promises  to  remove  trotible  to  the  axe  which  begged 
a  helve  of  the  confederate  trees,  under  pretence  of  ridding  them  of 
sapping  and  shading  undergrowths.  And  Whitefield,  as  1  recollect, 
somewhere  compares  the  lot  of  the  rich  and  the  poor,  when  over- 
taken by  a  common  calamity,  by  a  beautiful  allusion  to  the  fable  of 
the  Oak  and  the  lleed,  the  former  torn  up  by  the  roots,  the  latter 
bowing  down  for  a  little  while  beneath  the  storm,  and  then  joy- 
fully lifting  up  its  head.  Jeremiah  Seed  pointedly  closes  a  para- 
graph by  quoting  that  part  of  Horace's  allusion  to  -^Esop's  fible  of 
the  Fox  and  the  Sick  Lion  which  has  passed  into  a  proverb  : 
"This  is  the  case  of  your  deliberate,  determined,  presumptuous  sin- 
ners— men  who  wilfully  step  aside  out  of  the  path  of  innocence  and 
virtue,  upon  a  presumption  of  being  able  to  return  into  it  again, 
after  they  have  compassed  such  a  situation  in  life.     But  alas  !    Yes- 


1 


OF  THE  METAPHOR.  417 

tlgia  2->auca  retrorsumy  Julius  Charles  Hare  has  imitated  the 
apostle  Paul's  aUusion  to  a  fable  :  "  At  present  that  which  ought  to 
be  Christ's  body,  the  body  coi'porate  of  mankind,  is  wholly  out  of 
joint,  and  stricken  with  an  almost  universal  palsy.  The  members, 
for  the  most  part,  mstead  of  helping,  war  against  each  other. 
Each  strives  to  live  and  to  act  solely  for  its  own  sake.  The  eye 
will  not  minister  to  the  ear,  nor  the  ear  to  the  eye.  The  hands 
rob  each  other.  The  heart  is  loth  to  pour  forth  its  blood.  Every 
hmb  is  impeding  the  circulation,  that  it  may  keep  all  it  can  to  it- 
self; although,  by  a  righteous  judgment,  it  is  itself  the  greatest  suf- 
ferer thereby ;  for  pain  loves  to  prey  on  the  full  rather  than  on  the 
empty." 

But  here  we  must  subjoin  one  cautionary  hint.  The  fable  suf- 
fers more  than  any  other  figure  from  an  incongruity.  Thus  Mr. 
Hare's  fable  is  marred  with  the  impropriety  of  first  representing 
the  body  as  wholly  out  of  joint  and  stricken  with  an  almost  univer- 
sal palsy.  So,  too,  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold,  in  discussing  the  question 
whether  the  Church  of  England  ought  to  be  disestablished,  says 
that  the  cry  of  the  Nonconformists  "  is  a  little  like  that  proposal 
of  the  fox  who  had  lost  his  own  tail  to  put  all  the  other  foxes  in 
the  same  boat  by  a  general  cutting  oS  of  tails."  The  figurative 
phrase,  "  in  the  same  boat "  introduces  an  image  remote  from  the 
fable,  and  ridiculous  in  itself  The  eflTect  of  such  incongruities  on 
the  mind  is  not  unllks  the  impression  made  on  the  eye  and  the 
fancy  by  putting  into  a  magic-lantern  two  pictures  at  a  time,  and 
side  by  side. 

Sectioi^  v.— Of  the  Metaphor. 

Metaphor  is  afiirmed  by  some  to  consist  in  things,  by  others  to 
consist  in  words.  It  has,  therefore,  been  variously  defined  as  one 
thing  put  for  another  which  it  resembles,  or  as  one  word  substituted 
for  another  on  account  of  the  resemblance  or  analogy  between 
their  significations.  But  if  a  word  expresses  an  idea,  then  both  are 
put  for  others  which  they  resemble.  In  the  metaphor  the  sense  of 
the  word  is  not  changed.  It  is  only  employed  in  a  new  connec- 
tion and  with  a  new  application.  Aristotle^  comprehends  synech- 
doche  imder  the  term  metaphor.  "  A  metaphor,"  says  he,  "  is  a 
transposition  of  a  noun  from  its  proper  signification,  either  from  the 
genus  to  the  species  or  from  the  species  to  the  genus,  or  from  spe- 

1  De  Poetic,  c.  xxi. 


418  OF  THE  METAPHOR. 

cies  to  species,  or  according  to  analogy."  Since  the  days  of  Cicero- 
only  the  third  and  fourth  kinds  of  tropes  have  been  regarded  as 
metajthors.  These  are  illustrated  by  Aristotle  thus:  '' A  transpo- 
sition from  species  to  species  is  such  as 

'The  brazen  falchion  drew  away  his  hfe;' 
And 

'Cut  by  tlie  rutliless  .sword.' 

For  here,  in  the  first  case,  to  draw  axcay  is  used  instead  of  to  cut ; 
and  in  the  second,  to  cut  is  used  instead  of  to  drain  airaij  ;  since 
both  imply  ting  something  away.  But  I  call  it  analogous  when 
the  relation  of  the  second  term  to  the  first  is  similar. to  that  of  the 
fourth  to  the  third;  for  then  the  fourth  is  used  instead  of  the  sec- 
ond, or  the  second  instead  of  the  fourth.  .  .  I  say,  for  instance,  a 
cup  has  a  similar  relation  to  Bacchus  that  a  shield  has  to  ]\Iars. 
Hence  a  shield  may  be  called  the  cup  of  Mars,  and  a  cup  the  shield 
of  Bacchus.  One  may  therefore  say  that  evening  is  the  old  age  of 
day,  and  that  old  age  is  the  evening  of  life." 

Classic  writers  applied  the  term  with  less  discrimination  than 
the  modems  do.  They  often  employed  it  as  not  only  synonymous 
with  synecdoche,  but  also  with  anthropopathy.  Essentially  con- 
sidered, it  may  imlced  be  detected  in  many  a  figure  that  very 
properly  passes  imder  another  name.  Personification  and  other 
figures  which  attribute  life  and  action  to  things  inanimate  were  for- 
merly thought  to  be  metaphorical  in  their  nature.  Thus  Cicero, 
speaking  of  Chiudius  (Pro  Milon..  c.  xxxi.),  says:  "In  truth,  the 
holy  places  tliemselvcs  wliicli  beheld  that  monster  fall,  seemed  to 
move  themselves  and  to  assert  their  rights  against  him."  Here  the 
holy  places  appear  to  imitate  the  priests.  An  e\ami)le  from  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen  is  yet  more  bold  :  "  Ye  orators  speak  now.  I,  this 
tomb,  keep  closed  in  silence  the  lips  of  the  great  Ami^hiloehus." 
In  this  case  the  tomb  plays  the  orator. 

The  figure  termed  vision  is  very  frequently  of  the  nature  of 
metaphor.  Thus  the  prophet  Theoclymenus-  beholds  tinjlit  as  a 
similitude  of  death,  wrapping  itself  around  the  faces,  bodies,  and 
limbs  of  the  suitors  who  riot  in  the  halls  of  Ulysses.  It  is  likewise 
notieeable  that  Homer  has  here  illustrated  the  aptitude  of  all  ab- 
ject and  reprobate  men  to  construe  ligurative  language  literally: 

"  Ho  said,  they  hcarinj;  laughed  ;  and  thus  the  son 
Of  Polybus,  Eurymaclius  replied, 

1  De  Orat.,  Lib.  iii.,  c.  xxxix. ;  Quint.,  Lib.  viii.,  c.  vi. ;  Campbell,  Philso. 
Uh.'t. 

2  Odyssey,  xx.,  3ol-352,  3G0-3G3. 


OF  THE  METAPHOR.  419 

This  wanderer  from  a  distant  shore  hath  left 
His  wits  behind.     Hoa  there  !  conduct  him  thence 
Into  the  forum ;  since  he  dreams  it  night 
Already,  teach  him  there  that  it  is  day.'" 

But  more  on  this  subject  two  or  three  pages  hence. 

The  metaphor  and  the  simile  often  assist  each  other.  The  simile 
may  first  point  out  the  resemblance,  and  then  as  the  discourse 
quickens  its  pace  the  words  denoting  comparison  are  thrown  aside 
as  a  cloak  of  cumbersome  weight ;  or,  on  the  contrary,  the  too 
swift  discourse  may  slacken  its  pace  in  order  to  state  the  similitude 
w^hich  was  before  only  implied,  as  if  to  gather  the  floating  cloak 
more  closely  about  the  person,  in  order  that  the  runner  may  be 
more  easily  recognised.  Examples  of  the  former  kind  are  found 
(Matt.  vii.  20  ;  Luke  xi.  35).  Take  also  the  following  instance  from 
one  of  the  sermons  of  Jeremiah  Seed  :  "  A  man  that  is  divided  be- 
tween piety  and  sin  is  like  one  that  lives  on  the  confines  oi  two 
mighty  contending  states ;  his  heart  is  a  constant  seat  of  war ; 
and  he  is  sometimes  under  the  dominion  of  virtue,  and  sometimes 
under  the  tyranny  of  vice."  It  is,  however,  remarkable  that  very 
few  Scrijjture  similes  are  transformed  into  metaphors.  They  are 
more  commonly  followed  by  words  of  literal  explanation  (Jer.  xi. 
19 ;  xvii.  6-8 ;  Ezek.  xxxiii.  32  ;  Heb.  xiii.  15).  Not  only  similes 
but  metaphors  also  are  followed  by  a  literal  interpretation  (Isa.  i. 
22-23  i  xi.  6-9  ;  Amos  iii.  8). 

Examples  of  Scripture  metaphors  -explained  by  similes  are  not 
uncommon  (Isa.  lix.  9,  10;  Jer.  xliii.  12;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  11-13; 
Matt,  xxiii.  37;  James  i.  6;  iii.  2,  3).  As  the  Divine  Spirit  has  al- 
ways, when  necessary,  sacrificed  strength  and  gracefulness  to  clear- 
ness of  style,  we  cannot  be  at  a  loss  for  the  reason  why  he  appends 
to  a  metaphor  a  literal  statement  or  else  a  simile,  which  is  the  most 
perspicuous  of  all  figures.  As  an  uninspired  instance  under  this 
head,  take  the  following  from  one  of  Augustine's  homilies  :  "  There 
is,  as  it  were,' the  army  of  an  emj^eror  seated  within  my  mind.  For 
as  an  emperor  by  his  army  does  what  he  will,  so  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  once  beginning  to  dwell  in  our  inner  man,  uses  these  vir- 
tues as  his  ministers." 

The  parenthesis,  as  it  were.,  employed  in  the  last  example  and  by 
the  most  eloquent  preachers,  is  not  approved  by  Dr.  Blair  and  some 
other  writers  on  rhetoric.  They  think  that  the  metaphor  which 
needs  this  extenuation  or  apology  may  safely  be  omitted.  The 
phrase  may  indeed  be  too  frequently  repeated ;  but  its  occasional 
use  is  authorised  by  inspired  examples  (Isa  v.  18;  xxvi.  20  ;  liii.  3). 


420  OF  THE  METAPHOR. 

It  will  sometimes  serve  to  prevent  a  metaphor  from  being  under- 
stood literally. 

As  a  general  rule,  on  the  contrary,  when  we  are  addressing  true 
believers  who  read  their  Bibles  daily,  and  whose  thoughts  and  style 
are  in  consequence  imbued  with  Scripture  conceptions  and  expres- 
sions, we  seldom  have  any  just  occasion  to  intimate  to  them  that 
we  are  speaking  metaphorically.  For  universally  the  same  grace 
that  makes  them  lovers  of  Scripture  makes  them  also  ready  and 
accurate  interpreters  of  all  metaphors  that  have  been  made  on 
sound  principles.  But  all  unbelievers  and  all  mere  formal  i)rofess- 
ors,  who  neither  love  nor  read  the  Scriptures,  are  provokingly  and 
portentously  liable  to  take  figures  literally.  Thus  when  Jeremiah' 
spoke  figuratively  of  bottles  filled  with  wine,  his  idolatrous  hearers 
said,  "  Do  we  not  certainly  know  that  every  bottle  shall  be  filled 
with  wine  V  "  Thus  Xicodemus  asked,  "  IIow  can  a  man  be  born 
when  he  is  old  ?"'  and  the  woman  of  Samaria  said,  "  Sir,  thou  hast 
nothing  to  draw  with,  and  the  well  is  deep.  From  whence,  then,  • 
hast  thou  that  living  water  '■  "  The  Jews,  on  another  occasion, 
strove  among  themselves,  saying,  "  IIow  can  this  man  give  us  his 
flesh  to  eat  ?  "  The  false  and  disagreeing  witnesses  said, ''  We  have 
heard  him  say,  I  will  destroy  this  temple  that  is  made  with  hands, 
and  within  three  days  I  will  build  another  made  Avithout  hands."' 
And  it  is  not  unworthy  of  note  that  on  one  occasion,  when  the  dis- 
ciples supposed  their  Divine  Master  Avas  speaking  of  literal  instead 
of  metaphorical  leaven,  they  were  reproved  by  him  with  uncom- 
mon sharpness  :  "  O  ye  of  little  faith.  .  .  Do  ye  not  yet  'under- 
stand, neither  remember  ?  .  .  IIow  is  it  that  ye  do  not  under- 
stand y  "  (Matt.  xvi.  G-1"J).  It  was  their  unbelief  that  made  them  so 
slow  tQ  understand. 

When,  therefore,  the  preacher  is  addressing  dull  formalists  and 
unbelievers,  however  well  educated  and  intelligent  in  other  respects, 
he  will  find  frequent  occasion  to  say,  "  as  it  were,"  "  in  some  sense," 
"  figuratively  speaking,"  "  or  to  speak  without  a  figure,"  ''  or  in  plain 
terms,"  etc.  Luther  was  well  aware  of  the  propen^sity  of  some 
hearers  to  take  figures  literally.  In  a  sermon  on  Christ's  Descent 
into  Ilt'll,  speaking  according  to  the  representations  of  the  old 
monkish  pictures,  he  said  that  Jesus  beat  in  the  gates  oi"  hell  with 
his  victorious  banner.  "  If,"  he  atlds,  "  the  matter  were  who  should 
be  the  cunningest,  I  could  be  as  cunning  as  those  who  mock  us  and 
scornfully  ask,  '  How  then  was  it  ?  Was  the  banner  made  of  pa- 
per or  of  cloth  ?     How  came  it  to  pass  that  it  was  not  burned  in 

1  Jor.  xiii.  12. 


OF  THE  METAPHOR.  421 

hell  ?  What  kind  of  gates,  doors,  and  bars  were  there  in  hell  ? 
Were  they  of  iron  or  AYOod  ? '  Now,  were  I  to  endeavour  to  fath- 
om, to  represent  and  to  heighten  these  promises  without  images,  and 
a:^  they  are  in  themselves,  I  could  not  express,  nor  couldst  thou  un- 
derstand them.  On  this  account  the  outward  tokens,  images,  and 
comparisons  are  good  and  useful  to  paint  the  thing  so  that  thou 
mayest  comprehend  .and  retain  it."  Every  preacher  can  sympathise 
with  the  feelings  here  expressed  by  the  great  Reformer. 

And  the  history  of  false  doctrines  abundantly  proves  that  men 
are  more  prone  to  misinterpret  metaphors  than  they  are  similes  or 
parables.  This  conclusion  would  favor  the  notion  that  it  is  not  the 
parable,  but,  if  any  figure,  the  metaphor  that  was  intended  as  a  veil 
to  intercept  the  light  to  those  who  love  darkness,  as  a  means  of 
withholding  from  the  reprobate  the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  or  as 
an  instrument  of  smiting  them  with  j^enal  blindness*  We  are  of 
the  number  of  those  Avho  deny  that  the  Father  of  Lights  has  in- 
vested any  figure  with  a  judicial  character.  Certain  it  is,  however, 
that  the  most  deadly  and  wide-spread  heresies  have  sprung  from  a 
guilty  inability  to  discover  the  difference  between  certain  meta- 
phorical and  literal  expressions.  Great  numbers  throughout  nomi- 
nal Christendom  are  fatally  deceiving  themselves  as  to  the  meaning 
of  such  a  Scripture  metaphorical  metonymy^  as  this  :  "  This  is  my 
body."  .  .  "  This  is  my  blood."  From  this  one  mistake  has  arisen 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  or  the  transmutation  of  the 
sacramental  bread  and  wine  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and 
the  doctrine  of  consubstantiation,  or  the  incorporation  or  introduc- 
tion of  Christ's  body  and  blood  into  the  consecrated  elements ; 
both  asserting  the  substantial  or  corporeal  presence  of  Jesus  in  the 
Eucharist ! 

Lord  Kames  has  said  that  in  expressing  any  severe  passion  that 
wholly  occupies  the  mind,  metaphor  is  improper.  He  seems  to 
have  overlooked  the  fact  that  metaphor  is  the  natural  and  sj^onta- 
neous  language  of  the  all-absorbing  passions.  His  lordship  would 
have  been  nearer  right  if  he  had  ai^plied  this  rule  to  the  proper  use 
of  allegories,  or  other  long  trains  of  implied  resemblances.  Dr. 
Carson  is  hardly  less  in  the  wrong  when  he  affirms  that,  with  few 
excei)tions,  grief,  despair,  or  any  of  the  dispiriting  passions  is  sel- 
dom found  to  employ  this  figure.  The  Book  and  Lamentations  of 
Jeremiah  make  short  work  with  this  theory. 

Some  rhetoricians  advise  us  never  to  make  use  of  the  same  word 


1  I.  e.,  the  thing  signified  being  put  for  the  sign,  and  3'et  the  idea  of  resem- 
blance is  not  wanting. 


422  OF  THE  METAniOll. 

to  express  metaphorically  opposite  ideas.  Others,  discussing  the  sub- 
ject philosophically,  claim  to  have  discovered  that  all  mankind 
make  metaphors  according  to  certain  universal  laws.  Thus  llichter 
has  observed  that  no  nation  calls  error  light,  and  truth  darkness- 
But  it  should  be  remembered  that,  as  Glassius^  has  indicated,  the 
many  dilTcrent  qualities  and  attributes  of  the  same  object  may  be 
made  to  convey  metai)horically  many  diverse  ideas.  Chi'ist  is  called 
a  lion,  and  so  is  Satan.  Leaven  is  employed  in  a  good  sense  as 
well  as  a  bad.  Sleep  expresses  at  once  the  hopeful  repose  of  the 
blessed  dead  and  the  false  security  of  sinners.  The.  smi  denotes 
happiness  and  unhap])incss.2  A  shadow  signifies  protection ;  also 
great  perils  and  adversities.  A  river  denotes  j^lenty  of  blessings; 
it  likewise  expresses  terrors  and.  overwhelming  evils.  The  harvest 
is  used  in  both  a  good  and  a  bad  sense.  And  so  are  the  words 
treasure  and  treasurer.  So  we  may  warrantably  say,  '■  Hoods  of 
fire,"  and  "  ghosts  of  stars."  The  most  trustworthy  canon,  and 
founded  on  divine  usage,  is  this,  that  the  same  metaphorical  word 
ought  not  to  be  employed  on  the  same  occasion  or  connection  to 
express  diflerent  or  opposite  ideas. 

A  succession  of  distinct  metaphors,  like  that  of  similes  and  par- 
ables, is  sometimes  not  only  allowable,  but  very  serviceable.  Lord 
Kamcs  and  Dr.  Blair  would  dissuade  the  young  orator  from  this. 
The  former  forbids  the  joining  together  of  two  metaphors  in  the 
same  period ;  the  latter  condemns  Horace  for  crowding  together 
three  metaphors  in  describing  the  difficulty  of  Pollio's  writing  a 
history  of  the  civil  wars.  But  the  Divine  Sj^lrit,  speaking  by  the 
mouth  of  Jeremiah,  is  better  authority  than  they.  In  the  first  sixteen 
verses  of  the  3d  chapter  of  Lamentations  we  find  more  mctaf)hors 
than  verses  employed  to  describe  the  variety  and  severity  of  the 
Aveeping  prophet's  miseries.  Jam^s  likewise  accumulates  metaphors 
to  describe  the  evils  of  an  ungoverned  tongue.  This  member  is  a 
boaster,  a  fire  in  a  forest,  a  world  of  iniquity,  an  untamable  beast. 
The  mouth  is  a  fountain  sending  forth  at  the  same  oi^ening  sweet 
Avater  and  bitter,  salt  and  fresh.  It  is  a  fig-tree  bearing  olives;  a 
vine  bearmg  figs.  The  curse  of  the  Father  of  all  on  the  covetous 
rich  and  their  ill-gotten  gains  is  a  moth  in  their  best  garments,  a 
rust  among  their  treasured  gold  and  silver — a  rust  which  is  at  once 
a  witness  against  them  before  God,  and  a  fire  eating  their  own  flesh. 
The  hire  of  the  labourers  fraudulently  kept  back  cries  out  and  enters 
into  the  ears  of  the  Lord  of  Sabaoth. 

1  Pliilologia  Sacra.,  Lib.  v.,  tract  i.,  cap.  v. 

2  Judjics  V.  31 ;  Psa.  cxxi.  6  ;  Matt.  xiii.  G,  21. 


OF  THE  METAPHOR.  403 

All  the  princiijal  rhetoricians  condemn  the  use  of  mixed  meta- 
phors, or  a  grotesque,  monstrous,  or  impossible  combination  of 
images.  Some  quote  against  this  practice  Horace's  lines  in 
his  letter  ad  Pisones,  which  compare  the  unskilful  poet  to  the 
painter  who  represents  a  monster  whose  niembers  are  taken  froni 
various  kinds  of  animals,  having  the  head  of  a  man,  the  neck  of  a 
horse,  etc.  Others  quote  Quintilian's  censure  of  those  who  begin  a 
metaphor  with  a  tempest,  and  conclude  it  with  a  conflagration. 
Shakespeare,  who  was  often  guilty  of  this  fault,  they  single  out  for 
exemplary  punishment ;  particularly  these  words : 

"Or  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles." 

How  absurd,  say  they,  to  think  of  drawing  one's  sword  upon  a  ris- 
ing tide.  Addison,  who,  alas  !  is  in  the  same  condemnation,  advises 
us  to  try  to  form  a  picture  of  our  ideas,  and  by  considering  how  the 
parts  would  agree  when  delineated,  find  out  whether  or  not  they  be 
of  the  mixed  or  simple  sort.  Evidently  Dr.  Tholuck  did  not  think 
of  this  while  he  said,  "  When  the  tongue  goes  upon  stilts,  reason 
spreads  but  half  her  sails."  Now,  as  to  Shakespeare's  notorious  met- 
aphor, it  needs  no  words  to  prove  that  we  can  picture  the  scene 
both  in  imagination  and  on  canvas.  Nor  is  it  hard  to  believe  that 
Shakespeare  had  in  mind  when  he  wrote,  as  doubtless  many  thou- 
sands of  Englishmen  have  had  in  mind  when  they  heard  these 
words.  King  Canute  reproving  his  flatterers  by  vainly  commanding 
the  sea-tide  to  obey  him.  At  any  rate,  the  classical  student  will 
recall  the  like  offence  of  iEschylus^  against  metaphorical  propriety 
when  he  puts  into  the  mouth  of  lo,  the  daughter  of  Inachus,  this 
despairing  plaint :  "  But  my  troubled  words  dash  idly  against  the 
surges  of  loathsome  calamity."  But,. still  more  unhappily  for  the 
rhetoricians,  by  attacking  all  such  figures  they  are  opposing  with 
military  Aveapons  a  sea  of  Scripture  metaphors.  What  do  they 
propose  to  do  with  the  four-faced  creatures  seen  in  the  vision  of 
Ezekiel  ?  What  with  Daniel's  vision  of  a  great  ram  behaving  like 
an  emperor,  and  of  a  he-goat  that  touched  not  the  ground,  and  had 
a  horn  between  his  eyes  ?  What  with  the  holy  John's  vision  of  the 
ram  with  seven  head's  and  ten  horns,  and  sea  of  glass  mingled  with 
fire  ?  What  with  this  most  beautiful  and  consolatory  assurance : 
"  Light  is  sown  for  the  righteous  ?  "  (Psa.  xcvii.  11).  While  for  be- 
ginners this  rhetorical  caution  may,  when  properly  qualified,  be  of 
considerable  service,  it  has  frequently  to  be  disregarded  by  the  ex- 
perienced preacher.    And  why  ?     For  the  following  very  good  rea- 

1  Prometheus  Chained,  lines  910,  911. 

2  b 


424 


OF  THE  METAPHOR. 


sons :  The  apparent  contradictions  of  Scripture,  the  Pceming  mon- 
strosities among  the  issues  of  tlie  providence  of  God,  the  crepus- 
cular mysteries  and  semblances  of  incongruity  in  the  union  of  the 
human  and  divine  natures  in  Immanuel,  the  paradoxes  and  incon- 
sistencies Avliich,  exhibited  by  the  experiences  of  the  immature 
Christian  in  the  struggle  between  the  new  and  the  old  life,  not  un- 
fittinjijly  symbolised  by  a  serpent  slowly  transforming  into  a  dove, 
the  partial  blindness  of  the  most  enlightened  disciples  of  Jesus 
still  too  often  seeing  "  men  as  trees  walking  " — these  and  very  many 
other  sacred  metamorphoses  which  are  necessitated  by  human  views 
and  applications  of  revealed  truth  and  grace,  demand  the  service 
of  mixed  metaphors  in  order  not  only  to  illustrate  and  impress,  but 
likewise  to  guard  and  defend. 

Some  preachers,  like  Chrysostom  and  Lactantius,  naturally  rea- 
son in  metajihors.  Thus  does  Lactantius  (De  Ira  Dei,  cap.  xxiii.) 
argue  d  fortiori :  "  Let  us  purify  that  temple  which  is  defiled,  not 
by  smoke  or  by  dust,  but  by  evil  thoughts;  that  temple  wliich  is 
illuminated,  not  by  burning  candles,  but  by  the  light  and  brightness 
of  wisdom."  Those  who  think  in  metaphors  will  avoid  ridicule  if 
they  can  get  the  better  of  this  habit  when  they  are  compelled  to 
answer  rude  and  miimaginative  disputers;  but  when  they  are  ad- 
dressmg  their  friends  they  may  safely  use  metaphorical  arguments 
and  even  figurative  digressions  Avhenever  they  spontaneously  offer 
themselves,  in  which  case  their  effect  is  similar  to  that  of  the  stars 
as  mu-rored  from  the  bright  uplifted  sword  of  old  King  Gorm. 


STYLES  OF  CLASSIC  ORATORY-  425 


CHAPTER    11. 

OF  THE  HIGH,  THE  LOW,  AND  THE  MIDDLE  STYLES  OF  CLASSIC 

ORATORY. 

The  classic  rhetoricians  describe  three  kinds  or  "  characters  "  of 
styles,  which  derived  their  names  from  the  subjects  for  which  they 
were  thought  to  be  respectively  suitable.  They  were  denominated 
the  "low,"  or  "  jDlain"  style;  the  " middle,"  or  " temperate ;  "  the 
"  grand,"  or  "  sublime."  Some  ancient  writers  thought  they  found 
these  three  styles  in  Homer.  They  assigned  the  "  grand  "  or  "  sub- 
lime "  to  Ulysses,  whom  the  poet  describes  as  an  orator  so  copious 
and  magnificent  that  his  words,  came  from  his  lips  like  a  winter 
snow  (II.,  B.  iii.,  1.  222).  The  "  j^lain "  style  they  attributed  to 
Menelaus,  because  his  speeches  are  acute  and  concise  (II.,  B.  iii.,  1. 
213),  while  they  placed  the  eloquence  of  Nestor  between  the  two, 
because  it  is  neither  plain  nor  sublime,  but  smooth  and  pleasant,  or, 
as  Homer  describes  it,  "  more  sweet  than  honey  "  (II.,  B.  i.,  1.  249). 
They  also  discovered  these  three  styles  in  the  three  philosoj^hers 
whom  the  Athenians  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  Roman  Senate  to 
solicit  the  remittance  of  the"  fine  imposed  on  account  of  the  plun- 
dering of  Oropus.  The  diction  of  Carneades  was  rapid  and  vehe- 
ment, that  of  Critolaus  neat  and  polished,  that  of  Diogenes  modest 
and  sober.  Those  who  desire  further  to  acquaint  themselves  with 
what  the  classic  rhetoricians  have  said  on  this  subject  will  of  course 
consult  their  Avorks.^  We  have  revived  these  distinctions  here  be- 
cause they  had  an  important  effect  on  preaching  from  the  time  of 
Augustine  imtil  the  Reformation. 

In  the  fourth  book  of  his  treatise,  De  Doctrma  Christiana,  Au- 
gustine employs  these  classic  distinctions  in  defining  and  illustrat- 
ing his  ideas  respecting  the  styles  proper  for  the  preacher.     What- 

1  Aul.  Gell.  Noct.  Att.,  B.  vii.,  c.  xiv. ;  Dion.,  Halicarnas.  De  Comp.  Verb.,  caps. 
xxi.-xxv. ;  Cic,  De  Oi'at.,  L.  iii.,  c.  Iii.;  Orator  (ad  Keren.),  L.  xxiii.-xxix. ; 
Quint.,  Inst.  Orat.,  L.  ii.,  c.  xvii'.,  sec.  8;  L.  xii.,  c.  x.,  sec.  63,  64;  Keckerman's 
Eccles.  Rhet.,  Lib.  iii.,  chap,  xxvii. ;  Dr.  John  Ward's  Lectures  on  Oratory. 


420  STYLES  OF  CLASSIC  ORATORY. 

ever  this  fathci*  says  on  such  subjects  has  a  special  vahie ;  for  he 
■was  before  his  conversion  a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  became  after- 
wards the  most  popular  and  useful  preacher  of  his  age.  Nor  is  it 
a  small  commendation  of  this  treatise  of  his,  that  it  formed  the  ba- 
sis of  Luther's  knowledge  of  homiletics. 

Auo-ustine  holds  with  Cicero^  that  the  orator  should  so  speak  as 
to  teach,  to  delight,  and  to  persuade ;  that  necessity  requires  him 
to  teach,  suavity  to  delight,  and  victory  to  persuade.  "  With  these 
tlnee  things,"  says  this  Christian  father,  "  the  author  of  Roman  elo- 
quence seems,  in  his  own  mind,  to  have  connected  those  otlier  three 
which  he  goes  on  to  name :  '  He,  therefore,  will  be  eloquent  who 
can  discourse  of  humble  matters  in  a  plain  style ;  of  matters  of  a 
middling  kind  in  an  intermediate  style ;  and  of  great  subjects  in  a 
grand  style."  It  is  as  if  he  had  added  tliese  three  things  in  order 
to  bring  out  more  fully  the  sentiment  he  had  previously  expressed. 
It  is  as  if  he  had  come  substantially  to  this  conclusion  :  *  He,  there- 
fore, will  be  eloquent  who,  in  teaching,  can  discourse  of  humble 
mattei-s  in  a  plain  style  ;  in  giving  delight,  of  middling  matters  in 
an  intermediate  style ;  and,  in  persuasion,  of  great  affairs  in  a  lofty 
style.'" 

I.'  As  to  the  first  kind  of  style,  or  that  which  is  proper  for  teach- 
inf,  Augustine  thinks  everything  depends  on  the  subject-matter  of 
instruction.  By  teaching  lie  means  not  merely  the  imparting  of 
knowledge,  but  also  the  resolving  of  doubts,  the  confuting  of  er- 
rors, and  the  answering  of  objections.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
teacher  should  aim  to  give  delight  by  his  manner  of  conveying  in- 
struction, since  in  making  the  truth  plain  he  gives  delight  to  those 
who  discover  the  truth.  He  deprecates,  however,  the  idea  that 
the  subjects  of  Christian  instruction  are,  in  the  pagan  sense,  "hum- 
ble matters."  Augustine  finds  examples  of  the  plain  style  in  Gal.  iii. 
15-18;  iv.  21-26.  It  did  not  occur  to  this  father  that  in  taking  his 
instances  from  the  epistles,  he  at  once  left  the  field  of  strict  oratory. 
We  may,  therefore,  be  permitted  to  add  some  examples  from  such 
parts  of  holy  Scripture  as  were  at  first  orally  communicated: 
Ezek.  xviii.  1-30;  Matt.  v.  21-48;  xiii.  3-52;  Heb.  vii.,  viii. ;  Jas. 
ii.  1 1-2G.  Of  this  style  Origen^  says,  that  it  is  of  the  most  general 
service,  and  suitable  for  all  sorts  of  hearers.     Arnobius,-!  a  rhetor 

1  Orator  ad  M.  Brutum,  c.  xxi. 

-  III.,  c.  xxix.  The  Greeks  de.signated  the.se  three  kinds  of  styles  by  the 
terms  aSpoi^,  idxyoi,  /.tE6o'i ;  the  Latins  by  the  words  grande,  gravitcr ;  siib- 
viissiim,  sitbtilitcr;  temjjcratum,  temperate.  Cf.  Kcckernian's  Rhet.  Eccles.,  L.  iii., 
c.  x.wii. 

3  Contra  Celsum,  B.  vi.  1  Adversus  Gentes,  L.  i.,  c.  lix. 


STYLES  OF  CLASSIC  ORATORY.  427 

of  Sicca,  in  Africa,  and  a  convert  to  Christianity  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, seems  to  have  thought  this  style  better  adapted  for  the  pulpit 
than  the  high  style.  "  Let  pomposity  of  style,"  says  he,  in  writing 
against  the  Gentiles,  "  and  strictly  regulated  diction,  be  reserved 
for  the  forum  and  courts  of  justice."  This  writer,  however,  like 
his  disciple  Lactantius,  had  no  adequate  conception  of  the  allowable 
variety  and  range  of  pulpit  eloquence. 

One  characteristic  of  this  style  is  graphicality,  especially  when  it 
is  employed  by  those  preachers  who  are  masters  of  it,  and  who  are, 
at  the  same  time,  studious  observers  of  familiar  things.  Aristotle^ 
has  remarked  '  that  uneducated  men  have  more  power  of  persua- 
sion among  the  ignorant  than  the  educated  have,  because  the  latter 
are  apt  to  speak  of  matters  of  common  knowledge  and  of  a  general 
character,  while  the  forrner  sjyeak  from  their  own  Jcnoioledge,  and 
scvj  tlie  things  that  are  close  to  their  hearers.''  But  the  example  of 
such  men  as  Luther  and  Latimer  shows  that  the  learned  can  ac- 
quire the  power  of  speaking  of  familiar  things  in  the  plain  style. 

II.  The  intermediate  style  was  used  by  the  ancients  for  delecta- 
tion ;  not  indeed  for  its  own  sake,  but  to  the  end  that  the  hearers , 
by  being  pleased,  might  more  readily  assent  to,  or  more  firmly  re- 
tain what  they  already  know.  He  considers  the  proj^er  matter  of 
this  style  to  be  either  blame  or  praise ;  but  condemns  those  who 
glory  in  their  tongue,  and  pride  themselves  in  panegyrics,  and  those 
kinds  of  discourse  by  which  the  hearer  is  neither  to  be  instructed 
nor  persuaded,  but  only  to  be  delighted.  In  whatever  the  preacher 
praises  or  blames ;  in  desiring  and  firmly  retaining  some  things,  and 
in  shunning  and  utterly  rejecting  others — in  all  this  it  is  his  aim  to 
be  heard  with  obedience,  and  to  induce  his  hearers  so  to  live  as  to 
avoid  censure  and  deserve  praise. 

His  examples  of  the  intermediate  style  are  taken  from  hortatory 
portions  of  the  epistles  (1  Tim.  v.  1 ;  Eom.  xii.  1,  6-16 ;  xiii.  6-8, 
12-14).  Better  instances  for  the  young  preacher  may  be  found  in 
Lev.  xxvi.  3-45;  Deut.  i.  6 — iii.  1-29;  Isa.  Iviii. ;  Amos,  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  Malachi;  Heb.  xii.  3-29;  xiii.  1-21  ;  Jas.  v. 

The  intermediate  style  seems  to  be  proper  for  demonstrative  dis- 
courses, and  such  others  as  have  for  their  object  mere  excitation. 

III.  The  grand  or  lofty,  according  to  Augustine,  ditfers  chiefly 
from  the  intermediate  in  that  it  is  not  distinguished  so  much  by  the 
beauty  of  ornament  as  by  the  vehement  emotions  of  the  soul,  to 
which  it  gives  natural  utterance,  and  which,  consequently  form  its 
character.     Ornament  indeed,  of  almost  every  kind,  it  takes,  but  it 

1  Rhet.,  L.  ii.,  c.  xxii.  \)^. 


428  STYLES  OF  CLASSIC  ORATORY. 

does  not  demand  them.  Its  end  is  persuasion.  His  examples  are 
Horn.  viii.  28-39;  2  Cor.  vi.  2-11;  Gal.  iv.  10-20.  To  these 
passacces  many  others  might  have  been  added.  (See  Deut. 
xxviii. ;  Isa.  xl.-lxvi. ;  Joel,  Mieah,  Nahum,  Ilabakkuk,  Matt, 
xxiv.,  XXV.;  Heb.  x.  35-39;  xi. ;  xii.  1,  2  inclusive.)  For  tliis 
style  some  have  an  inborn  aptitude :  William  Ames^  candidly 
taui^ht  that  the  efficacy  of  the  Sprit  is  more  clearly  manifested  in 
simplicity  of  speech  than  in  elegance  of  style  (2  Cor.  xi.  6) ;  but 
should  a  man  have  a  natural  talent  for  the  latter,  let  him  take  care 
to  use  it  with  genuine  sincerity. 

Augustine  treats  the  sublime  much  more  practically  than  Lon- 
ginus  does,  "who,  by  failing  to  connect  precepts  of  j^ractical  art  Avith 
his  theories,  and  so  conveying  the  impression  that  the  exclusive  end 
of  the  sublime  is  to  call  forth  wonder  and  admiration,  has  con- 
tributed much  to  the  exclusion  of  this  quality  from  the  acknowl- 
edged sphere  of  modern  oratory. 

This  Christian  father  does  not  omit  to  add  that  sometimes  the 
very  same  great  subject  must  be  handled  in  all  three  of  these 
styles;  in  the  plain  style  for  instruction ;  in  the  intermediate  for 
commendation ;  and  in  the  grand  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the 
assent  of  the  unwilling  mind.  The  plain  style  will  be  endured  for 
a  greater  length  of  time  than  the  grand  ;  for  tlie  greater  the  feel- 
ing excited  in  the  mind  of  the  auditor  to  bring  him  to  act,  the  less 
the  interval  during  which  it  can  be  maintained  beyond  the  moment 
when  it  is  excited  to  a  sufficient  height.  Caution  must  be  exer- 
cised, therefore,  lest  we  diminish  the  effects  which  have  already 
been  produced.  But,  having  introduced  the  plain  style  for  a  time, 
it  is  well  to  return  to  the  grand,  that  the  current  of  the  discourse 
may  alternate  like  the  waves  of  the  sea.  In  the  grand  style  it  is 
almost  always  proper  to  begin  with  the  intermediate.  The  orator 
can  also  employ  the  plain  style  sometimes  for  exjiressing  those 
things  which  might  have  been  expressed  in  the  gi*and,  and  thus  ren- 
der what  he  utters  in  the  grand  still  more  lofty  by  comparison, 
more  luminous  by  the  shading  with  which  it  is  contrasted.  These 
last  precepts  of  Augustine  find  their  best  and  most  numerous  ex- 
emplifications in  the  Scripture  oratory.  They  may  not  be  duly  ap- 
preciated by  the  student  who  has  been  taught  to  admire  dictional 
uniformity  and  smoothness,  but  they  arc  justified  by  the  long  and 
successful  ministry  of  Augustine,  and  must  be  very  frecjuently 
brought  to  miml  by  all  who  are  called  to  preach  to  the  common 
people.2 

1  MeduUa  Theologica,  L.  i..  cliaj).  xxxv.,  sec.  65. 

2  Aristotle's  Rhet.,  L.  iii.,  c.  vii. 


STYLES  OF  CLASSIC  ORATORY.  429 

IV.  "We  give  the  last  place  to  that  characteristic  of  holy  Scrii?- 
tures  which  Augustine  puts  in  the  iirst  place,  and  discusses  at  great 
length,  namely,  the  wisdom  -which  is  every  where  associated  with 
the  inspired  eloquence.  Ciceroi  had  said  that  wisdom  without  elo- 
quence profited  states  very  little ;  but  that  eloquence  without  wis- 
dom profited  them  not  at  all,  and  generally  proved  highly  injurious. 
"  If,"  says  Augustine,  "  those  who  taught  the  precepts  of  eloquence, 
even  though  ignorant  of  the  true  wisdom  '  Avhich  cometh  down  from 
the  Father  of  Lights,'  were  compelled  to  make  such  a  confession, 
are  not  we  nnder  far  higher  obligations  to  acknowledge  the  same 
thing,  who  are  the  sons  and  daughters  of  this  heavenly  wisdom  ?  " 
What  attracted  Augustine  most  and  filled  him  with  astonishment, 
was  the  fact  that  the  sacred  orators  have  so  used  the  classic  elo- 
quence in  connection  with  another  kmd  of  their  own,  that  it  is 
neither  wanting  in  their  productions,  nor  yet  rendered  j^romineut. 
The  words  by  which  their  ideas  are  expressed  seem  not  to  be  em- 
ployed by  the  sjieaker,  but,  as  it  were,  spontaneously  furnished  by 
the  ideas  themselves ;  as  if  you  perceived  wisdom  coming  forth 
from  her  habitation  in  the  breast  of  the  wise  man,  and  eloquence, 
like  an  inseparable^  handmaid,  following  unsolicited  in  her  train. 
Augustuie  finds  examj^les  of  this  eloquent  wisdom  in  Amos  vi.  1-6 ; 
Rom.  v.  3-5;  2  Cor.  xi.  16-30.  Augustine  regarded  this  wisdom 
as  inseparable  from  just  reasoning. 

The  words  of  inspired  preachers,  the  precepts  of  Augustine,  and 
universal  ex2:)erience,  all  make  good  the  forecited  observation  of 
Lord  Bacon,  that  "  Discretion  of  speech  is  more  than  eloquence." 

1  De  Inveiitione,  L.  i.,  cap.  i. 


430    THE  THREE  REQUISITES  OF  THE  ORATORICAL  STYLE. 


CHAPTER   TIL 

THE  THREE  REQUISITES  OF  THE  ORATORICAL  STYLE. 
Sectiox"  I. — Of  Clearxess. 

The  properties  necessary  to  a  good  oratorical  style  are  three : 
perspicuity,  force,  and  gracefulness.  The  requisite  first  mentioned, 
being  strictly  fundamental,  is  entitled  to  our  earliest  consideration. 

This  quality  of  style  (termed  by  the  Greeks  JEiuirgeia,  by  the 
Latins  Perspicuitaff)  is  thought  by  some  to  be  enjoined  in  Ilab.  ii. 
2 :  "  Write  the  vision,  and  malvC  it  plain  upon  tables,  that  he  may 
nm  that  readeth  it."  The  vision  was  to  be  couched  in  plain  terms 
and  be  legibly  written  on  tablets,  in  order  that  every  passer  might 
read  and  understand  it,  and  run  and  jiublish  it  to  all.  A  parallel 
passage  is  found  in  Dan.  xii.  4,  where  Daniel  is  commanded  to 
shut  up  and  seal  the  prophetic  roll  until  the  time  appointed  for 
breaking  the  seal,  when  "  many  shall  run  to  and  fro  "  with  the  mes- 
sage it  contains,  "  and  knowledge  shall  increase.''  The  lucidity  of 
the  Scripture  style  has  by  some  been  understood  to  be  asserted  in 
the  words  of  Moses :  "  For  this  commandment  ...  is  not  hidden 
from  thee,  neither  is  it  far  off,"  etc.  (Deut.  xxx.  11-14).  But  this 
passage,  in  so  far  as  it  does  not  refer  to  the  righteousness  of  Jesus 
(Ifom.  X.  G),  can  only  be  employed  to  prove  the  perspicuity  of  the 
revelations  made  by  Moses — revelations  more  plain  and  distmct 
than  any  other  to  be  found  in  the  sacred  Scriptures.  And  for  very 
good  reasons.  Moses  was  a  law-receiver  and  law-giver,  the  planter 
of  tlie  Hebrew  commonwealth,  and  the  inspired  teacher  of  the  ele- 
mentary lessons  of  the  true  religion.  We  need  not  wonder,  there* 
fore,  that  in  perspicuity  he  even  surpasses,  if  possible,  the  Great 
Teacher  himself. 

Others,  again,  have  recommended  plainness  in  preaching,  by  ad- 
ducing the  example  of  Paul,  who  declared  that  he  used  "  great 
plainness  of  speech  "  (2  Cor.  iii.  12).  But  the  word  Parrhesia  here 
sigiiifu's.  not  yxjrspiciiift/,  Imt  f/'cin/incss,  as  opposed  to  all  conceal- 
ment or  intended  obscurity  of  speech,  such  as  was  used  by  the 
Jewish  teachers  of  the  apostle's  time,  whom,  in  reading  and  ex- 


OF  CLEARNESS.  431 

pounding  the  Scriptures,  Paul  allegorically  represents  by  Moses 
weai'ing  a  veil.  That  the  apostle  did  not  always  employ  great 
clearness  of  speech  is  manifest  from  the  declaration  of  Peter  (2 
Epistle  iii.  16),  that  there  are  in  his  letters  "  some  things  hard  to 
be  understood."  "Some  things,"  observe,  not  many,  and  "hard," 
not  impossible,  to  be  understood  ;  for  everything,  or  nearly  every- 
thing obscure  in  the  epistles  of  Paul  may  be  explained  by  compar- 
ing them  with  other  passages  which  are  hard  to  be  misunderstood. 

Another  text  has  been  quoted  in  favour  of  clearness — namely,  1 
Cor.  xiv.  9-19.  But  this  passage  was  levelled  against  the  practice 
of  addressing  congregations  in  an  unknown  tongue,  and  might  have 
been  appropriately  used  in  dissuading  the  Anglican  divines  of  the 
seventeenth  century  from  the  custom  of  quoting  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  in  the  pulpit. 

The  duty,  therefore,  of  compelling  all  our  hearers  to  understand 
immediately  all  that  we  say  in  the  pulpit  is  nowhere  enjoined  in 
the  Scriptures.  Indeed,  our  Divine  Master  uttered  some  things  in 
public  that  were  not  comprehended  by  his  most  intelligent  disci- 
ples imtil  they  w^ere  explained  to  them  in  private,  and  other  things 
that  they  did  not  understand  until  after  his  crucifixion.  Richard 
Baxter,  ho  mean  example  for  religious  teachers  and  catechisers,  pur- 
posely threw  out  some  things  in  his  sermons  that  were  beyond  the 
com])rehension  of  his  hearers,  in  order  that  they  might  learn  to  be 
dissatisfied  wuth  their  existing  stock  of  Christian  knowledge.  How  of- 
ten does  the  teacher  give  out  terms  to  be  defined  or  explained  by  his 
pupils  at  the  next  recitation  ?  "  Wherefore,"  says  Chrysostom,  in  one 
of  his  homilies,  "  have  I  presented  this  difficulty  and  not  appended 
its  solution  ?  "  He  replies  that  herein  he  proceeds  like  doves,  which, 
as  long  as  their  young  remain  in  the  nest,  feed  them  from  their  own 
bills ;  but  as  soon  as  they  are  fledged  and  leave  the  nest,  the  moth- 
er lets  food  fall  upon  the  earth,  and  the  little  ones  pick  it  up.  The 
late  Dean  Alford^  joined  his  voice  to  the  popular  cry  for  simplicity 
and  plainness.  "  If,"  says  he,  "  any  rhetoric  wants  teaching  those 
who  are  to  lead  others,  it  is  the  rhetoric  of  simplicity — the  art  of 
expressing  earnest  thoughts  in  plain  words."  It  is  just  such  bright 
but  hemispherical  truths  as  this,  abounding  as  they  do  in  modern 
disquisitions  and  treatises  on  preaching,  that  cast  on  the  student's 
path  a  delusive  light  which  is  much  more  to  be  feared  than  total 
darkness. 

One  characteristic  of  Scripture  ideas  is  their  union  of  clearness 
and  depth — a  union  which  must  distinguish  all  preaching  that  is 


1  Henry  Alford's  Essays  and  Addresses,  p.  153. 


432  OF  CLEARNESS. 

truly  Scriptural.  "  The  style  of  a  sermon,"  according  to  Antonio 
Vieyra,!  "  may,  like  the  stars,  be  at  once  very  clear  and  very  lofty : 
while  the  peasant  derives  from  the  stars  rules  for  farmuig  and  the 
mariner  for  sailing,  the  mathematician  efjually  draws  thence  the 
principles  that  guide  him  in  his  astronomical  calculations.  The  for- 
mer, unable,  it  may  be,  cither  to  read  or  write,  can  nevertheless  ap- 
prelieiKl  tlie  stars  as  far  as  is  necessary  for  him;  the  latter,  in  spite 
of  all  his  scientific  knowledge,  is  very  far  from  comprehending  all 
the  stellar  universe.  Thus  of  many  Scripture  ideas  may  we  truly 
say  that  all  men  may  apprehend,  but  few  or  none  can  comprehend 
them."  But  even  then,  be  it  observed,  our  apprehensions  are  more 
l^ractical  than  precise,  for  Scripture  definitions  and  illustrations  are 
more  striking  and  moving  than  they  are  scientifically  accurate. 
"What  if  you  employ  words  and  phrases  with  philosophical  and  the- 
ological exactness  ?  If  the  people  have  never  learned  their  mean- 
ing you  are  to  them  but  a  babbler. 

Keeping  these  thmgs  before  ns,  we  shall  easily  find  a  passage 
leading  out  into  a  justifiable  clearness.  Were  m'c  fully  inspired, 
and  speaking  directly  from  and  for  God  as  his  messengers  to  men, 
the  eternal  and  divine  sides  of  the  ideas  commimicated  by  us  would 
necessarily  be  more  or  less  obscure,  and  mortals  could  riot  com- 
plain if  they  were  not  able  to  understand  those  mysterious  sides ; 
but  as  we  do  in  fact  profess  to  be  popular  teachers  of  revealed  re- 
ligion, lucidity  rather  than  depth  may  properly  characterise  our 
thouglits  and  our  style.  The  ancient  and  better  notion  of  the  rhet- 
orician was  that  of  one  who  talked  ad  iiopulum  f-  and  this  is  the 
true  notion  of  all  except  occasional  and  academical  preachers.  To 
say  of  a  pastor's  usual  sermons  to  his  own  fiock  that  they  are  pro- 
found is  very  great  dispraise.  Thus  considered,  many  of  the  ser- 
mons of  Tliomas  Chalmers,  Yinct,  William  Archer  Butler,  and  Hor- 
ace Buslinell  are  anything  but  models.  Deep  originality  of  thought 
and  philosophical  insight  are,  when  jjervasive,  very  detrimental  to 
sermons  professedly  intended  for  the  common  people.  It  is  far  oth- 
erwise with  acuteness,  reasoning,  originality  in  respect  of  practical 
views,  familiar  doctrines  newly  illustrated  and  freshly  put,  the  giv- 
ing of  a  sharper  point  to  some  blunted  arroAV  and  a  keener  edge  to 
some  rusty  old  sword.  These  things  matter  much,  for  they  con- 
triltute  not  a  little  to  the  right  understanding  oi  a  subject. 

And  yet,  keeping  all  this  in  view,  we  may  with  profit  occasion- 
ally and  collaterally  touch  upon  the  deep  things  of  Biblical  theol- 
ogy.    "  There  are,  indeed,"  says  Arrowsmith,  "  some  obscure  pas- 


1  Sermon  on  the  Parable  of  the  Sower.  2  Isocrates,  Orat.  Nicocles...  iii. 


OF  CLEARNESS.  433 

sages  in  Scripture  to  exercise  our  understaudings  and  prevent  our 
loathing  of  over-much  plainness  and  simplicity."^  The  preacher  who 
walks  with  sandaled  feet  through  all  the  mysteries  of  Scripture,  nei- 
ther exalts  Christ  nor  humbles  the  sinner. 

Perspicuity,  therefore,  is  a  relative  quality.  It  depends  not  only 
on  the  conceptions  of  the  preacher  and  his  style,  but  also  on  the 
subject-matter  of  the  sermon  and  the  intelligence  of  the  congrega- 
tion to  which  it  is  addressed.  What  is  adequately  clear  to  a  ma- 
ture Christian  may  be  somewhat  obscure  to  a  young  convert,  al- 
most unintelligible  to  an  anxious  inquirer,  and  totally  incomjirehen- 
sible  to  a  worldling.  Nor  should  a  sermon  be  called  persiDicuous 
or  the  reverse  without  first  consideriug  whether  it  was  adapted  to 
the  average  knowledge  of  the  audience.  Athanasius,  discoursing 
before  a  council  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  could  be  as  lucid 
relatively  as  Augustine  preaching  repentance  to  his  congregation 
of  tradesmen,  labourers,  and  women  in  the  little  town  of  Hij)po.2 
Luther,  whose  strength  lay  (to  use  his  own  phrase)  "  rather  in  the 
rhetorical  way,"  and  his  skill  in  addressing  plain,  unlearned  people, 
was  too  impatient  of  those  who  occasionally  preached  sermons  to  the 
clergy.  He  once  reproved  Bucer  for  floating  in  the  air  and  making 
his  sermon  too  high  and  learned.  But  to  whom  had  Bucer  been 
preaching  ?  To  an  assembly  of  theologians  from  Suabia  and  Stras- 
burg  to  consult  with  Luther  on  the  article  of  Consubstantiation. 
And  the  sermon  he  preached  was  at  the  request  of  several  of  these 
learned  ministers.  Was  not  this  a  time  proper  for  a  conclo  ad  clc- 
riim  f  It  was  very  well  for  him  to  say  to  Bucer  across  the  supper- 
table,  "  I  do  as  a  faithful  mother  does  who  gives  to  her  crying  baby 
her  breast,  and  gives  it  milk  to  drink,  by  which  it  is  better  nour- 
ished than  by  giving  it  sugar  and  delicious  cordials  from  an  apoth- 
ecary shop."  Well  and  good,  O  Martin  Luther,  when  you  are 
preaching  sermons  ad  jyopidum.  But  do  you  not  forget  that  this  is 
the  time,  if  there  ever  was  one,  when  men  of  full  age  are  hungry 
for  and  much  need  the  strong  meat  which  Bucer  is  able  to  carve 
for  them  ?  The  question  is  not  whether  babes  shall  have  milk  or 
sugar,  but  whether  parents  shall  not  sometimes  be  fed  with  food 
convenient  for  them. 

It  ought  also  to  be  considered  that  what  is  very  perplexing,  if 

1  Armilla  Catechetica,  p.  71.  A.  quotes  in  the  same  place  these  words  of 
Augusthie:  "  Pascinnir  apertis,  exercemur  obsciiris,  ilUc  fames  pelhtur,  hie  fas- 
tidium." 

2  And  yet  it  is  generally  true  that  the  people  do  not  prefer  to  hear  from  the 
pnlpit  much  of  that  familiar  language  and  style  which  they  use  in  the  field,  the 
market,  and  the  forecastle. 


434  OF  CLEAENESS. 

not  quite  unintelligible  to  the  same  congregation  at  one  time,  may 
afterwards  be  made  distinct  and  luminous.  The  gradual  revela- 
tions made  by  God  the  Father  in  the  old  economy,  and  by  the 
Lord  Jesus  and  the  Divine  Spirit  in  the  new,  are  fraught  with  in- 
struction. Erskine,  in  his  Armata,  observes  that  when  the  truth 
breaks  in  too  suddenly  on  those  who  are  unprepared  to  receive  it, 
it  confounds  the  understanding,  just  as  the  vision  is  overpowered 
by  a  sudden  burst  of  light.  "  You  see,"  says  Gregory  Nazianzen,i 
"  that  the  morning  light  shines  upon  us  by  slow  degrees,  and  you 
observe,  what  is  better,  that  the  method  of  theology  is  neither  to 
bring  the  w-hole  truth  to  light  at  once,  nor  to  conceal  it  to  the  end. 
The  former  course  betrays  a  want  of  skill,  the  latter  is  impious; 
the  one  may  injure  those  who  are  strangers  to  the  doctrine,  the 
other  may  estrange  those  who  favour  it." 

This  Christian  father  more  than  intimates  that  the  doctrine  of  a 
progressive  revelation  of  divine  truth,  and  of  the  gradual  teaching 
of  Jesus,  is  liable  to  perversion.  It  has,  indeed,  been  too  fre- 
quently used  in  support  and  defence  of  the  dangerous  theory  of 
"  Reserve,"  or  "  Economy."  Against  such  tendencies  nothing  but 
thorough  sincerity  on  the  part  of  the  preacher  can  be  a  safeguard. 
Aii  unatfected  desire  to  teach  all  the  principles  of  revealed  religion, 
and  to  advance  people  in  Christian  knowledge  as  rapidly  as  possi- 
ble, will  prevent  the  preacher  from  keeping  back  from  the  peojjle 
any  part  of  his  knowledge  and  belief  that  can  be  profitably  com- 
municated to  them.2  And  this  sincerity  will  guard  him  not  only 
against  "  double  doctrine  "  and  soj)histry,3  but  that  species  of  af- 
fectation in  style  from  which  obscurities  may  and  often  do  arise. 

But  a  preacher  may  be  obscure  not  only  from  lack  of  sincerity, 
but  from  sheer  ignorance  of  popular  modes  of  expression.  "When 
a  man  of  learning  would  assure  himself  that  he  has  a  clear  and  dis- 
tinct comprehension  of  an  idea  that  is  conveyed  in  figurative  lan- 
guage, he  expresses  it  in  plain  or  abstract  terms.  Hence,  he  too 
hastily  concludes  that  in  explaining  Scripture  figures  to  an  unread- 
ing  audience  he  must  adopt  the  same  method,  v.'hereas  he  should 
rather  endeavour  to  explain  one  figure  by  another  of  the  same  kind 


1  Oration  xxxvii.,  De  Spirit.  Sanct. ;  Bp.  C.  R.  Sumner's  Ministerial  Cliaracter 
of  Christ,  c.  v. ;  Abp.  Trencli's  Hulsean  Lectures  for  1845,  Lects.  iii.  and  v. ;  In- 
tro, of  this  work  on  the  alleged  obscurities  of  prophetic  eloquence. 

2  Acts  V.  20  ;  XX.  20,  27  ;  Rom.  xv.  19  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  17  ;  iv.  2  ;  1  Thes.  ii.  3,  5. 

3  Every  Greek  student  will  concur  with  Schott,  that  .^schines  was  less  hon- 
estly and  heartily  engaged  than  Demosthenes  in  the  case  of  Ctesiphon,  and  that 
consequently  the  reasoning  of  the  former  is  far  less  natural,  direct,  and  cogent 
than  the  reasoning  of  the  latter. 


OF  CLEARNESS.  435 

with  which  they  are  already  familiar.  It  is  safe  to  assert  that  ther^ 
is  no  figure  used  in  the  inspired  volume  that  cannot  .^nd  its  own 
species  in  the  practical  rhetoric  of  the  people  who  think  and  talk 
not  in  abstractions,  but  in  similes,  metaphors,  and  all  other  figures. 
It  is  only  by  a  familiar  intercourse  with  the  people  while  they  are 
engaged  in  their  daily  vocations  that  the  preacher  can  treasure  up, 
'and  learn  to  circulate,  these  current  forms  of  their  language.^  The 
educated  preacher,  long  accustomed  to  think  and  speak  in  technical 
and  abstract  forms  of  diction,  is  in  consequence  more  liable  to  mis- 
understand the  figures  of  Scripture  than  people  of  plain,  imlettered 
sense,  arid  he  is  continually  in  danger  of  supposing  obscui'ities  and 
contradictions  in  places  where  the  people  find  none.  For  this  rea- 
son expositions  of  those  Gospel  parables  which  chiefly  demand 
modern  ajyplications  are  much  less  instructive  to  comm.on,  practical 
minds  than  many  learned  preachers  seem  to  imagine.  Let  the 
preacher,  then,  endeavour  to  make  parables  of  his  own,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  intelligible  those  theological  and  philosoi)hicaI 
terms  and  dogmas  which,  when  they  come  to  be  clearly  understood 
by  the  people,  will  serve  as  so  many  breastworks  behind  which 
they  may  defend  the  truth  against  the  assaults  of  error.  And  to 
this  end  let  him  form  a  taste  that  is  not  merely  correct  and  refined, 
but  popular  and  humane.  Let  him  read  not  only  the  classic  ora- 
tors, but  all  those  productions  that  inform  him  of  the  language  of 
primitive  and  common  life,  particularly  the  Bible  and  Homer. 
From  the  study  of  these  he  will  at  least  become  familiar  with  figu- 
rative representations  and  learn  to  enter  into  their  spirit.  Briefly, 
he  will  be  convinced  that  figures  contribute  to  clearness  of  style, 
and  that,  so  far  from  obscuring,  they  illustrate  our  ideas. 

But  in  thus  condescending  to  use  popular  forms  of  language,  care 
is  to  be  taken  that  we  adopt  the  present,  and  not  the  ancient  dialect 
of  the  common  people.  We  are  often  admonished  to  use,  as  far  as 
possible,  words  of  Saxon  origin.  But  we  need  a  caution  here  ;  for 
by  employing  those  Saxon  words  and  phrases  which  are  most  in- 
telligible to  the  humblest  class,  we  run  the  hazard  of  not  being  un- 
derstood by  another  class,  who,  from  the  fear  their  mothers  felt  of 
being  thought  vulgar,  were  never  taught  by  them  to  speak  plain 
English.  Most  congregations  are  better  acquainted  with  Norman- 
English  than  with  Saxon-English.     Nor  will,  the  Christian  teacher 


1  Did  the  Almighty  confound  the  tongues  at  the  tower  of  Babel  hy  separating 
those  who  wrought  at  the  summit  from  those  who  wrought  on  the  earth,  so  that 
in  no  long  time  those  above  came  to  speak  an  abstract,  and  those  below  a  con- 
crete dialect "?     Let  that  rationalist  Max  Miiller  solve  this  problem. 


43G  OF  CLEARNESS. 

;Qiurmur  at  this  when  he  remembers  how  difficult  a  task  he  found  it 
to  explain  the  articles  of  his  faith  in  Saxon-English. 

Terms  of  Greek  or  Latin  or  French  derivation  often,  jiarticularly 
in  exi:»lanatory  parts  of  a  discourse,  secure  clearness  by  means  of 
precision.  Some  words  of  this  description  present  each  a  diiferent 
aspect  of  the  same  general  idea,  and  while  often  employed  as  synon- 
ymous, they  convey  specific  shades  of  meaning  which  good  writers 
and  speakers  will  always  perceive,  even  when  they  do  not  pre- 
serve. The  assertions  :  "  It  will  not  fail  to  produce  most  beneficial 
effects ;"  "  It  cannot  but  yield  a  very  good  harvest,"  may  be  made 
by  two  different  preachers  with  the  intention  of  expressing  the 
same  idea,  and  yet  the  former  is  the  more  precise  and  unequivocal. 
Perspicuity  may  often  demand  the  sacrifice  of  elegance;  but  it 
should,  on  the  other  hand,  be  remembered  that  not  unfrequently 
the  Norman-English  is  more  perspicuous  than  the  Saxon-English. 
Opinions  the  reverse  of  this  are  generally  advanced,  but  this  re- 
mains true  nevertheless. 

Some,  on  the  other  hand,  appear  to  think  that  if  they  employ  the 
Saxon-English  (which,  in  the  received  version  outweighs  the  Nor- 
man-English) they  will  secure  lucidity  at  the  expense  of  dignity. 
This  is  a  very  natural  mistake,  since  all  our  juvenile  and  familiar 
talk  is  in  this  part  of  our  language.  But  it  is  noticeable  that  -when 
we  are  preaching  Biblically  with  the  utmost  perspicuity,  our  thoughts 
naturally  demand  now  and  then  those  technical  terms,  which  being 
derived,  as  most  of  them  are,  from  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Norman, 
are  often,  tliough  not  always,  essential  to  a  dignified  style.  We 
may  say  of  the  style  of  the  Bible  what  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold  says 
of  that  of  Homer,  that  it  is  marked  not  only  by  plainness  and  di- 
rectness, but  by  nobleness ;  and  the  same  critic  justly  remarks  that 
our  English  version  is  the  grand  mine  of  diction  for  the  translator 
of  Homer,  and  that  it  may  afford  him  also  invaluable  lessons  of 
style. 

In  adapting  the  style  to  the  comprehension  of  all,  we  likewise  do 
well  to  remember  the  advice  of  the  rhetoricians,  viz.,  to  repeat  the 
same  ideas  and  thoughts  in  other  words,  phrases,  and  sentences ; 
on  the  one  hand,  to  expand  plain  terms  into  figures,  to  describe 
what  cannot  be  clearly  defined,  and  to  amplify  Avhat  is  too  concise ; 
on  the  other,  to  compress  a  sentiment  or  argument  which  has  already 
been  expanded  into  a  concluding  maxim  or  figure  or  brief  sum- 
mary. The  holy  prophets  furnish  many  excellent  examples  of  itera- 
tion, reiteration,  and  regression;  examples  Avhich  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  rhetorical  art,  and  which  only  find  their  solution  in  the 
principles  of  psychology.     Chalmers  and  Melvill   may  be   advan- 


OF  CLEARNESS.  437 

tageously  read  by  those  who  naturally  incline  too  much  towards 
the  dry  and  concise.  When  the  former  was  once  asked  what  was 
the  secret  of  his  rhetorical  success,  he  rej)lied  :  "  Kepetition,  repe- 
tition, repetition."  He  was  too  diffuse,  however,  and  not  seldom 
deserved  this  criticism  of  Robert  Hall :  "  All  very  excellent,  but 
why  not  go  on,  sir,  why  not  go  on  ?  It's  all  round  the  apple,  all 
round  the  apj^le." 

A  few  practical  distinctions  tiow  from  the  views  here  taken  : 

1.  Though  we  have  no  direct  Scripture  injunction  always  exact- 
ing perspicuity  of  matter^  yet  the  examples  of  the  prophets  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  the  New,  of  Augustinei  and  his  greatest  disci- 
ple, Luther,  not  to  mention  the  names  of  other  popular  preachers, 
commend  all  possible  perspicuity  of  style  in  addressing  the  common 
people. 

2.  In  the  didactic  or  pedagogical  parts  of  a  sei-mon,  perspicuity 
should,  as  far  as  joossible,  characterise  the  method  and  style ;  and 
that  not  only  in  the  exjiosition  of  the  text  and  the  explication  of 
the  theme,  but  also  in  the  "  Use  of  Information,"  and  in  that  part 
of  the  "  Use  of  Exhortation  "  (called  modi  or  qfficicia),  which  shows 
how  a  duty  is  to  be  done  or  the  virtue  exercised.  But  in  practical 
didactics,  what  is  perspicuous  to  one  class  of  hearers  is  necessarily 
obscure  to  a  class  less  advanced ;  and  what  is  obscure  or  incompre- 
hensible to  one  class  at  one. time  may  be  made  plain  by  subsequent 
study  and  instruction.  The  rejieated  experiences  of  Paul  warn  us 
not  to  expect  that  yoimg  converts  will  rapidly  grow  beyond  the 
stature  and  the  necessities  of  spiritual  childhood.  Milk,  and  not 
strong  meat,  must  furnish  the,  chief  nutriment  of  the  young  and  the 
old,  besides  not  a  few  in  middle  life  (1  Cor.  iii.  1,  2;  Heb.  v.  12-14). 
But  in  no  case  is  it  lawful  to  adulterate  the  milk.  "  The  milk  of 
the  Word  "  must  ever  be  "  sincere  "  (1  Pet.  ii.  2). 

Here  the  preacher  should  beware  of  aiming  to  be  eloquent,  but 
should  rather  heed  the  important  distinction  Horace  makes  (Ad 
Pisones,  1.  143) : 

"  Non  fumum  ex  fulgore,  seel  ex  fumo  dare  hicem 
Cogitat."2 

3.  The  subject-matter  of  many  a  timely  and  valuable  sermon 
must  be  mysterious,  and  ought,  therefore,  to  be  commended  more 
to  our  unquestioning  faith  than  to  our  mere  intellects.     To  be  per- 


1  De  Doct.  Christ.,  L.  iv.,  c.  x. 

2  Trans. :  '•  He  meditates  not  to  bring  smoke  out  of  lightning,  but  daylight 
out  of  smoke." 


438  OF  FORCE. 

fectly  clear  on  some  Gospel  themes  is  to  be  perfectly  superficial. 
"  On  the  top  of  a  hill,"  says  Vinet,  "  the  horizon  appears  distinct  to 
to  us,  because  it  is  narrow  and  not  far  off;  on  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain we  take  in  a  horizon  whose  limits  may  be  obscure,  but  then  the 
region  we  survey  is  immense."  Great  clearness  is  often  very  un- 
friendly to  the  sublime  and  to  terror. 

4.  In  the  hortative  portions  of  a  sermon,  plainness  as  to  matter, 
method,  and  style  is  not  always  indispensable.  Here  reasons  and 
motives  must  very  often  be  drawn  from  subjects  the  most  mysteri- 
ous— subjects  not  only  perceived  but  felt  to  be  true,  and  yet  in 
their  very  nature  incomprehensible  to  mortals.  Here,  then,  heat 
must  accompany  the  light.  The  sermons  of  Paley  and  Whately 
are  models  of  lucidness,  but  they  are  almost  destitute  of  warmth. 
"  Our  language,"  says  Quintilian,^  "  ought  to  convey  our  meaning  so 
clearly  that  the  meaning  shall  fall  on  the  hearers'  minds  as  the  sun- 
light falls  on  our  eyes."  But  the  sunshine  of  winter  is  cold  and 
barren,  although  its  radiance  is  brightened  by  the  transparency  of 
the  air  and  the  reflections  of  the  ice  and  snow.  The  summer's  sun 
has  less  brilliance  indeed,  but  far  more  heat — a  heat  that  causes  blue 
vapours  to  veil  the  distant  hills  and  silver  mists  to  wreath  the  green 
mountain's  brow,  that  gathers  storm-clouds  which  darken  the  earth 
and  sky  and  discharge  such  volleys  6f  lightning  as  render  that  dark- 
ness all  the  more  visible  and  appalling. 


Sectioi!^"  II. — Of  Force. 

The  second  requisite  of  a  good  oratorical  style  is  Force.  This 
quality  has  also  been  variously  termed  energy,  vivacity,  and  strength. 
We  here  use  the  word  in  a  sense  that  comprehends  the  Greek 
terms  energeia,  demotes,  Jiypotyposis,  and  the  Latin  terms  evldeu- 
tia  and  vis. 

The  inspired  preachers  afford  us  many  and  various  examples  of 
this  property  of  style.  Their  figures  contribute  much  to  this  qual- 
ity in  them.  We  say  much,  not  Avholly,  as  some  rhetoricians  ap- 
pear to  think,  who  treat  of  figures  under  this  head  exclusively. 
The  truth  is,  figures  promote  not  only  energy  but  also  perspicuity 
and  gracefulness ;  for.  as  Augustine^  says,  "  the  figurative  exj^res- 

1  Inst.  Orat.,  Lib.  vii.,  c.  ii.  .Good  examples  of  a  warm  clearness  are  the  ser- 
mons of  Luther,  of  Latimer,  of  Banyan,  of  Henry  Smith,  "the  silver-tongued 
preacher,"  and  of  Spurgeon. 

2  De  Doct.  Christ.,  L.  ii.,  c.  vi. 


OF  FORCE.  439 

sions  of  Scripture  affect  us  more  sioeetly  and  agreeably  than  if  the 
same  sentiments  were  uttered  in  jDlain  terms." 

Among  the  figures  of  Scripture  Vvhich  must  be  characterised  as 
energetic,  is  evideiitia  or  liypotyposis,  particularly  as  it  is  employed 
by  the  Hebrew  prophets.  Indeed,  the  genius  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage is  very  favourable  to  evidentia.  "  The  Hebrews,"  as  Her- 
deri  says,  "  like  children,  aim  to  say  everything  at  once,  and  to  ex- 
press by  a  single  soimd  the  person,  number,  tense,  action,  and  still 
more.  How  vastly  must  this  contribute  to  the  sudden  and  simul- 
taneous exhibition  of  an  entire  picture ! "  This  language  proves 
that  copiousness  of  vocabulary  is  not  necessary  to  force.  "  Even 
the  poverty  of  the  language  of  the  Hebrews  contributes  to  the  en- 
ergy of  their  thoughts,  as  the  mountain  torrent,  far  from  being  im- 
peded by  the  rocks  which  would  confine  it,  only  rushes  more  rap- 
idly along  its  narrow  channel.  The  Hebrew  writings  resemble  the 
first  characters  tjjat  the  hand  of  man  traced,  chiselled  with  a  pen  of 
iron,  and  legible  to  a  distance  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains  on 
which  they  were  engraved."^  The  same  evidentia  reappears  in  the 
Hellenistic  oratory  of  the  New  Testament,  where  the  imagery  is 
still  Hebrew,  though  it  may  sometimes  be  seen  in  the  new  light  of 
the  Greek  logic.  "The  difference,"  says  Douglas,  "  between  the 
genius  of  the  East  and  the  "West  disappears  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
both  are  there  united  together.  The  strong  and  the  masculine 
sense  of  the  Europeans  is  clothed  in  the  fervid  imagery  of  the  Ori- 
entals." 

To  the  figures  elsewhere  mentioned  as  helpful  to  force  we  may 
here  add  historic  examples,  analogies,  and  allusions.^  When  the 
preacher  draws  these  from  sacred  history  and' the  Gospel  parables, 
and  uses  them  skilfully,  he  will  find  them  very  forcible  to  all  who 
read  and  study  the  Scriptures.     But  for  the  sake  of  those  who  do 


1  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  Dialogue  i. 

2  James  Douglas  of  Cavers,  The  Truths  of  Religion,  Pt.  i:.,  c.  xii. 

3  Happj'  instances  of  these  may  be  found  in  Gregory  Nazianzen,  02)p.,  tome 
i.,  p.  620;  in  Massillon's  ser.  on  the  Delay  of  Conversion;  Saurin's  ser.  on 
Simeon  ;  Thomas  Watson's  Sermons  ;  Benson's  XlVth  Hulsean  Lecture,  and  Dr. 
Payson's  ser.,  Joy  in  Heaven  over  Repenting  Sinners.  These  things  not  only 
conduce  to  force,  but  also  to  sweetness — to  that  ghjcytes  which  Hermogenes 
found  in  allusions  to  classic  myths.  A  union  of  asyndeton  and  repetition  some- 
times contributes  much  to  energy.  D.  Halicarnassus  (De  Comp.  Verb.,  sec.  5-9) 
gives  from  ^schines  this  example:  "Your  argument  is  against  yourself;  it  is 
against  the  laws  ;  it  is  against  the  commonwealth."  If  this  sentence,  which  con- 
sists of  three  members,  were  made  to  run  thus :  "  Your  argument  is  against  your- 
self and  the  laws  and  the  commonwealth,"  its  energy  would  be  destroyed. 

29 


440  OF  FORCE. 

not  habitually  read  the  Bible,  he  ought  frequently  to  bring  them 
either  from  the  great  facts  and  well-known  narratives  of  Scripture 
or  from  secular  events  and  objects  with  which  they  are  well  ac- 
quainted. 

Next  to  figures,  familiar  language  conduces  most  to  energy  of 
style.  The  Saxon  elements  of  our  tongue  are  not  always  friendly 
to  jDerspicuity,  since  they  sometimes  put  off"  the  people  with  the 
mere  semblance  of  clearness ;  but  they  never  fail  to  produce  vivac- 
ity and  energy.  "  It  has  generally  happened  that  the  most  effec- 
tive i^ublic  speakers,  whether  secular  or  sacred,  have  by  a  fastidious 
class  been  accused  of  vulgarisms.  So  with  Cicero,  Burke,  and 
Chatham;  so  with  Patrick  Henry  and  Daniel  "Webster;  and  to 
turn  to  eminent  preachers,  so  with  Luther,  Latimer,  and  White- 
field.  The  reason  was  that,  intent  on  the  greatest  good  to 
the  greatest  number,  they  used  what  Dr.  Johnson,  after  Daniel 
Burgess,  called  "  market  language."  Dr.  William  Bates,  an  accom- 
plished and  courtly  Nonconformist  minister  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  once  complained  in  the  presence  of  his  faithful  and  unpol- 
ished friend,  Daniel  Burgess,  that  he  found  very  little  success  in  his 
work  as  a  minister ;  when  his  aged  brother  smartly  replied,  "  Thank 
your  velvet  mouth  for  that — too  fine  to  speak  market  language." 
Whitefield,  very  happily  for  thousands,  had  no  squeamishness  of 
this  sort.i  Indeed,  it  has  been  abundantly  proved  that  our  Divine 
Master  and  his  apostles  employed  the  market  language  of  the 
Greeks,  and  that  this  very  circumstance  and  its  benevolent  purpose 
furnish  their  best  defence  against  the  classical  purists  of  all  subse- 
quent ages.2 

And  }  et  some  carry  this  notion  so  far  that  they  imagine  that  in 
speech  the  more  vulgar  they  are  the  more  energetic  they  must  be. 
It  is  undeniable  that  such  corruptions  of  language  as  are  prompted 
by  imitation  (as  in  hlarst  for  blast,  when  there  is  an  explosion  of 
the  word  itself)  are  friendly  to  forcibleness ;  but  in  cases  not  a  few 
words  and  phrases  hard  to  pronounce  and  unpleasant  to  the  ear 
are,  for  these  very  reasons,  comparatively  feeble.  "  Nor  is  it  true," 
says  Dr.  Ward,3  "  that  rough  and  harsh  language  is  more  strong 
and  nervous  than  when  the  composition  is  smooth  and  harmonious. 
A  stream  which  runs  among  stones  and  rocks  makes  more  noise, 
from  the  opposition  it  meets  with  in  its  course ;  but  that  which  has 
not  these  impediments  flows  with  greater  force  and  strength." 

The  sources  of  oratorical  force  in  preaching  must  be  sought, 

1  Dr.  Belcher's  Life  of  Whitefield,  pp.  306,  307. 

2  Dr.  Leland's  Reply  to  Bp.  Warburton.        3  System  of  Oratory,  vol.  i.,  p.  337. 


OF  FORCE.  441 

First,  in  the  Divine  Spirit.  We  have  ah'eady  made  some  remarks 
on  this  subject  in  treatmg  of  power,  or  di/namis,^  under  the  head 
of  Inspiration.  The  term  energeia  is  repeatedly  used  by  Paul  to 
describe  the  operation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  rendering  his  preach- 
ing effectual  (Eph.  i.  19 ;  iii.  7 ;  Col.  i.  29).  The  most  energetic 
preacher  England  has  ever  known  was  Richard  Baxter.  That  he 
was  much  indebted  for  his  force  of  thought,  style,  and  delivery  to 
the  Divine  Si^irit,  who  will  venture  to  deny  ?  If  we  may  gather 
anything  from  his  devotional  habits  and  his  counsels  to  ministers, 
M^e  must  conclude,  with  Dr.  Bates,  that  it  was  because  "  he  was  an- 
ointed by  the  Holy  Spirit  and  breathed  celestial  fire  that  he  was 
able  to  inspire  heat  and  life  into  dead  sinners  and  to  call  them  forth 
from  their  dark  and  frozen  tombs." 

Next  to  the  assistance  of  the  Divine  Spirit  as  a  source  of  ora- 
torical energy,  and  inseparable  from  it,  we  must  rank  a  doctrinal, 
expei-imental,  and  practical  knowledge  of  holy  Scripture. 

Meditation  is  another  source  of  oratorical  force.  There  is  one 
sufiicient  proof  that  this  mental  exercise  promotes  energy  of  style. 
Demosthenes,  Luther,  Massillon,  Vieyra,  and  Baxter  were  as  dis- 
tinguished for  this  quality  as  they  were  constant  in  their  love  of 
retired  meditation. 

But  let  it  never  escape  us  that  neither  the  critical,  doctrinal,  ex- 
perimental, and  practical  knowledge  of  divine  revelation,  nor  medi- 
tation, however  deep  or  well  directed,  nor  any  other  means  that 
either  Scripture  or  reason  recommends,  can  avail  to  make  us  in  the 
best  sense  energetic  preachers  unless  the  Divine  Spirit  speak  to  our 
hearts  fi'lth  his  tongue  of  fire,  and  efi'use  his  refreshing  breath  over 
our  audience. 

ISTow,  if  a  true  homiletical  energy  springs  from  the  Divine  Spirit, 
it  must  be  something  very  different  from  the  energeia  or  vis  of  the 
great  orators  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquity.  The  old  pagan  ora- 
tor aimed  to  carry  a  point  of  present  interest,  and  to  carry  it  by 
all  possible  means,  whether  fair  or  foul.  He  did  not  scruple  to  stir 
up  the  most  malevolent  passions.  To  gain  some  special  and  imme- 
diate object,  he  thought  it  lawful  to  appeal  to  motives  the  most 
base,  and  so  to  undermine  the  moral  principles  of  communities  and 
nations,  and  secure  a  present  and  limited  good  by  sowing  the  seeds 
of  ultimate  and  universal  evil.  The  oratorical  energy  of  the  an- 
cients was  not  restrained  by  any  moral  laws.  It  Avas  the  joint  off- 
spring of  all  the  good  and  evil  passions  of  the  speaker,  and  was  at 
liberty  to  inflame  to  the  utmost  the  corresponding  passions  of  the 


1  See  also  Phil.  iv.  13  ;  1  Tim.  i.  12;  2  Tim.  iv.  17. 


442  OF  FORCE. 

hearer.^  It  was,  in  consequence,  intense,  exciting,  and  impelling 
beyond  all  modern  secular  oratory,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the 
most  unprincipled  speaker  is  now  held  in  check  by  some  moral  con- 
siderations, either  in  himself  or  his  auditors.  He  finds  it  expedient 
to  recognise  a  higher  standard  of  goodness  than  was  known  even 
to  the  philosopher  of  Stagira.  And  on  account  of  the  superior 
general  intelligence  of  his  audience  he  perceives  the  necessity 
and  advantage  of  more  strongly  impressing  their  reason  by  cool  and 
sound  argumentation  than  the  classical  orator  was  accustomed  to  do. 

But  how  much  wider  the  interval  between  the  old  classic  and 
the  modern  Christian  force.  The  preacher  seeks  the  ultimate  more 
than  he  does  the  immediate  welfare  of  his  hearers.  Drawing  his 
subject-matter  from  the .  pure  oracles  of  God,  and  speaking  with 
divine  assistance,  he  endeavours  always  and  only  f o  move  the  bet- 
ter passions  of  his  auditors.  As  his  object  is  the  regeneration  of 
some  and  the  edification  and  sauctification  of  others,  he  knows  that 
he  can  safely  employ  only  such  means  as  his  conscience  approves 
and  the  Divine  Spirit  will  make  effectual.  He  knows,  likewise, 
that  if  envy,  pride,  hatred,  or  any  other  malevolent  passion  were  to 
find  utterance,  it  would  call  forth  an  instant  echo  from  the  hearts 
of  his  auditors,  and  he  Avould  thus  be  frustrating  the  main  design 
of  his  ministry.^  He  is  anxious,  therefore,  not  to  speak  what  his 
own  heart  dictates,  as  the  Eurymachus  of  Homer  did  (Odys.,  B. 
xviii.,  1.  351),  but  to  speak  in  harmony  with  the  revealed  Gospel  of 
Jesus,  and  from  such  feelings,  and  such  only,  as  are  begotten  and 
nurtured  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  Besides,  he  is  not  a  mere  orator ;  he 
is  an  instructor  also.  He  is,  or  ought  to  be,  much  occupied  in 
teaching  his  hearers  the  great  lessons  which  his  Divine  Master  has 
imparted  to  him.  But  in  teaching,  lucidity  is  more  serviceable  than 
force,  which,  unless  it  be  kept  in  subordination  to  clearness,  and  be 
its  handmaid,  will  be  a  hindrance  both  to  teacher  and  learner  in  the 
school  of  Christ. 

We  are  not,  therefore,  to  test  homiletical  energy  by  an  appeal  to 
classical  standards.  As  the  spirit,  purpose,  and  subject-matter  of 
the  Christian  sei-mon  is  very  different  from  those  of  the  pagan  ora- 
tion of  antiquity,  so  the  force  which  ought  to  characterise  the  former 
is  very  difterent  in  kind  from  that  which  distinguishes  the  latter. 
In  the  sermon  we  find  the  energy  to  be  that  wh'ich  proceeds  from  * 

1  Plato,  in  his  Gorgias,  accuses  contemporary  orators  of  flattery ;  cf.  Demos- 
thenes in  his  oration  on  the  Cliersonese  and  3(1  Olynthiac.  Eurii)ides,  Cicero, 
and  Quintilian  attribute  the  fall  of  Athens  to  the  abuse  of  the  gift  of  eloquence. 

2  Cf.  what  is  said  concerning  Reserved  Force  in  sec.  "  Of  the  Feelings." 


OF  FORCE. 


443 


the  piety,  the  discretion,  the  knowledge  of  the  preacher — from  di- 
vine truth  in  opposition  to  all  religious  error ;  from  divine  know- 
ledge as  against  ignorance  and  superstition ;  from  the  law  of  God 
commending  itself  to  universal  reason;  from  the  Gospel  of  Christ 
appealing  to  conscience,  to  faith,  to  hope,  to  love,  to  patience,  and 
all  other  moral  faculties  which  the  Divine  Spirit  either  begets  or 
raises  from  the  dead ;  from  the  lessons  of  Scripture  history  and  bi- 
ography ;  from  the  example  and  testimony  of  Christian  martyrs 
and  cross-bearers ;  from  the  struggles  and  triumphs  of  the  religion 
of  Jesus  through  so  many  centuries  and  in  so  many  near  and  re- 
mote parts  of  the  world ;  above  all,  from  the  Divine  Spirit  gra- 
ciously present  in  preacher  and  hearer,  teaching  and  persuading 
with  a  power  that  is  absolute  and  matchless. 

And  as  homiletical  force  is  different  from  the  old  ethnic  force  in 
kind,  so  it  is  evident,  from  what  has  just  now  been  said,  it  may  be 
superior  to  it  in  degree.  Yes,  it  may  he  superior  to  it  in  degree  ; 
but  it  is  a  lamentable  truth  that  such  is  the  depravity  of  the  human 
heart  that  it  grieves  and  quenches  the  Spirit  both  in  the  preacher 
and  the  hearer,  so  that  he  is  not  uniform  either  in  the  mode  or  the 
degree  of  his  operations ;  whereas  the  secular  orator  who  appeals 
to  the  baser  passions  of  the  crowd  may  safely  calculate  on  the  per- 
manency of  their  residence,  the  regularity  of  their  exercise,  and 
the  certamty  of  their  response  to  his  earnest  appeals.  When,  how- 
ever, the  conditions  which  the  Spirit  exacts  are  performed,  the 
preacher  may  speak  with  an  energy  that  is  as  potent  in  degree  as 
it  is  elevated  in  kind. 

The  classical  student  who  is  called  to  the  ministry  should  never 
disregard  these  important  distinctions.  He  needs  to  be  continually 
w-arned  against  the  danger  of  admiring  and  imbibing  the  force  of 
the  old  classical  orators,  and  particularly  that  of  Demosthenes, 
whose  "  vim  "  is  almost  idolised  by  students,  who  are  apt  to  blink 
the  fact  that  in  debate  a  cogency  and  pimgency  are  allowable  which 
could  in  no  case  be  safely  admitted  mto  preaching  without  being 
first  watered  down.  And  this  w^arning  is  the  more  necessary  be- 
cause of  the  growing  tendency  of  scholars  to  search  out  and  mag- 
nify the  many  moral  qualities  which  his  orations  exhibit.  There- 
min, in  his  .little  work  entitled  "  Eloquence  a  Virtue,"  from  the  fre- 
quency and  the  admiration  with  which  he  cites  Demosthenes,  would 
appear  to  have  set  too  high  an  estimate  both  on  the  virtues  and  the 
eloquence  of  the  pagan  orator  as  compared  with  Jesus  and  the 
prophets  and  the  apostles.     Dr.  F.  Koster,i  another  German  scholar 


1  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  vol.  xi.,  p.  527. 


444  OF  FORCE. 

and  divine,  has  even  attempted  to  prove  that  the  language  of 
Paul  was  modelled  after  that  of  Demosthenes,  while  Theremin  has 
written  an  essay  in  which  he  boldly  traces  parallels  between  the  elo- 
quence of  this  Greek  orator  and  that  of  the  Christian  preacher 
Massillon.  Keinhard,  in  his  "  Confessions,"  and  Robert  Hall,  as  re- 
ported by  his  biographers,  acknowledge  in  their  ripest  years  the 
benefit  they  had  derived  from  the  study  of  Demosthenes.  These 
and  other  such  commendations  from  preachers  of  marked  ability, 
and  some  of  them  of  deserved  celebrity,  are  apt  to  blind  the  stu- 
dent to  the  seductive  faults  of  this  greatest  of  Gentile  orators. 
And  these  faults  are  never  so  seductive  as  upon  occasions  of  just 
indignation,  of  indignation  against  high-handed  error  and  wrong  on 
the  part  of  those  who  profess  themselves  Christians.  Then,  how- 
ever, is  Christian  forbearance  more  than  ever  demanded.  When 
the  feudal  knight  had  to  keep  the  lists  against  a  friend,  he  some- 
times blunted  the  edge  and  point  of  his  sword. 

Among  the  things  that  enfeeble  public  addresses,  long  and  nu- 
merous quotations  must  be  mentioned.  But  still  the  effect  of  such 
materials  ever  depends  od  their  timeliness,  and  particularly  on  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  introduced.  Dr.  Mason  adds  exceed- 
ingly to  the  energy  of  his  sermon,  "  The  Messiah's  Throne,"  by  put- 
ting his  proof-texts  in  the  form  of  questions ;  and  Segneri,  by  his 
invocations,  apostrophes,  and  other  figures,  greatly  augments  the 
weight  of  his  authorities.  He  calls  on  Salvian  to  come  from  Mar- 
seilles to  decide  the  case  between  him  and  his  hearer;  again  he 
tells  the  deluded  that  in  order  to  maintain  their  ground  as  to  re- 
pentance they  will  have  to  bring  over  to  their  side  Jerome,  Au- 
gustine, and  others.  In  another  place,  after  quoting  St.  Gregory, 
St.  Bernard,  etc.,  he  says  :  "  But  why  need  we  go  a-begging  after 
other  authorities  when  we  possess  the  Scriptures  themselves,  paint- 
ing to  us  so  vividly,"  etc.  To  those  who  refused  to  give  to  the 
poor  on  the  plea  that  they  had  not  now  half  the  income  that  Avas 
necessary  to  maintain  them  decently,  he  replied :  "  If  you  take  the 
usages  of  a  dissolute  world  as  your  rule  of  life,  then  Christ  must 
come  down  from  the  mount  Avhere  he  first  opened  his  mouth,  and, 
breaking  off  his  sermon,  desist  from  those  sublime  teachings  in 
Avhich  he  forbade  anxiety  about  food  and  raiment." 

Among  the  English  preachers  whose  .?tyle  is  energetic,  Baxter 
stands  among  the  forcrhost.  Calamy  says  of  Baxter  that  though 
he  did  not  hear  him  till  he  was  advanced  in  years,  yet  "  he  deli^■- 
ered  himself  with  great  vivacity  and  freedom,  and  his  thoughts  had 
a  peculiar  edge."  Aiigustinc,  following  Cicero,  would  have  the 
preacher  speak  acute  (with  sharpness),  yet  not  obtuse  (with  blunt- 


OF  FORCE.  445 

ness) ;  and  Baxter  met  this  requirement.  Doddridge  has,  with  his 
usual  discrimination,  styled  him  the  Demosthenes  of  the  English 
i:»ul2)it ;  and  yet  he  does  not  apjDear  to  have  deliberatively  chosen 
him  as  his  model,  or  to  have  been  familiar  with  his  orations.  He 
spoke  characteristically,  and  thus  unawares  followed  the  great 
Greek  orator.  But  Baxter  is  not  a  model  in  all  things.  One  fault 
of  his  sermons  is  that  which  Remhard  confesses  that  he  found  in 
his  own — a  too  frequent  use  of  the  interrogative.  In  common  with 
the  great  preachers  of  his  age,  he  indulged  in  divisions  many  and 
mmute.  And  it  has  been  said  by  one  who  has  not  underrated  his 
various  excellences  as  a  preacher  and  writer,  that  he  might  have 
learned  to  advantage  from  his  contemporary,  Bunyan,  to  insist  more 
than  he  did  on  the  doctrines  of  grace  as  the  only  ground  of  the  sin- 
ner's hope,  and  the  grand  motive  of  a  Christian  practice.  Never- 
theless, Baxter's  energy  of  style  deserves  to  be  studied,  because 
it  is  remarkably  mmgled  with  benevolence.  With  what  tenderness 
and  compassion  does  he  iitter  the  denunciations  of  the  divine  wrath, 
depict  the  awful  scenes  of  the  general  judgment,  and  describe  the 
eternal  torments  of  the  wicked.^  Whitefield  also  coiflbined  energy 
and  sweetness. 

Next  to  the  sermons  of  Baxter  and  "Whitefield,  those  of  Antonio 
Vieyra  and  Paolo  Segneri  are  worthy  of  commendation  for  a  simi- 
lar union  of  strength  and  pathos.2 

If  we  desire  to  keep  clear  of  a  false  energy,  "  we  should,"  to  bor- 
row the  Avords  of  Leighton,  "  most  carefully  avoid  the  bestowing 
too  great  zeal  upon  small  things,  and  too  much  confidence  of  opin- 
ion upon  doubtful  things,"  and,  we  must  now  add,  too  many  popu- 
ular  harangues  upon  one-sided  thmgs.  "  But  can  there  be  a  one- 
sided thing  ?  "  Read  many  a  popular  sermon  of  the  day  and  de- 
termine for  yourself 

(A.) 
EXAMPLES  FEOM  BAXTER'S  SEEMONS. 

"  Alas  !  sirs,  it  is  a  most  pitiful  sight  too  see  men  frisk  about  in  jollity  with 
the  marks  of  death  and  wrath  upon  them  ;  and  to  see  men  so  frantically  merry 
in  their  sin  as  to  forget  the  misery  that  will  so  quickly  mar  their  mirth.  .  .  Poor 
sinner !  the  Lord  who  sent  me  on  this  message  to  thee  knows  that  I  envy  thee 
not  thy  mirth  and  pleasure,  but  only  would  have  it  better  for  thee,  or  have  thee 
set  thy  mind  on  better." — Right  Rejoicing,  Works,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  170. 

"  I  exceedingly  pity  the  godly  in  their  unwarrantable,  melancholy  griefs,  and 
much  more  an  ungodly  man  that  is  bleeding  under  his  wounds  of  conscience- 
But  a  man  that  is  merry  in  the  depth  of  misery  is  more  to  be  pited  than  he. 
Methinks  it  is  one  of  the  most  pitiful  sights  in  all  the  world  to  see  a  man  ruffle 

1  See  Appendix  (A)  of  this  section.  2  Appendix  (B). 


44G  GRACEFULNESS  OF  STYLE. 

it  out  in  bravery,  and  spend  his  precious  time  in  pleasures,  and  melt  into  sen- 
sual, foolish  mirth,  that  is  a  stranger  to  God,  and  within  a  step  of  endless  wo !  " 
—lb.,  p.  174. 

"Oh!  what  a  pitiful  sight  it  is  to  see  a  man  under  the  wrath  of  God  !  And 
are  these  little  sparks  so  intolerably  hot  1  What  then  do  you  think  are  the  ever- 
lasting flames  1  Beloved  hearers,  if  God  had  not  spoken  this  I  durst  not  have 
spoken  it ;  the  desire  of  my  soul  is  that  you  may  never  feel  it,  or  else  I  should 
never  have  chosen  so  unpleasing  a  subject,  but  that  I  hope  the  foreknowing  may 
help  you  to  prevent  it." — The  Absolute  Sovereignty  of  Christ,  p.  402. 

"  Oh !  that  I  did  know  what  arguments  would  persuade  you,  and  what  words 
would  work  thy  heart  hereto.  If  I  were  sure  it  would  prevail,  I  would  come 
down  from  the  pulpit  and  go  from  man  to  man  upon  my  knees,  .with  the  request 
and  advice  in  my  text:  'Oh  !  kiss  the  Son,  lest  he  be  angry,  and  you  perish.'  " 
—lb.,  p.  406. 

(See  also  Robert  "Walker's  ser.  on  Isa.  liii.  8,  end  of  Pt.  ii.  Pa- 
olo Segneri  did,  it  seems,  venture  actually  to  bow  the  knee  before 
his  hearers.     See  the  28th  ser.  of  his  Quaresimale,  h^-^-) 

(B.) 

AN  EXAMPLE  FROM  ONE  OF  VIETEA'S  SERMONS. 

"The  separation  of  the  wicked  from  the  righteous  will  take  place  among  all 
classes  and  conditions  of  men.  But  the  separation  of  those  who  are  allied  by 
the  strongest  bonds  of  blood  and  affection  will  be  the  most  painful.  Indeed,  all 
other  circumstances  will  be  deeply  affecting,  but  this  will  be  heart-rending.  Pa- 
rents will  then  be  separated  from  their  children  ;  on  the  one  side  will  Abraham 
stand,  on  the  other  Ishmael ;  brothers  will  be  separated  from  brothers  ;  there 
will  be  Jacob,  and  yonder  Esau ;  wives  will  be  separated  from  husbands ;  Es- 
ther will  be  on  this  side,  and  Ahasuerus  on  the  other ;  friends  will  be  separated 
from  friends  ;  Jonathan  will  be  here,  and  Saul  there.  Thus  will  these  be  sepa- 
rated lo  see  each  other  never  more  ! — those  who  loved  each  other  in  this  life — 
those  who  had  so  many  reasons  for  loving  each  other  in  the  life  to  come.  Never 
more !  Oh !  what  a  saddening  word.  If  for  those  who  love  one  another  it  is 
even  now  a  great  grief  when  they  are,  in  travelling,  compelled  to  part,  yet  with 
the  hope  of  seeing  one  another  again ;  if  it  already  causes  deep  sorrow  to  sepa- 
rate in  death,  with  the  expectation  of  meeting  each  other  again  in  another  world, 
0  what  a  grief  it  must  be  for  those  whom  nature  and  affection  have  transformed 
into  one  being  to  be  separated  then  and  there,  with  the  felt  certainty  of  never 
seeing  each  other's  faces  again  as  long  as  God  lives  !  Surely  he  must  have  a 
hard  heart  who  does  not  desire  to  escape  such  a  danger." — The  Itcsiirrection  of 
the  Righteous  and  the  Wieked — the  third  sermon  of  the  first  Sunday  of  Advent. 

(See  also  Paolo  Serjnerl,  Quaresimale,  ser.  14th,  ^10,  and  ser. 
5th,  §10.) 

Section  III. — Gracefulness  of  Style. 

The  third  and  last  general  requisite  of  the  oratorical  style  has 
generally  been  denominated  "  Elegance  "  or  "  Beauty."  AVe  cannot, 
however,  perceive  that  either  of  these  terms  best  designates  this 


MOVEMENT  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  GRACE  OF  STYLE.         447 

oratorical  quality,  for  in  oratory,  more  than  any  other  kincl  of  com- 
l^osition,  movement  is  expected  and  demanded.     Now  the  idea  of 
movement  is  not  necessarily  included  in  that  of  elegance  or  beauty. 
We  therefore  prefer  the  term  Grace,  which,  while  it  does  not  ex- 
clude the  idea  of  beauty  or  elegance,  comprehends  that  of  motion. 
By  grace  we  understand  that  quality  of  an  action  which  enables  it  to 
move  along  a  line  of  beauty.     This  grace  may  be  either  an  actual 
movement  or  some  posture  which  either  goes  before  or  follows 
movement,  and  is,  therefore,  associated  with  it.     Beauty  and  ele- 
gance may  be  contemplated  in  absolute  repose,  and  may,  at  the 
same  time,  be  separate  and  independent  objects  of  thought.     They 
can  thus  engross  the  attention  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  the 
employment  of  reasons  and  motives  unavailing.     They  may  conse- 
quently serve  merely  for  the  gratification  of  taste  and  a  supine  con- 
templation.    Gracefulness  may,  we  allow,  become  in  like  manner  a 
separate  and  all-engrossing  object  of  attention  and  affectionate  ad- 
miration ;  but  it  is  less  liable  to  become  such  an  object  than  either 
beauty  or  elegance  is ;    for,  as  it  is  the  result  of  higher  qualities 
and  powers  than  itself,  and  a  mode  of  the  action  of  the  living  and 
intelligent  agent,  and  as  it  does  not  necessarily  occupy  the  attention 
and  thoughts  of  the  speaker  ?t'A/fe  speaklwj,  it  being  either  perfectly 
natural  to  him,  or  having  been  so  thoroughly  mastered  by  art  as  to 
have  become  natural  to  him,  it  is  for  these  reasons  apt  to  keep  itself 
in  a  subordinate  place  before  the  auditors,  and  is  usually  content  to 
be  considered  by  them  as  a  modest  attendant  of  the  agent  or  a  pass- 
ing mcident  of  his  action.     The  moment  grace  ceases  to  be  self- 
oblivious,  it  is  grace  no  more.     It  is  transformed  into  "  attitudin- 
ising "  and  an  affectation  of  ease.     It  is,  nevertheless,  nothing  to  its 
prejudice  that  it  is  generally  known  to  be  the  result  of  long  and 
well-directed  training ;  for  this  is  our  best  guarantee  that  the  speak- 
er does  not,  because  he  need  not,  allow  it,  at  any  time  and  in  the 
most  inconsiderable  degree,  to  divert  his  attention  from  the  matter 
and  object  of  his  discourse. 

StJBSEcnoN  I. — Movement  ix  its  Eelatiox  to  Grace  or  Style. 

This  word  in  its  present  signification  is  of  French  origin.  But 
the  idea  it  conveys  is  found  somewhere  in  the  writings  of  Cicero 
who  asks,  "What  is  eloquence  but  a  continuous  motion  of  the 
mind  ?  "  Elsewhere^  he  says  that  the  orator  ought  to  arrange  and 
compose  his  matter  not  only  in  order,  but  also  with  a  certain  mo- 

1  De  Orat.,  L.  i.,  c.  xxxi. 


448  MOVEMENT  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  GRACE  OF  STYLE. 

mentum  (seel  etiam  momento  quodam).  Fenelon^  is  the  first  of  the 
French  writers  who  employs  the  word  mouvenierd  in  a  rhetorical 
sense.  He  says  that  the  movements  of  the  orator  consist  in  words 
and  in  gestures.  "  What  movement  can  there  be  m  words  ?  You 
shall  see.  Cicero^  tells  us  that  the  very  enemies  of  Gracchus  could 
not  help  weeping  when  he  delivered  this  passage  :  '  Whither  shall 
such  a  miserable  wretch  as  I  betake  myself?  Whither  shall  I  turn  ? 
To  the  capitol  ?  But  that  swims  with  my  brother's  blood.  Shall 
I  go  to  my  own  house  ?  Would  I  not  there  see  my  mother,  mis- 
erable, wailing,  and  degraded  ? '  These  are  movements.  Were 
you  to  speak  these  words  with  calmness  you  would  destroy  all  their 
force.  Do  you  think  so?  Just  try:  *I  know  not  where  to  go  in 
my  misfortunes,  nor  whither  to  turn  for  refuge.  The  capitol  is  the 
place  where  my  brother's  blood  was  shed,  and  at  home  I  shall  see 
my  unhapi^y  mother  weeping  for  gi'ief  This  is  the  same  thing 
that  was  said  before ;  but  what  has  become  of  its  energy  ?  Where 
are  those  abrupt  words  which  nature  so  well  employs  when  trans- 
ported with  grief?  "  Movement,  then,  according  to  Fenelon,  is  an- 
other name  for  vivacity  or  energy  of  style.  But  movement  as  we 
here  .employ  the  term  may  be  defined  thafkind  and  degree  of  ani- 
mation which  most  promptly  express  the  speaker's  thoughts  and 
his  progress  from  thought  to  thought.  It  is  the  first  requisite  of 
grace  in  the  oratorical  style.  Without  this,  style  may  be  beautiful 
or  elegant,  but  can  never  be  graceful,  because  the  idea  of  grace  is 
insei^arable  from  that  of  motion,  either  preparing,  or  begun,  or  con- 
tinued, or  ended.  Yet  it  difters  from  that  "  action  "  which  Demos- 
thenes is  falsely  reported^  to  have  praised  so  highly,  and  which  con- 
sisted in  mere  delivery  or  elocution. 4  It  differs  likewise  from  con- 
tinuousness  or  flowingness  of  style  in  being  more  comprehensive ; 
for  the  latter  only  represents  the  different  thoughts  as  connected 
by  easy  transitions,  but  the  former  expresses,  in  addition  to  this, 
every  variety  of  mental  movement,  whether  progressive  or  regres- 
sive, digressive  or  interrupted ;  whether  about  to  begin,  or  lost  in 
repose.  It  includes,  at  the  same  time,  the  idea  of  the  honest  and 
adequate  representation  of  these  movements.  "  It  is  here,"  says 
Marmontel,^  "  that  we  perceive  the  force  of  Lucian's  comparison 
when  he  desired  that  the  style  and  the  thought,  like  a  horseman 

1  Dialogues  sur  L'Eloquence,  Dialo.  ii.  2  De  Orat.,  L.  iii.  c.  hi. 

3  Plutarch's  Lives  of  the  Ten  Orators. 

^  Hi/pociisis,  actio,  pronunciatio ;   Cicero,  De  Orat.,  L.  iii.,  c.lvi. ;    Brutus,  De 
Clar.  Orat.,  c.  xxxviii. ;  Orat.,  c.  xvii. ;    Quint.,  L.  xi.,  c.  iii. 
6  Elements  de  Literature,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  303-315. 


MOVEMENT  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  GRACE  OF  STYLE.         449 

and  his  horse,  might  be  of  one  will,  and  move  together  harmoni- 
ously." And,  as  the  same  author  adds,  this  oratorical  motion  is 
free  and  various ;  the  bold  and  skilful  horseman,  whose  steed  is 
well-trained  and  obedient  to  the  rein  and  the  spur,  may  sometimes 
venture  to  leap  the  highest  fences  and  clear  the  widest  ditches,  but 
when  the  chase  is  over  he  will  slacken  his  pace  and  bs  content  to 
walk  slowly  along  the  well-beaten  bridle-path.  "  The  orator,"  says 
he,  "  ought  to  know  how  to  distribute,  to  vary,  and  to  govern  his 
movements.  The  laws  of  chiaroscuro  in  painting,  and  of  forte- 
inano  in  music  are  not  without  their  applications  to  eloquence.  In 
the  fine  arts,  as  in  natui^e,  the  best  effects  are  produced  by  contrasts. 
There  we  must  reconcile  oppositions  and  agreements,  discords  and 
accords,  and  so  marry  contraries  that  out  of  unity  and  diversity 
may  spring  one  harmonious  whole.  But  when  the  movements  of 
style  most  truly  answer  to  those  of  the  soul,  they  are  not  in  the 
least  objects  of  study,  premeditation,  and  attention.  Herein  elo- 
quence differs  from  declamation ;  and  if,  says  IMarmontel,  any  one 
asks  why,  with  the  same  movements  that  the  true  orator  has,  and 
with  means  the  most  effective  to  all  human  appearance,  the  mere 
rhetorician  and  declalmer  makes  no  impression  on  his  auditors,  the 
reason  is  plain :  non  erat  his  locus^ — they  are  not  in  their  proper 
place." 

Vinet,  in  his  work  of  IIomiletics,2  discusses  this  subject  at  con- 
siderable length.  He  pronounces  movement  to  be  a  royal  beauty 
of  style,  and  misapplying  the  suggestions  of  Marmontel,  he  enume- 
rates and  illustrates  the  figures  which  in  his  judgment  contribute  to 
this  superior  excellence  of  style.  Among  these  figures  he  mentions 
gTadation  or  modern  climax,  amplification,  reticence,  pretermission, 
irony,  hyperbole,  paradox,  vision,  interrogation,  exclamation,  apos- 
trophe, prosopo]Doeia,  dialogismus,  and  deprecation,  or  prayer.  He 
assigns  the  foremost  place  to  repetition,  and  it  is  very  remarkable 
that  under  this  head  he  gives  us  an  illustration  drawn  from  the 
prophecy  of  Amos  (iv.  6-12) — a  thing  very  unusual  for  a  writer 
too  much  imbued  with  the  classical  spirit,  and  yet  evidently  in  need 
of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  systems  of  the  classic  rhetoricians. 
The  radical  error  which  pervades  this  chapter,  as  well  as  that  which 
precedes  it,  on  the  subject  of  Colour  of  Style,  is  the  classifying  of 
figures  under  the  head  of  the  superior  excellences  rather  than  the 
elementary  quaUties   of  style.     The   book,   nevertheless,    contains 


1  Horace,  Epist.  ad  Pisoiies,  1.  19. 

2  Homiletiqiie  ou  Theorie  de  la  Predication,  Pt,  iii.,  chap,  iii.,  p.  538 — or  Dr. 
Sliinner's  excellent  translation. 


450         MOVEMENT  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  GRACE  OF  STYLE. 

very  many  valuable  maxims  and  examples  on  the  general  subject 
of  preaching.  Nor  is  it  to  be  denied  that  figures  are  helpful  to 
motion  of  style.  The  fault  of  Vinet  is  in  xmwittingly  conveying 
the  idea  to  the  novice  that  many  of  the  figures  are  good  for  nothing 
else. 

I.  So  far  as  mere  motion  of  style  is  concerned,  it  primarily  de- 
pends on  the  connectives.  These  are  not  only  necessary  to  per- 
si:)icuity  and  energy,  but  also  to  that  quality  of  grace  which  it  is  now 
our  business  to  discuss.     And  here  we  may  briefly  observe : 

That  motion  of  style  is  often  promoted  by  employing  the  old 
English  words  compounded  of  adverbs  and  })rcpositions  in  the 
place  of  the  relative  pronoun  preceded  by  a  proposition,  as  icliere- 
upoji,  thereto,  therexoith,  thereby^  instead  of  xij)on  ichich,  to  ichtch, 
irith  that,  by  which.  In  opposition  to  Lord  Shaftesbury,  Avho  was  too 
fond  of  imitating  the  French  idioms,  Principal  Campbell,  who 
has  treated  these  points  fully  and  ably,  offers  four  reasons  against  dis- 
possessing these  ancient  words  of  the  ground  they  still  occupy  : 

First,  they  afford  lis  a  variety  of  words  to  express  the  same  ideas. 
Again,  they  sometimes  interrupt  a  long  and  disagreeable  succession 
of  monosyllables.  In  certain  cases,  moreover,  they  prevent  obscurity, 
or  at  least  inelegance,  as  when  a  relative  occurs  more  than  once  in 
a  sentence.  Finally,  they  express  more  than  the  modern  words 
sometimes  do.  The  pronouns  this,  that,  and  tchich  do  not  so  natur- 
ally refer  to  a  clause  or  sentence  as  to  a  word ;  nor  do  the  two 
first  refer  so  naturally  to  a  plural  as  to  a  singular;  whereas  the 
compounds  of  here,  there,  and  trhere,  joined  to  the  2:)reposition,  do 
with  equal  propriety  refer  to  all  these. 

This  quality  of  style  is,  we  observe  again,  maintained  by  the 
proper  use  of  conjunctions.^  But  to  avoid  the  too  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  these  we  may  sometimes  expand  them  into  synonyms,  or 
equivalent  phrases  or  sentences;  e.  g..  Add  to  this,  in  like  manner, 
on  the  contrary,  to  proceed,  etc.,  instead  of  also. 

The  "  splitting  of  particles,"  although  sometimes  necessary  (as 
when  the  particles  are  emphatic),  almost  always  impedes  movement ; 
e.  y.,  "  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often 
be  accompanied  by  the  advantages  of  fortune." 

In  the  place  of  likewise  or  moreover  Mr.  Gresley-  would  say,  oc- 
casionally, "  There  is  yet  another  argument  for  your  consideration;  " 
"  So  much  for  this  point,  let  us  go  on  to  the  next."'  Instead  of  hoic- 
ever,  notioithstandiny,  he  would  say, "  Let  me  not  be  misunderstood." 

1  Campbell's  Rhet.,  B.  iii.,  chap.  iv. 

2  Treatise  on  Preaching,  entitled  Ecclesiastes  Anglicanus,  Letter  xix. 


MOVEMENT  IN  ITS  RELATION    TO  GRACE  OF  STYLE.         451 

Take  another  view  of  the  subject :  "  Though  there  is  some  weight  in 
what  has  just  been  urged,  there  is  this  to  be  said  in  reply  ;  "  "  In  this 
part  of  our  argument  we  must  not  forget."  Variety  may  also  be 
secured  by  transposition :  t]ien^  hoioever,  nevertheless^  and  therefore 
may  be  thus  transposed.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  con- 
junction and  as  well  as  or  may  gracefully  connect  not  only  words 
and  clauses,  but  sentences  as  well. 

Motion  frequently  depends  also  upon  the  discriminating  use  of 
the  figures  Asyndeton  and  Polysyndeton,  the  former  being  suitable 
for  sentences  briefly  expressive  of  several  thoughts  that  are  pro- 
found and  require  meditation,  the  latter  being  appropriate  in 
amplifications,  exaggerations,  and  the  utterance  of  passion,  con- 
fidence, determination,  and  lively  exultation.  The  former,  con- 
sequently, is  better  adapted  to  slow  motion,  the  latter  to  raj^id. 
The  repetition  of  the  andm.  Jer.  xxxi.  28,  says  Rollin,  represents  so 
many  redoubled  strokes  of  God's  auger.  Chrysostom  excels  in  the 
use  of  Polysyndeton. 

What  we  have  said  respecting  rhetorical  conjunctives  applies, 
with  slight  modifications,  to  the  adverbs  then^  hitherto^  formerly^ 
here^  thus  far,  first,  secondly,  finally,  thus,  accordingly,  otherwise. 
These,  as  Campbell  says,  in  uniting  the  several  parts  of  discourse, 
have  all  the  effect  of  conjunctions. 

The  subject  of  connectives  suggests  that  of  transitions,  a  happy 
use  of  which  is  helpful  to  movement ;  but  this  more  properly  be- 
longs to  the  next  subsection 

II.  Movement  is  also  promoted  by  avoiding  an  afiectatiou  of 
scientific  accuracy  and  pedantic  discrimination  in  the  use  of  words. 
In  the  full  career  of  discourse  it  is  m  some  instances  wise  to  unclasp 
language,  lest  it  fit  the  ideas  too  closely,  and  so  imisede  their  free 
progress.  One  of  Madam  de  Sevignu's  critics  has  suspected  that 
she  sometimes  employed  vague  and  general  expressions  which  re- 
semble "  those  floating  garments  whose  shape  a  skilful  hand  can 
change  at  pleasure."  But  we  should,  on  the  other  hand,  remem- 
ber that  Avords  worn  slipshod  cause  style  to  limp. 

III.  Rapidity  ot  movement  is  promoted  by  the  frequent  use  of 
verbs  in  place  of  nouns,  and  by  the  employment  of  adjectives  that 
express  motion.  It  would  be  useful  for  the  student  to  take  sen- 
tences of  Dr.  Johnson  and  quicken  their  pace  by  the  method  here 
suggested.  The  idea  of  motion  may  often,  without  any  dejaarture 
from  truth,  be  substituted  for  the  idea  of  repose ;  e.  g.,  Dr.  Donne 
employs  the  familiar  simile  drawn  from  the  eyes  of  a  j^ortrait  thus : 
"  Be  therefore  no  stranger  to  this  face ;  see  him  here  that  you  may 
know  him  and  he  you  there ;  and  then  as  a  picture  looks  upon  him 


452         MOVEMENT  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  GRACE  OF  STYLE. 

who  looks  upon  it,  God  upon  whom  thou  keepest  tliine  eye  will 
keep  his  eye  upon  thee."  Melvill,  while  employing  the  same  figure 
for  another  purpose,  renders  it  more  effective  by  setting  it  in  mo- 
tion :  "  Such  is  your  nature  that,  M'ithout  constant  vigilance,  the  di- 
rection may  he  gradually  changed  and  yet  appear  to  you  the  same, 
even  as  the  eyes  of  a  well-drawn  i^ortrait  follo\o  you  as  you  move^ 
and  so  might  persuade  you  that  you  had  not  moved  at  all."  An 
anonymous  writer,  in  narrating  our  Saviour's  walk  to  Galilee  on  the 
morning  of  his  resurrection,  imparts  life  and  motion  to  the  entire 
scene :  "  We  see  him  as  he  goes  forth  from  the  cave-tomb,  just  as 
the  sun  casts  his  first  beam  on  the  sepulchre.  He  Avalks  on  as  star 
after  star  loses  itself  in  the  flood  of  sunlight.  As  he  walks  on,  at 
every  tread  of  his  sacred  feet  the  world  becomes  more  beautiful ; 
flower  after  flower  sends  forth  its  incense ;  bird  after  bird  chaunts 
its  lay.  How  must  the  exhilarating  morning  breeze  have  whispered 
to  his  heart  of  that  millennial  world  which  he  had  already  opened 
to  his  saints." 

IV.  Motion  of  style  is  interrupted  by  the  frequent  use  of  anec- 
dotes, and  particularly  by  expanding  what  ought  to  be  brief  narra- 
tives into  graphic  descriptions.  Athanese  CoquereP  is  opposed  to 
the  employment  of  anecdotes  by  reason  of  the  difficulty  in  making 
graceful  transitions  to  and  from  them,  and  of  calling  back  the  at- 
tention of  the  audience  to  the  thread  of  the  discourse.  In  cases 
where  the  style  is  diffuse  and  declamatory,  like  that  of  this  French 
preacher,  it  is  indeed  hazardous  to  undei'take  to  piece  into  a  sermon 
an  anecdote  or  quotation.  Bat  it  would  be  easy  to  bring  forward 
examples  where  anecdotes  have  been  woven  into  the  texture  of 
discourses  without  checking  or  in  any  way  disturbing  their  move- 
ment. Bede,  Damiani,  Ethelred,  Thomas  .^  Kempis,  Vieyra,  Seg- 
neri,  Latimer,  Whitefield,  and  many  other  popular  preachers,  were 
wont  to  tell  anecdotes  in  their  sermons  with  good  success.  Only 
let  them  be  told  in  the  terse,  lively,  and  pointed  style  which  char- 
actei'ises  our  Lord's  parables,  and  faulty  indeed  must  be  the  preach- 
er's general  diction  if  they  do  not  increase  rather  than  diminish  its 
vivacity  and  grace.  But  they  must  never,  except  in  funeral  ser- 
mons, be  mere  descriptions  exhibiting  side  by  side  the  different 
qualities  of  persons  or  the  diftereiit  characteristics  of  things.  "  In 
the  first  place,"  says  Theremin,^  "  so  far  as  respects  this  necessary 
progress  of  the  oration,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that,  though  it  admits 
of  narration,  it  entirely  excludes  description.     In  ?iarration  the 


1  Observaiions  sur  La  Predication,  pp.  103,  104. 

2  Eloquence  a  Virtue  (Dr.  Shedd's  translation),  pp.  183-185. 


MOVEMENT  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  GRACE  OF  STYLE.         453 

different  constituent  parts  of  a  subject  follow  one  another,  and  the 
progress  of  the  oration  is  not  checked  by  it ;  but  in  description,  on 
the  contrary,  these  constituent  parts  stand  beside  each  other,  and 
form  a  quiet  picture,  whereby  the  swift,  strong  movement  of  the 
oration  is  stopped."  He  adds  that  when  the  orator  is  called  upon, 
as  is  very  often  the  case,  to  portray  the  character  of  a  person,  he 
should  find  an  historical  thread  by  means  of  which  his  representa- 
tion may  run  off  like  a  gradually  developing  history.  We  have 
elsewhere  shown  that  in  funeral  sermons  higher  considerations 
sometimes  overrule  these  conditions  of  movement. 

V.  The  motion  of  a~n  argumentative  discourse  is  promoted  by 
avoiding  a  long  chain  of  abstract  propositions,  and  employihg  the 
rhetorical  rather  than  the  logical  form  of  demonstration.  "  Would 
the  orator,"  says  Theremin,  "  show  the  possibility  of  a  thing,  he 
does  it  by  proposing  a  plan,  by  citing  an  example,  showing  that  in 
similar  circumstances  the  like  has  already  been  done.  Would  he 
prove  the  actuality  of  a  fact,  he  cites  testimony  and  establishes  its 
validity  by  referring  to  authority  universally  recognised,  and  by 
appealing  to  what  public  opinion  has  on  former  occasions  decided 
in  similar  cases.  .  .  In  this  way  Demosthenes  constructs  his  formi- 
dable enthymematic  trains  of  reasoning,  which,  so  far  from  hinder- 
ing the  progress  of  the  orator,  are  rather  to  be  compared  to  the 
lightning  in  force  and  rapidity."  Theremin  would,  in  our  opinion, 
have  better  represented  the  niovement  of  this  great  orator's  style 
in  the  more  argumentative  parts  of  his  speeches  if  he  had  compared 
it  to  successive  claps  of  thunder,  w^herein  the  sharp  peal  of  each 
faljing  bolt  takes  up  and  repeats  the  rumbling  echoes  of  the  last. 
This  has  been  happily  illustrated  by  Milton  in  those  familiar  lines 
in  which  he  is  describing  the  political  effects  of  Attic  oratory  on 
foreign  nations : 

"  Whose  restless  eloquence 
AVielded  at  will  that  fierce  democraty, 
Shook  the  arsenal,  and  fulmin'd  over  Greece, 
To  Macedon  and  Artaxerxes'  throne." 

But  in  reasoning  the  preacher  should  maintain  that  ethos  which  was 
exhibited  by  the  prophets  rather  than  that  j^aihos  which  Demos- 
thenes displayed.  We  here  use  these  terms  in  the  classical  sense  ; 
the  former  signifying  mild  and  gentle  feeling,  the  latter  importing 
agitated  passion,  as  love  and  hatred,  hope  and  fear,  joy  and  sorrow. 
Now,  in  argumentative  sermons  a  logic  which  is  warmed  but  not 
melted  by  its  progress  is  better  than  that  which  is  so  rapid  as  to 
take  fire,  and  so  to  destroy  itself  Passion  is  useful  in  many  ser- 
mons, and  in  some  quite  indispensable ;  but  into  that  part  of  the 


454:         MOVEMENT  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  GRACE  OF  STYLE. 

discourse  ■which  is  devoted  to  argumentation  it  ought  very  seldom 
to  be  admitted.  If  the  preacher  of  the  Gospel  or  the  clerical  stu- 
dent shares  Theremin's  too  unlimited  admiration  for  Demosthenes, 
he  is  in  danger  of  learning  to  reason  Avith  the  fist  rather  than  with 
the  open  palm^ — a  habit  nowise  friendly  to  the  cultivation  of  that 
kind  of  rhetorical  movement  which  comports  with  the  gentle  and 
pacific  spirit  of  the  Christian  teacher. 

VI.  We  have  already  shown  that  a  proper  use  of  connectives 
contributes  to  motion  of  style.  Among  these  the  causals  and  illa- 
tives  appear  to  deserve  something  more  than  a  passing  mention. 
For,  while  a  sermon  should,  as  far  as  possible,  avoid  the  form  of  a 
cold,  dry  course  of  logical  deductions,  it  should,  on  the  other  hand, 
be  remembered  that  not  only  movement,  but  more  important  quali- 
ties and  effects  demand  the  timely  recurrence  of  the  words  and^ 
for,  because,  if]  then,  therefore,  consequently,  so  that,  and  other 
marks  of  logical  connection  and  dependence.  "  It  has  always  ap- 
peared to  me,"  says  John  Foster,^  "  that  Mr.  Hall's  discourses 
would  have  had  one  more  ingredient  of  excellence  if  the  rich  and 
strong  production  of  his  thought,  while  pressing,  as  it  alway  did, 
with  an  united  impulse  towards  the  point  in  view,  had  been  drawn 
out  ih  a  sequence  of  more  express  and  palpable  dejDendence  and 
concatenation."  As  examples  of  a  good  use  of  expressions  of  log- 
ical continuity,  he  recommends  the  sermons  of  Stillingfleet  and  of 
South.  Of  the  latter  he  says,  that  "  glaringly  censurable  as  many 
of  them  are  on  very  grave  accounts,  they  are  admirable  for  this  linked 
succession,  this  passing  to  a  further  idea  by  consequence  from  the 
preceding,  and  not  merely  by  that  principle  of  relation  between 
them,  that  they  both  tend  to  the  same  eftect." 

VII.  Movement  likewise  demands  the  discui'sive  rather  than  the 
intuitive  acts  of  the  mind.  The  difference  between  these  two  acts 
has  been  happily  illustrated  by  De  Quincey  :*  "  Under  Burke's 
treatment  every  truth  r/roios  in  the  very  act  of  unfolding  it.  Take 
any  sentence  you  please  from  Dr.  Johnson  and  it  will  be  found  to 
contain  a  thought  fully  preconceived.  Whereas  in  Burke,  what- 
ever may  liave  been  the  preconception,  it  receives  a  new  determi- 
nation or  inflexion  at  every  clause  of  the  sentence.  Some  collateral 
adjunct  of  the  main  proposition,  some  temperament  or  restraint, 
some  oblique  glance  at  its  remote  affinities  will  invariably  be  found 
to  attend  the  progress  of  his  sentences.  .  .  Hence,  while  a  writer 

1  Cicero,  Orat.,  cap.  xxxii. 

2  Robert  Hall's  Character  as  a  Preacher,  in  Appendix  of  Dr.  Gregory's  Me- 
moirs. 

3  Note  vi.  to  his  Essay  on  Rhetoric. 


OF  TRANSITIONS.  455 

of  Dr.  Johnson's  class  seems  only  to  look  back  upon  his  thoughts, 
Burke  looks  forward,  and  does,  in  fact,  advance  and  change  his  own 
station  concurrently  with  the  advance  of  the  sentences.  This  pecu- 
liarity is,  no  doubt,  in  some  degree  due  to  the  habit  of  extempore 
speaking,  but  not  to  that  only."^  Dr.  Porson,  in  conversation  with 
Samuel  Rogers,  contrasted  tAvo  other  great  men  in  respect  of  the 
same  points  :  "  Mr.  Pitt,"  said  he,  "  conceives  his  sentences  before 
he  utters  them ;  Mr.  Fox  throws  himself  into  the  middle  of  his,  and 
leaves  it  to  Almighty  God  to  get  him  out  again."  Mr.  Fox's  style 
is,  however,  more  impulsive  than  Burke's ;  and  in  general  it  may 
be  further  observed,  that  a  paragraph  made  up  of  discursive 
thoughts  may  felicitously  close  with  an*  intuitive  thought  wMch 
slackens  the  pace  of  the  paragraph  a  little  while  before  it  comes  to 
a  halt. 

But  important  as  movement  is,  we  must  here  subjoin  the  caution 
that  it  cannot  itself  alone  secure  oratorical  gracefulness.  When 
assiduously  cultivated  apart  from  its  ancillary  qualities  it  may  con- 
tribute only  to  a  rude  energy  of  style.  "  The  fencer  and  the  gladi- 
tor,"  says  Cicero,^  "  discipline  themselves  not  only  to  give  and  par- 
ry blows  with  dexterity,  but  to  move  with  grace,  cmn  venustate.'''' 
Even  thus  the  sacred  orator  has  to  add  beauty,  gentleness,  natural- 
ness, and  other  such  excellences  to  movement  before  he  is  master 
of  that  gracefulness  which  constitutes  the  most  powerful  charm  of 
eloquence,  and  which,  if  it  does  not  spring  from  several  virtues,  is, 
at  any  rate,  coetaneous  with  them. 

Subsection  II. — Of  Transitions. 

In  the  Odyssey,  as  Longinus^  has  observed,  there  are  not  so 
many  instances  of  ro  ayxidtpocpov,  or  quick  transition,  as  we  find 
in  the  Iliad.  This  is  owing  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  former  sings 
of  peace,  and  the  latter  of  war,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
latter  the  matter  being  more  homogeneous,  is  more  closely  con- 
nected. 

It  is  in  didactic  sermons  that  transitions  must  be  made  with  the 
most  attention  and  care ;  for  in  them  it  is  very  important  to  ex- 
hibit truths  in  their  relations,  connections,  and  interdependence. 

1  The  proiDhets  abound  in  this  quality  which  De  Quincey  finds  in  Burlce.  The 
great  orator  was  educated  by  a  Quaker,  vmder  wliose  eye  "  I  have,"  said  he, 
"read  the  Bible  morning,  noon,  and  night,  and  have  ever  since  been  the  happier 
and  better  man  for  such  reading." — Br-  Croly's  Memoirs  of  Burke. 

2  De  Orat.,  L.  iii.,  c  lii.  3  De  Sublimitate,  sec.  9,  ^13. 

30 


456  OF  TRANSITIONS. 

Thus  Moses  in  Deuteronomy,  Ezekiel  in  his  prophecies,  and  our 
Lord  in  his  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  do  not  pass  so  hurriedly  from 
one  subject  to  another  as  do  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ilosea,  and  Amos. 
We  ought  not,  however,  to  look  for  any  formal  transitions  in  the 
Hebrew  eloquence ;  they  would  ill  beseerti  the  simplicity  and  ener- 
gy of  the  language.  In  argumentative  discourses  there  is  likewise 
much  need  of  transitions,  although  these  usually  make  up  in  num- 
ber what  others  supply  in  length. 

The  transitions  of  the  inspired  preachers  are,  in  general,  what 
would  be  termed  raj)id  and  somewhat  abrupt.  Not  seldom  the 
variations  of  thought  and  feeling  are  as  extreme  as  they  are  sud- 
den, lamenting  or  rejoicing,  threatening  or  exhorting,  now  sinking 
to  the  level  of  dispassionate  prose,  now  mounting  to  the  height  and 
repose  of  poetry,  and  at  times  even  soaring  into  actual  songi  (Isa. 
i.  4-5;  V.  1-2;  Hos.  ii.  14;  vi.  1;  xiii.  9;  xiv.  1;  Amos  v.  12). 
Sometimes,  as  Professor  Taylor  Lewis^  has  discovered,  the  transi- 
tion ''  is  in  the  thought  alone,  the  language  m^aintaining  its  regular- 
ity of  construction,  and  even  flow  of  style."  Of  this  he  finds  a 
striking  example  in  Nahum  i.  2-6.  In  cases  like  this  the  prophet, 
no,  doubt,  indicated  the  transition  from  the  storm  to  the  calm  by 
the  modulation  of  his  voice ;  in  fact,  all  oratorical  as  well  as  lyrical 
comijositions  depend  more  or  less  on  the  modulation  of  singers  and 
speakers  for  a  proper  rendering  in  respect  of  this  point. 

In  some  of  the  epistles,  as  in  Hebrews  and  First  and  Second 
Corinthians,  the  transitions  are  more  deliberate,  and  yet  they  par- 
take in  some  measure  of  the  impetuosity  of  the  Hebrew  transition. 
When,  however,  we  take  into  consideration  the  great  occasion  the 
Hebrew  and  Hellenistic  speakers  had  for  deep  and  various  feelings, 
and  the  nature  of  their  warnings,  encouragements,  reproofs,  and 
exhortations,  we  shall  find  that  in  respect  of  abruptness  they  com- 
pare favorably  with  similar  utterances  of  the  best  ethnic  oi-ators. 
The  Rabbinical  maxim,  "  Lumen  propheticum  est  lumen  abrupt- 
um,"  is  more  applicable  to  the  introductory  signals  and  proofs  of 
their  inspirations  (coming,  as  it  did,  upon  these  holy  men,  often 
ajrainst  their  near  interests  and  those  of  their  auditors,  and  herein 
distinguishing  them  from  all  false  and  mercenary  prophets)  than  to 
any  lack  of  methodical  connection  in  the  thoughts  themselves,  or 
any  want  of  unity  of  design  and  impression  m  the  discourses  con- 
sidered as  entireties,  and  as  they  were  delivered. 

1  Ewald,  Intro,  to  Die  Propheten  des  Allen  Bundes. 

2  Emotional  Element  in  Hebrew  Translation,  Methodist  Quarterly,  vol.  xliv., 
.'line,  1862. 


OF  TRANSITIONS.  457 

It  is  deserving  of  notice  that  not  a  few  of  the  transitions  of  the 
inspired  speakers  are  made  by  some  exclamation  or  other  expres- 
sion of  deep  feeling,  after  pauses  that  are  not  given.  When  Cic- 
ero also,  in  his  fourth  oration  against  Verres  (^25),  pauses  to  relate 
an  anecdote  about  Lucius  Piso,  he  begins  by  uttering  that  famous 
exclamation,  "  O  tempora !  O  mores  ! "  So  Bossuet,  in  his  funeral 
oration  for  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  "  La  grandeur  et  la  gloire  !  " 

"  In  extemporaneous  oratory,"  says  John  Quincy  Adams,i  "  the 
most  pleasing  and  impressive  species  of  transition  is  made  by  seiz- 
ing uj^on  some  occasional  incident  or  circumstance  furnished  to  the 
orator  while  he  is  speaking."  The  author  gives  us  an  example  from 
the  same  passage  in  Cicero's  oration  to  which  we  just  now  alluded. 
After  relating  an  anecdote  he  goes  on  to  say:  "It  is  utterly  im- 
possible for  me  either  to  retain  in  my  memory  or  to  embrace  in  my 
speech  all  his  (Verres')  exploits.  I  wish  only  to  touch  briefly  on 
the  different  kinds  of  deeds  done  by  him,  just  as  here  the  ring  of 
Piso  reminds  me  of  what  had  otherwise  entirely  escajDcd  my  recol- 
lection. How  many  honourable  men  do  you  imagine  there  are 
from  whose  fingers  this  man  has  torn  off  their  gold  rings,"^  etc. 
Some  of  the  transitions  of  Bourdaloue  and  Massillon  are  of  this 
description. 

Transitions  should  be  long  or  short  according  as  the  style  is  dif- 
fuse or  laconic.  La  Bruyere  has  been  blamed  by  Boileau  for  omit- 
ting all  transitions,  whereas  he  is  deserving  of  praise  for  having  in« 
stinctively  followed  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon  when  writing  on  the 
same  class  of  subjects,  rather  than  Boileau  and  his  friends,  who  fre- 
quently bestow  more  work  on  their  stiles  and  bridges  than  they  do 
on  their  paths  and  roads. 

Again,  when  the  discourse  is  long  and  made  up  of  several  divis- 
ions of  a  subject,  it  is  advisable  by  formal  transitions  to  notify  the 
audience  that  we  have  completed  one  part  and  are  about  to  com- 
mence another.  It  is  in  obedience  to  this  rule  that  the  most  ex- 
tended transitions  are  foimd  in  the  long  epistles  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

The  ancient  rhetoricians  have  given  us  no  valuable  precepts  on 
this  subject,  and  it  is  clear  from  the  example  of  Demosthenes  that 
in  this  respect  they  indulged  in  as  much  freedom  and  variety  as 

1  Lectures  on  Rhetoric,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  109,  110,  Cambridge,  1810. 

2  Another  admired  transition  of  his  is  in  his  second  speech  against  Catihne. 
It  is  in  the  form  of  self-correction  and  self-reproach:  "But  why  do  I  talk  so 
long  concerning  one  enemy,"etc.,  and  then  goes  on  to  describe  the  other  con- 
spirators. 


458 


OF  TRANSITIONS. 


was  consistent  with  brevity.  In  judging,  tlierefore,  of  the  inspired 
transitions,  we  should  be  guided  by  ancient  rather  than  modern 
precedents.  The  transitions  of  the  former  consisted  chiefly  of 
thouo-hts,  never  of  words  merely.  "  True  transitions,"  says  Cardi- 
nal Maury ,1  "  excuse  the  preacher  from  making  a  new  introduction 
to  each  of  his  subdivisions ;  they  are  such  as  the  amplification  of 
his  ideas  furnishes,  and,  as  it  were,  places  in  proper  method  without 
the  speaker's  knowledge ;  such  as  cause  the  diflerent  parts  to  meet 
in  natural  connections,  and  not  in  accidental  collisions ;  such,  in 
short,  as  meditation  produces  after  it  has  inspired  all  at  once  and 
in  an  orderly  train  several  great  thoughts,  and  not  such  as  ink  glues 
too-ether  by  joining  parts  that  are  remotely  related.  Clear  and  dis- 
tinct ideas  always  find  for  themselves  easy  and  happy  transitions. 
'Stones  that  are  well  cut,'  says  Cicero,  'unite  of  themselves  with- 
out the  assistance  of  cement.'  " 

In  making  transitions,  extremes  are  to  be  sedulously  avoided. 
Nothing  is  moi-e  easy  than  to  devote  either  too  much  or  too  little 
attention  to  t^e  subject.  He  who  can  pass  qulcJdy  from  language 
highly  excitatory  or  deeply  pathetic  is  no  better  than  a  mere  actor- 
Some  sermons  appear  like  a  number  of  heavy-laden  boats  dragged 
one  .'after  another  by  very  long  hawsers,  the  latter  being  the  prin- 
cipal objects  of  attention ;  others,  like  a  railway  ti-ain,  plunging  off 
the  track,  the  cars  going  after  but  not  following,  disconnected  yet 
running  into  each  other.  But  then,  as  we  have  already  remarked, 
difierent  subjects  require  different  transitions.  The  didactic  and 
the  argumentative  admit  of  longer  transitions  than  the  proverbial. 
When  Palmer^  censured  Reinhard  for  his  formal  transitions,  he  did 
not  consider  this.  Though  unity  may  do  much,  and  a  textual  plan 
still  more  to  diminish  the  number  of  connective  words  and  sen- 
tences, yet  the  subject-matter  of  Reinhard's  sermons  demanded  his 
mode  of  handling,  and  very  seldom  indeed  did  he  compose  so  dis- 
connectedly that  bis  transitions  were  mere  crevices  covered  with 
dry  leaves. 

It  is  not  always  an  easy  thing  for  all  preachers  to  pass  to  their 
applications,  especially  where  they  are  continuous.  Keckerman 
and  Segneri^  have  gone  so  fir  as  to  collect  a  variety  of  suitable 
phrases  for  this  purpose.  But  some  abruptness  is  here  desirable, 
as  it  increases  that  "  surprise  power  "  which  rivets  tl;e  attention  of 


1  Essai  sur  L' Eloquence  de  La  Chaire,  tonic  i..  ]i.  o52. 

2  Ilomiletik,  pp.  584-587  (iir-st  ed.)- 

3  Rhctorica  Ecclesiastica,  L.  i.,  c.  ix.,  Arte  di  Tredicar,  Trat.  iii.,  cap.  xx. 


BEAUTY  OF  STYLE.  459 

uncultivated  hearers.     Do  not  therefore  threaten  a  conchision  be- 
fore you  reach  it.^ 

StiBSECTiox  III. — Beauty  of  Style. 

This  quality  should  be  an  element  of  the  oratorical  style,  in  so  far 
as  it  contributes  to  gracefulness.  We  can  indeed  form  a  notion  of 
grace  as  existing  apart  from  beauty,  if  it  be  not,  on  the  contrary, 
identified  with  positive  deformity.  But  our  idea  of  perfect  grace 
must  ever  be  associated  with  that  of  positive  beauty.  They  have 
in  common  one  leading  excellence,  that  is  to  say,  symmetry ;  beauty 
being  the  symmetry  of  form,  and  grace  the  symmetry  of  motion ; 
in  short,  every  graceful  movement  traces  a  line  of  beauty.  Their 
union,  therefore,  is  congenial  and  miitualiy  advantageous.  Rubens 
has  inspired  many  of  his  figures  with  life,  motion,  and  a  certain  in- 
diiferent  kind  of  grace ;  but  we  all  feel  that  he  would  have  njade 
them  more  graceful  in  their  postures  and  movements  if  he  had 
only  made  them  more  beautiful.  Guido,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
undoubtedly  imparted  to  the  Hours  in  his  Aurora  a  degree  of  grace 
that  would  have  been  beyond  the  reach  of  his  art  if  he  had  been 
compelled  to  make  them  less  beautiful. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  between  beauty  of  thought 
and  beauty  of  style ;  and  it  will  often  be  found  that  when  this 
quality  is  attributed  to  a  phrase,  sentence,  or  paragraph,  it  is  trace- 
able to  the  thought  or  conception,  or  mental  image,  just  as  readily 
as  a  wing  lying  against  the  casement  may  be  traced  to  the  carrier" 
pigeon  that  rests  panting  and  weary  on  the  window-ledge  below. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  what  are  called  "  ornaments  "  of  style- 
It  will  frequently  be  found  that  they  have  no  elegance  or  beauty  in 
themselves,  or  as  detached  from  the  idea  they  express.  If  they 
have,  a  narrower  scrutiny  will  probably  reveal  the  fact  that  the 
beauty  or  excellence  is  false  or  meretricious.  As  m  architecture, 
those  are  true  ornaments  which  are  a  part  of  and  grow  out  of  the 
solid  material  of  the  structure,  so  in  oratory  those  are  true  "  orna- 
ments "  which  are  wrought  upon  the  corners,  ends,  and  edges  of  the 
thoughts.  "  Figures,"  says  Cicero,^  "  are  the  principal  ornaments 
of  an  able  speaker ;  I  mean  those  which  contribute  not  so  much  to 
paint  and  embellish  our  language  as  to  give  lustre  to  our  senti- 
ments." But  still  colour  enhances  beauty,  and,  according  to  the 
schoolmen,  the  provinces  of  rhetoric  is  to  paint  "  rhetorica  verba 


1  Palmer's  Homiletik,  p.  464.  2  Brutus,  sec.  37. 


460  BEAUTY  OF  STYLE. 

colorat."  And  this  colour  in  rhetoric,  as  in  painting,  not  only  beau- 
tifies, but  distinguishes  as  well. 

Nothing  contributes  more  to  colour  of  style  than  a  right  use  of 
adjectives,  and  particularly  epithets.  Young  writers  having  been 
often  told  that  redundancy  of  these  is  unfriendly  to  energy  of  style, 
and  told  no  more,  are  left  in  total  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  the 
quality  now  under  consideration  is  not  to  be  acquired  without  em- 
j)loying  these  aptly  and  abundantly.  Take  any  beautiful  composi- 
tion, such,  for  example,  as  Gray's  "  Elegy  "  or  Cowj^er's  "  Prophetic 
Anticij^ations,"  and  draw  your  pencil  over  every  adjective,  what  have 
you  left  ?  Pictures  without  coloui-,  without  light  and  shade,  with- 
out life  and  activity.  Repeat  the  same  act  upon  any  eloquent  pas- 
sage of  Jeremy  Taylor's  or  of  Edmund  Burke's,  and  you  produce 
a  similar  effect.  Concerning  the  proper  management  of  adjectives 
no  general  maxim  will  suiBce.  We  have  to  take  into  our  survey 
the  different  kinds,  some  of  which  express  mere  limitations,  and 
consequently  have  more  the  effect  of  drawing  than  of  colouring. 
We  have  likewise  to  consider  what  sort  and  measure  of  them  may 
be  proper  for  particular  subjects  and  styles  of  discourse.  Adjectives 
of  condition,  and  those  of  quality  in  their  various  degrees,  are  to 
the  preacher  of  essential  service.  The  adjectives  in  solemn  sub- 
jects, like  the  colouring  in  the  pictures  of  Ludovico  Carracci,  should 
be  mild  and  shadowed ;  but  in  the  joyful  themes  of  the  Gospel  the 
adjectives  may  be  more  bright  and  full,  like  the  colours  in  the 
Transfiguration  of  llaffaelle.  Never,  however,  should  the  preacher 
venture  to  imitate  the  glare  and  florid  gaudiness  of  such  ornamental 
painters  as  liubens  and  Veronese. 

Such  figures  as  are  created  by  and  appeal  to  imagination  may  be 
made  to  develop  beauty  of  style,  provided  always  that  such  figures 
are  embodied  in  language  which  does  not  show  the  results  of  care- 
ful elaboration.  Through  a  mistake  of  Quintiliau'  or  some  tran- 
scriber of  his,  Demosthenes  is  made  to  say  what  his  example  con- 
tradicts, and  what  neither  his  biographies  nor  his  writings  confirm, 
that  the  orator  who  would  move  his  audience  by  his  thoughts  will 
not  only  write  but  sculjiture  them.  Quintilian  may  have  intended 
to  quote  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  who  says  of  Isocrates  and 
Plato  that  their  works  were  not  so  much  written  as  sculptured  in 
marble  and  embossed  in  brass.  Anyhow,  he  infers  that  Demos- 
thenes, with  such  examples  before  him,Avould  be  likely  to  study 
oratorical  euphony  and  melody  with  unmeasured  imtience,  but  he 
adds,  by  way  of  qualification,  that  it  was  by  his  early  education, 

1  Inst.  Orat.,  L.  xii.,  c.  ix.,  sec.  16 ;  cf.  Dionysius  Hal.,  De  Conip.  Verb.,  625. 


BEAUTY  OF  STYLE.  461 

joined  to  subsequent  practice,  he  had  acquired  such  a  finished  style 
that  he  needed  n'ot  to  give  any  attention  to  rules  while  writing  and 
speaking;  just  as  the  harpist  or  the  flute  player,  that,  having  learned 
from  long  practice  the  art  of  music  and  the  skilful  use  of  his  fingers, 
can,  without  any  careful  attention  or  recollection,  play  any  tune  he 
hears.  Theremin,  therefore,  and  other  modern  writers,  have  erred 
in  su]3posing  that  Demosthenes  bestowed  the  same  care  on  his  rhet- 
orical power  that  the  poet  is  wont  to  devote  to  his  diction.  At  any 
rate,  they  have  no  unquestionable  authority  for  such  statements. 
And  if  they  had  the  great  orator's  very  words  to  quote  against  us, 
we  could  still  appeal  to  his  example  as  against  his  precept.  Now 
what  was  that  example  ?  Do  we  find  any  where  in  liis  orations 
anytliing  that  may  with  strictness  be  termed  "word-painting?" 
Cicero^  does,  indeed,  say  that  in  a  judicious  management  of  figures 
of  speech  and  decorations  of  sentences,  Demosthenes  was  so  fai* 
superjxDr  to  all  others  as  to  be  allowed,  in  the  opinion  of  the  best 
judges,  to  be  the  prince  of  orators.  But  Cicero  adds  that  the 
figures  in  question  "  contribute  not  so  much  to  paint  and  embellish 
our  lano'uao'e  as  to  ffive  lustre  to  our  sentiments."  It  must  be 
allowed  on  all  hands  that  the  similes  of  Demosthenes  are  very  sim- 
ple and  concise ;  nor  do  they  betray  more  finish  and  amplification 
Avhen  they  are  repeated  by  him,  as  they  sometimes  are.  The  famous 
simile  drawn  from  local  Aveaknesses  of  the  body,  and  thrice  repeated, 
first  in  the  Second  Olynthiac,  then  in  the  oration  on  the  Letter,  or 
"  Eleventh  Philippic,"  and  finally  in  the  oration  for  the  Crown,  is, 
by  Lord  Brougham,  thought  to  be,  in  each  new  instance,  more  care- 
fully worded  and  more  happily  applied.  But  it  is  not  easy  for  us  to 
discover  marks  of  elaboration  which  escaped  the  lynx-eyed  Her- 
mogenes  and  Dionysius.  Even  Brougham-  admits  that  in  the 
repetition  of  his  bold  reproach  of  the  Athenians  as  newsmongers, 
the  original  passage  is  the  more  spirited,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  finer 
of  the  two,  and  that  the  application  of  it  to  the  receipt  of  the  letter 
in  the  speech  on  Philips'  Letter,  is  somewhat  flat,  after  its  striking 
application  in  the  "  First  Philippic,"  where  he  asks,  "  Can  there  be 
greater  news  than  that  a  man  of  Macedonia  should  conquer  the 
Athenians  and  give  laws  to  Greece  ?  "  Nor  is  this  all.  In  such  few 
words  are  the  great  images  stamped  that  Brougham  finds  it  difticult 
to  understand  how  an  audience,  hearing  them  for  the  first  time  fall 
like  a  stroke  upon  their  minds,  could  have  clearly  apprehended 

1  Brutus,  sec.  37. 

2  Dissertation  on  the  Eloquence  of  the  Ancients,  appended  to  his  Speeches. 
Also  his  article  on  the  Greek  Orators,  Edinburgh  Review,  1820. 


462  BEAUTY  OF  STYLE. 

them,  or,  at  least,  tasted  their  beauty  and  felt  their  force.  He  can 
only  account  for  this  conciseness  by  supposing  that  it  was  the  result 
of  writmg  the  speeches  after  their  delivery,  wherem,  as  he  fancies, 
greater  copiousness  was  required.  But  it  can  be  shown  that  he 
comj)osed  his  greatest  speeches  beforehand.  Brougham  thinks  that 
the  repetition  not  only  of  some  figures,  but  of  many  entire  sen- 
tences, without  a  single  alteration,  clearly  proves  that  Demosthenes 
bestowed  extreme  pains  upon  his  compositions.  Such  repetitions  are, 
on  the  contrary,  strong  evidences  of  hasty  preparation.  Had  the 
great  orator  composed  his  orations  with  that  extreme  care  which 
many  writers  are  fond  of  attributing  to  him,  he  would  have  made 
it  his  first  study  to  guard  against  the  repetition  of  his  thoughts,  or, 
at  any  rate,  of  his  figures,  and  if  driven  to  employ  the  same  thought 
a  second  time,  yet  the  same  sentence  the  second  time  he  would 
never  have  been  guilty  of  inflicting  on  his  audience,  most  assuredly 
never,  if  that  sentence  in  its  first  form  was  remarkable  for  its 
beauty  or  its  aptness. 

But  why  do  we  stay  to  settle  this  question  respecting  the  degree 
of  beauty  which  the  style  of  Demosthenes  possesses.  The  reason 
is  not  far  to  seek.  The  inspired  speakers,  who  must  be  our  first 
authorities  in  all  these  matters,  give  us  no  specimens  of  elaborate 
word-painting,  no  similes,  metaphors,  or  other  figures  which  check 
the  progress  of  out  thoughts,  or  cause  our  attention  either  to  loiter 
or  to  wander.  Compare,  as  to  this  point,  the  similes  of  Homer 
with  those  of  the  prophets.     For  example  : 

..."  As  wheh  the  whirlwinds  of  the  west 
A  storm  encounter  from  the  gloomy  south, 
The  waves  roll  multitudinous,  and  the  foam, 
Upswept  by  wandering  gusts,  fills  all  the  air, 
So  Hector  swept  the  Grecians." — Iliad,  Book  ii. 

"  As  for  Samaria,  her  king  is  cut  off  as  the  foam  upon  the 
water  "  (Hos.  x.  7).  The  former  of  these  similes  befits  the  calm  and 
measured  pace  of  poetry ;  but  the  latter  is  more  suitable  for  the 
lively  and  running  motion  of  oratory.  Some  of  the  parables  are 
certainly  of  considerable  length,  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  we  detect  in  them  no  endeavour  after  a  delicate  and  elaborate 
development  of  the  accessories,  no  desire  to  dwell  on  probable 
incidents  and  circumstances ;  in  short,  no  set  purpose  to  give  us 
such  lines  and  colours,  figures  and  groups,  lights  and  shadows  as  shall 
conspire  to  make  a  finished  picture.  Nor  should  it  escape  us  that 
these  longer  parables  are  almost  always  found  in  didactic  dis- 
courses, or  parts  thereof,  where  the  movement  is,  as  it  ought  to  be, 
slow,  gentle,  and  tolerant  of  interruj)tion. 


.     BEAUTY  OF  STYLE.  463 

Now,  observe,  we  are  not  discussing  here  the  subject  of  beauty 
and  ornament  of  style  in  general,  but  inquiring  what  kind  and  de- 
gree of  beauty  and  of  ornamentation  are  j^roper  and  subservient  to 
oratorical  movement.  And  here  the  question  arises,  What  sort  or 
degree  of  ornamentation  is  best  for  objects  in  motion  ?  After  mak- 
mg  due  allowance  for  variety  of  material,  form,  and  colour,  which  both 
nature  and  art  take  delight  m,  it  appears  to  be  a  sound  prmciple 
that  an  ornament  should,  if  bright,  be  small  and  simple  in  propor- 
tion to  the  swiftness  of  the  object  which  it  adorns ;  for  if  it  be  large 
its  rapid  motion  will  cause  it  to  fill  too  great  a  space  in  the  field 
of  vision,  smce  a  little  piece  of  gold  or  pearl  or  diamond  becomes 
a  long  line  of  light;  or  if,  again,  it  be  pale  and  lustreless,  or  consist 
of  some  delicately-wrought  device,  it  will,  by  passing  quickly,  es- 
cape observation.  When,  therefore,  an  image  is  exhibited,  it  should, 
like  those  on  ancient  coin,  be  as  large  and  bold  as  can  possibly  be 
crowded  into  the  narrow  surface  of  the  ornament.  A  moving  sur- 
face may  sometimes  with  happy  effect  be  studded  or  spangled  with 
brilliant  points,  for  these  will  become  so  many  lines  of  beauty,  more 
or  less  perfect  according  to  the  gracefulness  of  the  movements  that 
prodiice  them. 

This  principle  can,  in  a  general  way,  be  applied  to  Christian 
rhetoric.  In  the  more  animated  and  rapidly  littered  parts  of  a  dis- 
course, similes  and  metaphors  should  be  concise  and  striking.  And 
if  they  are  of  this  description,  one  simile  or  metaphor  may  be 
closely  followed  by  another,  to  the  great  promotion  of  graceful- 
ness. The  quick  successions  of  similes  and  metaphors  which  we  no- 
tice in  some  parts  of  the  prophetic  sermons  have  a  very  happy 
effect,  both  because  they  are  so  many  points  of  light  and  because 
the  mind's  eye  is  kept  m  agreeable  motion  by  passing  from  one  to 
the  other.  To  this  we  may  add,  that  great  bulk  is  commonly  im- 
agined to  be,  and  often  really  is,  unfriendly  to  impetuosity.  But 
one  principal  use  of  this  quick  succession  of  figures  is  to  keep 
beauty  in  subserviency  to  gracefulness,  and  to  keep  both  subordi- 
nate to  thought;  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  become  qualities  too 
attractive  anil  too  engrossuig.  For  if  each  of  these  figures  is  ex- 
ceedmgly  beautiful,  it  is  soon  followed  by  another  equally  or 
more  beautiful,  so  that  the  mind  is  forbidden  to  pause  and  contem- 
plate the  former  in  passive  admiration,  but  is  allured  forward  to 
the  next,  which  in  turn  becomes  an  object  of  attention  and  interest 
chiefly  because  it  reveals  another  side,  or  a  different  attitude  of 

thought.  ■,  .      1  r. 

It  appears,  then,  that  in  most  kinds  of  pubhc  speakmg  beauty  of 

composition  has  a  very  slender  influence.     In  oratory  a  manful  en- 


464  BEAUTY  OF  STYLE. 

ertyy  must  be  in  the  ascendant,  and  ever  in  armed  readiness  either 
to  give  battle  to  the  enemy  or  outflank  him.  Beauty  of  style  loves 
tranquillity;  gracefulness  of  style  demands  exertion,  adventure, 
victory,  triumph.  And  yet  the  conditions  of  the  two  are  not  alto- 
gether incompatible.  The  devices  on  the  banners  of  Edward  the 
Conqueror  were  not  devoid  of  all  gracefulness,  even  while  they 
were  at  rest  after  the  battle  of  Hastings ;  and  the  figures  on  the 
tapestry  of  Queen  Matilda  did  not  lose  all  appearance  of  beauty 
while  they  waved  before  the  zephyrs  that  danced  through  the  pal- 
ace in  Normandy. 

This  one  thing  let  us  add :  that  as  the  grace  of  oratory  is  mascu- 
line, so  it  has  frequently  to  give  place  to  virtues  that  are  of  a  more 
manly  description.  All  parts  should  not  be  equally  graceful,  or 
else  efieminacy  will  be  the  fatal  result.  This  is  the  great  danger 
which  besets  the  study  of  metre,  melody,  cadence,  and  whatever 
else  contributes  to  gracefulness.  Blair  suffers  from  it,  while  Logan, 
with  less  mtellectual  vigour,  is  really  more  graceful  because  more 
animated,  more  free,  and  more  variable.  Popular  oratory,  like  mu- 
sic, must  have  its  braaiims.  Now,  striking  passages,  the  offspring 
of  sudden  inspirations,  are  wont  to  break  through  all  rhetorical 
rules'.  But  be  not  alarmed.  Such  passages  are  necessary  to  prove 
that  your  sermon  is  a  thing  of  life,  and  not  a  mere  work  of  art. 
Of  Augustine  it  has  been  happily  said  that  when  he  becomes  impas- 
sioned he  is  apt  to  break  out  of  the  proper  pace  of  rhetoric.  And 
Mrs.  Browning!  has  remarked  a  similar  quality  in  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen.  "  Erasmus,"  says  she,  "  compares  him  to  Isocrates,  but  the 
imlikeness  is  more  obvious ;  Gregory  was  not  excellent  at  an  artful 
blowing  of  the  pipes.  He  spoke  grandly,  as  the  wind  does  in  gusts ; 
and,  as  in  a  mighty  wind,  which  combines  unequal  noises,  the  creak- 
ing of  trees  and  rude  swinging  of  doors,  as  well  as  the  sublime 
sovereign  rush  along  the  valleys,  we  gather  the  idea,  from  his  elo- 
quence, less  of  music  than  of  power."  The  same  may  be  said  of 
Bossuet,  who,  just  before  preaching,  was  accustomed  to  real 
Isaiah  and  Nazianzen  for  the  impulses  they  gave  to  his  mind.  But 
to  go  still  further  into  the  past :  Demosthenes'  speeches  had  more 
the  effect  of  soaring  and  diving  than  appears  to  modern  readers. 
Why  ?  Because  they  v/ere  often  interluded  by  the  reading  of  de- 
crees, letters,  and  other  documents.  These  readings  enabled  the 
orator  and  his  hearers  to  descend,  and,  after  resting  a  while,  to 
mount  again  to  a  higher  circle  than  before— or  if  not  higher,  to  rise 
more  energetically  in  the  face  of  a  fiercer  gale  than  ever. 


1  Essays  on  the  Greek  Christian  Poets. 


GENTLENESS  OF  STYLE.  465 


Subsection  IY. — Gentlexess  of  Style. 

Our  idea  of  the  graceful  in  style  is  inseparable  from  that  of  gen- 
tleness. The  lucid  and  the  energetic  may  sometimes  dispense  with 
it,  but  gracefulness  never. 

This  quality,  which  has  hitherto  failed  to  obtain  a  general  recog- 
nition among  I'hetors  and  stylists,  should  be  diligently  cultivated  by 
those  preachers  whose  style  naturally  inclines  towards  extreme 
energy.  Thus  Baxteri  said  that  he  had  aimed  to  speak  in  the 
keenest  manner,  and  "■  to  call  a  sj^^'^'Cle  a  sjmde;"  "  but,"  he  adds,  "I 
unfeignedly  confess  that  it  is  faulty,  because  imprudent;  for  it  is  not 
good  means  that  doth  harm,  and  is  not  fitted  to  the  end."  Stier2 
detects  in  many  of  Luther's  writings  a  heathenish  spirit,  and  a  style 
profanely  classical  as  contradistinguished  from  that  sacredly  classi- 
cal style  Avhich  marks  his  translation  of  the  Bible.  But  the  great 
Reformer  was  not  the  first  of  those  whose  style  borrowed  its  sever- 
ity from  the  masters  of  pagan  eloquence.  The  sermons  of  Gregory 
Nazianzen  are  certainly  not  wanting  in  examples  of  gentleness,  and 
yet  they  betray  here  and  there  the  virus  of  that  ethnic  oratory 
which,  as  he  says,  he  travelled  over  land  and  sea  to  acquire.^  Nor 
was  Chrysostom  himself  always  able  to  rise  superior  to  that  vio- 
lence of  speech  which  his  study  of  the  pagan  eloquence  must  have 
encom-aged. 

Among  the  faults  of  Demosthenes  is  a  want  of  candor  and  fair- 
ness. This  is  very  conspicuous  and  very  fascinating  in  his  master- 
piece, the  oration  for  the  Crown.  In  other  orations  of  his,  which 
most  students  are  less  likely  to  read  with  critical  care,  as  for  exam- 
ple that  against  the  law  of  Leptines,  and  the  Third  Philippic,  De- 
m-osthenes  evinces  more  moderation  in  his  passions  and  language. 
The  oration  for  the  Crown  is  intensely  personal,  and  is  full  of  that 
hatred  which,  as  all  history  shows,  can  make  natural  men  tremen- 
dously mighty  in  every  form  of  evil  speech  and  bloody  work.  It 
is  more  acrimonious  than  any  other  of  his  orations,  and  is,  conse= 
quently,  no  fair  sample  of  the  habitual  spirit  and  tone  of  his  elo- 
quence. Hermogenes,  in  his  work  [Peri  Ideon)  on  the  Forms  of 
Style,  in  the  chapter  concerning  gentleness  {Peri  Epieikeia^  L.  ii.,  c. 
vi.),  has  adduced  all  but  one  of  his  examples  of  this  virtue  from 
Demosthenes.  And  Reinhard  must  have  read  other  orations  be- 
sides that  for  the  Crown  before  he  formed  his  very  intelligent 
opinions   as  to   the   peculiar  nature  of  this  great  orator's   power. 

1  Life  by  Orme,  p.  784.  2  Kevyktik,  p.  24.  3  Opera,  vol.  i.,  p.  1321. 


466  GENTLENESS  OF  STYLE. 

"  The  more  I  read  this  orator,"  writes  he  (Letter  vi.),  "  the  clearer 
it  apijeared  to  me  that  true  eloquence  is  something  entirely  different 
from  .  .  that  storminess  and  vehemence,  that  sputtering  and  foam- 
ing, and  that  bombast  and  turgidity,  at  which  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  are  astonished,  because  of  their  ignorance." 

But  still  Augustine,  who  was  familiar  with  Demosthenes,  was  not 
to  be  captivated  except  by  the  sweetness  of  the  eloquent  Ambrose, 
of  Milan.  In  vain  shall  we  search  the  orations  of  Demosthenes  for 
that  prevailing  habit  of  fairness,  moderation,  and  leniency,  which 
become  the  j^reacher  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  who  should  never 
treat  any  subject  in  a  narrow,  one-sided  manner.  If  he  were  a 
mere  secular  orator,  he  might  be  all  the  more  forcible  for  being  a 
man  of  one  idea,  but  being  a  religious  teacher  he  must,  if  he  is 
worthy  of  the  name  and  a  safe  guide  of  immortal  souls,  be  a  man 
of  many  ideas,  and  use  himself  to  consider  them  broadly  in  their 
relations  to  one  another,  to  hearken  to  all  common  and  j^lausible 
objections,  to  answer  with  candor  the  arguments  of  popular  adver- 
saries, and,  above  all,  to  make  distinctions  among  things  that  make 
an  important  practical  difference,  and  to  place  such  restrictions  on 
the  ardor  of  his  applications  as  "  uses  "  of  caution  and  direction 
may  demand.  The  Great  Teacher  sometimes  limited  his  precepts, 
as  Archbishop  Newcombi  has  observed.  He  commands  us  to  give 
alms  and  to  fast,  but  secretly.^  And  yet  we  are  bound  openly  to 
liroclaim  the  Gospel. ^  We  ai'e  to  pray,  but  without  ostentation,  or 
vain  repetitions,  or  an  unforgiving  spirit.'*  But  lie  does  not  enjoin 
forgiveness  without  rei^entance.s  He  condemns  anger  without  a 
cause.^  He  teaches  us  that  love  to  our  enemies  consists  not  in  com- 
placency, but  in  blessing  them,  doing  them  good  and  praying  for 
them."  He  tells  us  not  how  many  are  to  be  saved,  but  declares  that 
many  will  be  lost,  because  they  seek  but  do  not  strive  to  enter  his 
kingdom.^  We  are  to  expect  and  ever  to  be  in  readiness  for,  but 
not  to  fix  the  time  of  our  Lord's  sudden  comhig.^  A  multitude  of 
other  restrictions,  either  expressed  or  clearly  implied,  might  be 
mentioned.  It  must  not  escape  us,  hoAvever,  that  these  distinctions 
are  not  very  frequent,  nor  at  all  philosophical,  but  merely  practical 
as  becomes  the  teacher  and  exhorter  of  the  common  people  when 
he  is  treating  subjects  of  general  and  supreme  concern.  Equally 
worthy  of  note  is  the  candor,  moderation,  and  cautious  discrimina- 


1  See  his  solid  and  Scriptural  work,  Observations  on  our  Lord  as  a  Divine  Instruc- 
tor. 

2  Matt.  vi.  ?,,  4,  17,  18.      3  Matt.  v.  13-16.      4  lb.  vi.  G,  7.      5  Luke  xvii.  3,  4. 
6  ]Matt.  V.  22.  7  Matt.  v.  44.  8  Luke  xiii.  24.  9  lb.  xii.  35-48. 


GENTLENESS  OF  STYLE.  467 

tion  evinced  by  Paul  and  James,  the  two  aj)ostles  who  are  remark- 
able for  the  energy  of  their  style. 

Still  more  direct  is  the  contrast  between  the  severity  of  Demos- 
thenes and  the  tenderness  of  our  Divine  Instructor.  Before  he  came 
into  the  world  Isaiah  predicted  of  him,  "  A  bruised  reed  shall  he 
not  break,  and  the  smoking  flax  shall  he  not  quench."  And  after 
he  had  passed  into  the  heavens,  Paul  declared  with  great  emphasis, 
"  We  have  not  an  high  priest  which  cannot  be  touched  with  the 
feeling  of  our  infirmities."  An  indescribable  benevolence  speaks  in 
every  one  of  those  beatitudes  which  introduce  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount.  His  exhortation  to  contentment  has  often  been  quoted  by 
rhetoricians  as  an  admirable  example  of  force  and  beauty,  but  un- 
equalled as  this  exhortation  is  for  these  excellences,  it  is  still  more 
unapproachable  for  the  tenderness  that  it  expresses.  In  this  respect 
even  Jeremiah,  as  was  to  be  expected,  considering  his  mission,  is  far 
behind  him.  (Compare  Jer.  vii.  3-7.)  Several  of  our  Lord's  para- 
bles evince  a  desire  to  make  suppositions  that  are  very  lenient 
towards  human  depravity;  e.  </.,  the  Parable  of  the  Virgins,  of  the 
Talents,  and  of  the  Marriage  Feast.  He  also  shows  an  irresistible 
compassion  and  mercy  in  the  subject,  plot,  and  issue  of  the  Parable 
of  the  Good  Samaritan,  the  Ungrateful  Servant,  the  Lost  Sheep, 
and  the  Prodigal  Son.  Had  the  Great  Teacher  here  quoted  the 
facts  of  history  or  of  biography,  his  own  disposition  could  not 
necessarily  have  been  thereby  exhibited ;  we  might  have  said  that 
he  quoted  the  facts  as  he  found  them  with  all  their  imperfections 
upon  them.  Happily  for  us  these  parables  originated  in  the  mind 
and  heart  of  our  benign  Ransomer,  and  consequently  express  his 
wonderful  gentleness. 

Near,  if  not  next,  to  our  Divine  Lord  stands  Jeremiah  as  a  man 
of  benevolent  sensibility.  True,  he  witnessed  and  described  scenes 
that  must  have  melted  a  heart  of  stone,  and  yet  he  blends  with  his 
sorrows  a  leniency  towards  these  objects  and  occasions  which  fre- 
quently reminds  us  of  the  Man  of  Sorrows  and  the  acquaintance  of 
grief  The  much-suffering  j^rophet  became  through  grace  (what  he 
never  could  have  become  by  the  mere  agency  of  suffering)  a  much- 
sympathising  prophet. 

But  let  U.S  return  to  the  example  of  Him  of  whom  Jeremiah  is  be- 
lieved by  many  to  be  a  type.  When  James  and  John  betrayed  their 
temiDoral  ambition,  fnstead  of  being  greatly  disjjleased,  as  the  ten  were 
wheigi  they  heard  of  their  political  aspirations,  he  framed  his  admon- 
itory reply  in  a  sweet,  tender,  and  mdulgent  spirit :  "  Ye  know  not 
what  ye  ask.  .  .  To  sit  on  my  right  hand  and  on  my  left  hand,  is 
not  mine  to  give  ;  but  it  shall  be  given  to  them  for  whom  it  is  pre- 


468  GENTLENESS  OP  STYLE. 

pared."  And  when  on  another  occasion  his  disciples  desired  him 
to  tell  them  who  was  to  be  greatest  in  his  kingdom,  he  did  not  re- 
prove them  with  sharp  words,  but  merely  instructed  them  with  the 
acted  parable  of  calling  a  little  child  to  him,  taking  it  up  in  his  arms, 
and  placing  it  at  his  feet.  At  the  paschal  supper  he  passes  silently 
by  all  the  instances  of  their  wavering  and  inconstancy,  and  praises 
their  persevering  devotedness  to  him :  "  Ye  are  they  that  have  con- 
tinued with  me  in  my  temptations."  And  it  has  been  acutely  re- 
marked that,  when  Jesus  at  the  same  supper  gave  Judas  a  portion 
of  food  before  the  others,  he  showed  his  very  great  lenity  and  a 
long-suffering  that  should  have  led  him  to  repentance.  When, 
during  the  agony  in  Gethsemane,  the  disciples  slept,  he  evinced  the 
greatest  forbearance,  particularly  towards  Peter,  who  had  a  little 
while  before  professed  the  most  heroic  devotion  to  him.  "  Simon, 
sleepest  thou  ?  Couldst  not  thou  watch  one  hour  ?  "  And  towards 
all  how  gentle  and  considerate.  He  uttered  an  expostulation  which 
was  disarmed  of  its  sting  by  the  apology :  "  The  spirit  indeed  is 
willing,  but  the  flesh  is  weak."i  g^^  i^  liis  valedictory  discourse  to 
his  disciples  his  loving-kindness  finds  a  language  like  that  w^hich  a 
guardian  angel  might  well  whisper  to  its  sorrowing  charge.  Holy 
living,  joined  with  much  suffermg  and  deep  study,  are  needed,  in 
order  to  fathom  the  divineness  of  that  last  discourse  and  its  con- 
cluding prayer.  At  some  points  the  eloquence  of  Jesus  is  intel- 
lectually on  a  level  with  that  of  the  old  classic  orators ;  even  then 
it  is  morally  and  spiritually  far  above  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  which 
separates  the  sacred  rhetoric  from  the  profane;  but  this  last  dis- 
course is  at  the  very  summit  of  the  opposite  mountain. 

We  ought  not,  however,  to  repeat  here  the  mistake  of  many  ora- 
tors and  preachers  wdio,  to  heighten  the  more  amiable  perfections 
of  Immanuel,  put  them  in  strong  contrast  with  the  severer  attri- 
butes which  such  prophets  as  Moses,  Elijah,  Elisha,  Jonah,  Ezekiel, 
and  John  the  Baptist  were  called  more  conspicuously  to  exercise.^ 
The  old  dispensation,  having  been  mainly  one  of  temporal  rewards 
and  punishments,  often  made  "  its  ministers  a  flame  of  fire,"  exe- 
cuting penal  judgments  upon  the  wicked.  But  we  err  if  we  sup- 
pose that  it  wanted  provisions  of  mercy  and  abundant  expressions 

1  For  further  instances  of  Christ's  beiievolenceand  tenderness,  see  Newscome's 
Character  of  our  Lord  as  a  Teacher ;  Sumner's  Ministerial  Character  of  Christ ; 
Harris'  Great  Teacher.  These  works  are  all  the  more  excellent  from  the  fact  that 
they  are  devoid  of  every  kind  of  sentimentality. 

2  "The  prudence  of  his  conduct,"  said  the  First  Napoleon,  "compels  our  ad- 
miration by  its  union  of  force  and  greatness.  Alike  in  speech  and  action,  Jesus 
is  enlightened,  consistent,  and  calm." 


GENTLENESS  OF  STYLE.  469 

of  divine  love.  It  was  not,  indeed,  possible,  from  the  very  nature 
of  the  case,  that  the  saints  of  the  old  economy  should  hear  Imman- 
uel  speaking  to  them  face  to  face,  as  he  did  to  Moses  on  the  secret 
top  of  Sinai,  and  as  he  did  long  afterwards  to  the  first  Christian 
disciples.  And  yet  whei*e,  except  in  the  sermons  and  conferences 
of  Jesus,  do  we  read  such  words  of  loving  compassion  and  com- 
placency as  the  Divine  Spirit  uttered  through  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Mi- 
cah,  and  Zechai'iah. 

Nor  was  the  apostle  Paul,  with  all  the  acknowledged  energy  of 
his  character  and  his  style,  that  stern  denunciator  which  some  eulo- 
gists of  John  would  regard  him.  His  letters  are  indeed  weighty 
and  powerful,  and  if  we  may  jvidge  by  his  orations  as  reported  in  the 
Acts,  and  the  hortatory  discourse  to  the  Hebrews,  equally  weighty 
and  powerful  are  his  speeches.  And  yet  with  all  this  force  there 
was  blended  a  tenderness  that  was  altogether  worthy  of  the  apostle 
of  Christ.  "  We  were,"  says  he  to  the  Thessalonians  (1  Epist.  ii.  7,  8)) 
''  gentle  among  you  even  as  a  nurse  cherisheth  her  children ;  so  being 
affectionately  desirous  of  you,  we  were  willing  to  have  imparted 
unto  you  not  the  Gospel  of  God  only,  but  also  our  own  souls,  be- 
cause ye  were  dear  unto  us."  How  feelingly  and  indulgently  does 
he  write  to  the  Corinthians  in  his  second  epistle  to  them.  When 
he  says,  "  ISTow  I  Paul  beseech  you  by  the  meekness  and  gentle- 
ness of  Christ,"  who  can  doubt  that  it  was  really  the  Messiah's 
meekness  and  gentleness,^  begotten  and  fostered  in  Paul  by  the  Di- 
vine Spirit,  that  were  the  springs  of  these  tender  admonitions.  So 
when  he  counsels  Timothy  (2  Epist.  ii.  24-26)  on  this  subject,  he 
would  have  the  young  preacher  more  addicted  to  instruction  than 
to  discussion.  The  phi'ase  "  apt  to  teach "  implies,  as  Bengel  re- 
marks, "  not  only  solidity  and  ease  in  teaching,  but  even  especially 
patience  and  assiduity  therein."  The  scope  of  the  context  demands 
this  interpretation. 

We  have  insisted  more  largely  on  this  gentleness  of  the  inspired 
preachers,  because  the  theological  students  of  our  time  are  in  ut- 
most danger  of  going  to  the  opposite,  and  of  being  fatally  injured 
by  an  undue  admiration  of  the  "  vim  "  of  Demosthenes.  If  they 
must  read  his  orations,  let  them  also  read  those  of  Isocrates,  so 
that  they  may  imbibe  some  of  his  sweetness.  We  must  likewise 
warn  them  against  reading  Bolingbroke's  political  writings,  the 
"  Junius  "  of  Francis,  the  orations  of  Brougham,  and  the  writings 
of  Carlyle  and  of  Ruskin.      They  are  characterised  by  a  vehe- 

1  In  the  original  it  is  that  (.TtiEiKEia  which  Hermogenes  finds  in  Demosthenes 
and  the  other  great  Greek  orators.     Cf.  Phil.  iv.  6. 


470  ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE, 

mence  that  is  for  the  most  part  uncandid,  intolerant,  sophistical,  and 
malevolent.  How  different  from  these  is  the  spirit  of  Bunyan, 
Leighton,  Tholuck,  Charles  Bradley,  and  James  Hamilton. i  We 
have  sometimes  thought,  however,  that  timid  preachers,  of  a  tem- 
per naturally  good,  but  overvaluing  peace,  have  carried  their  gen- 
tleness to  an  extreme  that  was  at  variance  with  their  duty  and  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  their  hearers.  In  our  anxiety  to  offer  to  the 
people  fruit  that  is  comjjletely  mellow  we  may,  alas !  bestow  upon 
them  much  that  is  really  rotten;  and  even  if  we  unerringly  select 
for  them  the  mellow,  we  may  nevertheless  foget  that  this  is  certain 
in  no  long  time  to  satiate.  Here  again,  therefore,  we  are  called 
vigilantly  and  promptly  to  steer  between  obscure  and  vai'iable  clan- 
gers. "  Leaven  and  honey,"  observes  some  old  commentator, 
"  were  both  excluded  under  the  law  from  offerings  by  fire — leaven 
for  its  excessive  sourness,  honey  for  its  excessive  sweetness."  And 
yet  Solomon  commends  sweetness  of  style  (Prov.  xvi.  21-24). 

This  style  is  especially  adapted  for  consolation  and  encourage- 
ment. When  we  are  addressing  the  mourner,  the  penitent,  and  the 
doubter,  our  speech  should  be  such  as  that  of  the  great  Consoler 
was — a  mild  aud  refreshing  breeze,  that  broke  not  the  bruised  reed 
of  thtj  parched  marsh,  and  quenched  not  the  smoking  wick  of  the 
lamp  whose  oil  was  well  nigh  consumed. 

Subsection  V. — Aritumus  in  Hebrew  Eloqcexce. 


The  arithnms  of  Greek  rhetoric  is  often  confoimded  with  the 
rhi/thmus  of  Greek  poetry.  Indeed,  we  have  yet  to  find  the 
modern  author  who  has  determined  with  precision  the  meaning  of 
the  former  term  as  applied  to  rhetoric,  while  it  would  not  be  diffi- 
cult to  find  ten  who,  by  confounding  it  with  rJiythmus,  have  lost 
themselves  in  a  labyinth  of  speculation.  The  best  of  our  authori- 
ties on  Greek  metres,  by  falling  into  the  common  road,  have  be- 
wildered themselves  and  their  readers.  Arithmiis,  or  number,  has 
chiefly  to  do  with  the  quantity  or  value  of  the  times  or. feet  which 
jiroperly  belong  to  the  beginnings  and  endings  of  ^:>ro6'e  sentences. 
But  of  this  more  will  be  said  hereafter. 

The   Hebrew  number  is   more   simple  as  to  form:  it   consists 

1  To  these  names  may  be  added  that  of  James  Hervey,  '-the  Melancthon  of 
the  Second  Reformation  in  England."  Watts,  Doddridge,  and  Jeremiah  Seed 
may  also  be  read  with  considerable  profit  by  those  who  are  naturally  severe  and 
ungentle.  Mild  and  jmssive  men,  on  the  contrary,  Avould  be  damaged  by  such 
reading. 


ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE.  471 

chiefly  in  measuring  the  second  half  of  a  sentence  by  the  first  half 
thereof.  And  yet  like  the  Greek,  it  is  free  from  that  artificiality 
which  is  proper  to  lyrical  compositions ;  it  is,  therefore,  founded  on 
those  natural  laws  in  obedience  to  which  the  human  mind  gives  free 
and  various  utterance,  not  only  to  its  emotions  and  passions,  but 
also  to  its  cognitions,  reasonings,  and  deepest  convictions. 

The  subject  of  rhetorical  arithniiis,  or  number,  is  not  held  in  as 
high  esteem  among  us  as  it  was  among  the  classic  rhetoricians,  and 
even  some  of  the  Christian  fathers.  Augustine,  in  particular,  al- 
though he  does  not  write  copiously  on  the  art  of  preaching,  finds 
space  for  his  opinions  about  number.  Having  been  before  his  con- 
version a  teacher  of  rhetoric  at  Carthage,  at  Rome,  and  at  Milan 
and  after  his  conversion  the  most  popular  preacher  of  his  age,  his 
views  of  this  subject  could  not  fail  to  be  intelligent  and  worthy  of 
our  consideration.  He  preferred  the  eloquence  of  Amos  to  that  of 
any  of  the  other  projDhets,  and  thus  comments  on  chap.  vi.  3,  4  :^ 
"From  these  six  members  we  have  obtained  three  periods  of  two  mem- 
bers each ;  for  he  does  not  say  (Augustine  here  quotes  the  "  Itala  " 
version)  '  Ye  that  are  set  apart  for  the  evil  day ;  ye  that  draw  near 
to  the  seat  of  iniquity ;  ye  that  lie  upon  beds  of  ivory ;  ye  that  play 
the  wonton  upon  your  couches;  ye  that  eat  the  lambs  out  of  the 
flock  and  the  calves  out  of  the  midst  of  the  stall.'  Had  he  so  said 
there  would  indeed  have  been  this  beauty  in  the  sentence  that  each 
of  its  six  members  would  have  fl-owed  from  one  pronoun  repeated, 
and  been  closed  with  a  single  enunciation  or  impulse  of  the  voice ; 
but  it  is  rendered  more  beautiful  by  connecting  the  members  two 
and  two,  with  one  pronoun  in  each  case,  so  as  to  obtain  three  sen- 
tences, the  first  of  which  relates  to  the  captivity  foretold :  '  Ye  that 
are  set  apai-t  for  the  evil  day  and  draw  near  to  the  seat  of  iniquity ;' 
the  second  to  lust,  '  that  lie  upon  beds  of  ivory,  and  play  the  won- 
ton upon  your  couches ; '  the  third  to  gluttony,  '  that  eat  the  lambs 
of  the  flock  and  calves  out  of  the  midst  of  the  stall;'  by  which 
means  the  speaker  is  enabled  either  to  close  each  part  by  itself,  and 
thus  make  six  members,  or  utter  the  first,  third,  and  fifth  with  a 
suspended  tone  of  voice,  and  by  connecting  the  second  with  the 
first,  the  foux'th  with  the  third,  and  the  sixth  with  the  fifth,  to  make 
three  elegant  periods  of  two  members  each ;  in  the  first  of  which 
the  great  calamity  is  more  prominent ;  in  the  second  the  impure 
couch,  and  in  the  third  the  prodigal  table."  Thus  does  he  go  on  an- 
alysing and  admiring  the  5th  and  6th  verses.  It  may  be  fairly  de- 
duced from  this  passage  that  Augastine  in  some  cases  preferred  the 

iDe  Doctrina  Christianaj  Lib.  iv.,  cap.  vii. 
31 


472  ARITIIMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE. 

Hebrew  parallelism  to  the  Latin  period,  as  being  not  only  better 
adapted  for  delivery,  but  also  for  expressing  ideas  with  distinctness. 
Nearer  the  close  of  this  celebrated  treatise  (chap,  xx.)  he  speaks 
more  specifically  of  number  in  the  Latin  sense  of  the  M'ord.  ''  Care 
must  be  taken,"  he  observes,  "  when  praising  the  grave  sentences  of 
the  sacred  Scriptures,  lest  that,  in  adding  to  their  number,  we  do  not 
take  from  their  weight.  The  prophets,  indeed,  were  not  destitute 
of  that  musical  skill  in  which  this  number,  when  carried  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection,  has  its  origin,  as  the  learned  Jerome  testifies 
in  his  preface  to  the  Book  of  Job,  where  he  speaks  of  these  matters 
in  the  Hebrew  original,  though  in  the  translation,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve verbal  truth,  he  has  neglected  their  number.  To  speak  from 
my  own  feelings,  liowever,  with  which  I  am  best  acquainted,  I  must 
say  that,  while  I  pay  as  much  attention  as  I  think  humility  will  per- 
mit to  number  in  the  closing  words  of  my  sentences,  I  am  far  better 
pleased  with  finding  it  of  very  rare  occurrence  in  the  sacred  writ- 
ers." The  metrical  homilies  of  Ephra^m  Syrus  are  well  known; 
'they  are  the  free  and  unlaboured  productions  of  a  man  that  was  by 
nature  a  poet  and  by  grace  a  jireacher.  The  great  French  jn-eacher 
Bossuet  is  greatly  admired  by  Maury  for  the  harmony  of  his 
periods.  And  the  eloquent  German  preacher  Reinhard  says,  in  his 
"  Confessions,"  that  he  aimed  to  give  to  his  discourses  "  a  certain 
fulness  of  expression,  without  inflation  ;  an  agreeable  combination  of 
words  Avithout  artificial  rhythm ;  and  an  easy  flowing  style,  captiva- 
ting alike  to  the  ear  and  the  heart.  Bulwer,  whose  authority  as  a 
stylist  is  high,  declares  that  every  style  has  its  own  appropriate 
music,  and  that  a  style  without  music  of  some  kind  does  not  deserve 
the  name;  it  is  mere  scribbling;  whereto  he  subjoins  the  useful 
remark  that  "  rhythm  should  be  cultivated  not  only  for  the  sake  of 
embellishment,  but  also  for  the  sake  of  perspicuity."  And  this  is 
particularly  true  of  the  Hebrew  parallelism.  L^niversally  the  mind 
of  man  dichotomises ;  and  the  bimembral  sentence  clearly  expresses 
this  natural  process.  Next  to  this  is  the  popular  love  and  use  of 
such  members  of  sentences  as  are  short  and  of  equal  length.  This, 
too,  is  embraced  in  the  parallelism,  and  renders  it  doubly  servicea- 
ble to  speaker  and  hearer.  It  Avould,  consequently,  be  hard  to  find 
a  popular  preacher,  or  other  public  speaker,  that  is  not  fond  of  the 
idoHGjAov.  Gorgias  Leontius,i  who  was  so  great  a  fiivourite  of  the 
people  in  the  earlier  days  of  Athens,  employed  it  largely  and  with 
distinguished  success.  At  a  very  late  period  it  was  still  found  ser- 
viceable in  regions  that  were  more  or  less  under  the  influence  of 

1  Diodorus  Siculus.  L.  xii. 


ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE.  473 

Orientalism.  The  orators  of  Asia  Minor,  as  we  are  told,  especially 
those  of  Lycia  and  Caria,  were  in  the  habit  of  giving  a  kind  of 
rhythmical  close  to  their  sentences. 

We  have  thus  far  taken  some  general  views  of  number ;  let  us 
now  proceed  to  consider  its  twofold  aspect,  as  it  appears  first  in  the 
Hebrew  and  then  in  the  Hellenistic  eloquence  . 

The  diiference  between  Hebrew  poetry  and  Hebrew  prose  de- 
serves our  considerate  attention,  for  it  has  very  often  escaped  no- 
tice. It  is  too  apt  to  be  supposed  that  the  addresses  of  the  proph- 
ets are  poetic.  Ewald  thinks  there  are  clear  indications  that  the 
Psalms  were  originally  written  verse-wise,  while  there  is  no  trace 
of  such  a  mode  of  writing  in  the  prophetic  books. ^  From  this  he 
concludes  that  the  ancients  always  made  a  difference  between  their 
prophetical  literature  and  poetry  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word. 
The  prophet  began  his  declarations  prosaically  with  the  announce- 
ment, "  Thus  saith  the  Lord."  While  he  sometimes  reaches  the 
fulness  and  power  of  the  poetic  style,  and,  like  Proverbs  v.  1-7, 
soars  uf)  to  lyric  freedom  and  beauty,  he  seldom  employs  words 
and  phrases  which  j^roperly  belong  to  poetry.  And  Ewald  has 
observed,  with  great  discrimination,  that  the  prophets  indulge  more 
freely  than  the  poets  in  the  paronomasia,  or  play  upon  words,  which 
is  never  so  much  in  place  as  in  that  lively  discourse  of  which  the 
object  is  to  strike  and  convince  at  the  same  moment.  The  lyric 
poet,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  aim  at  striking  others  by  sur- 
pi'ise,  but  lives  and  moves  entirely  in  his  own  sad  or  joyful  feelings 
(Isa.  X.  IG;  xxiv.  3, 17  ;  Ixi.  3 ;  Jer.  li.  ii;  Mich  i.  4;  ii.  4;  Joel  i.  15). 

As  to  rhythm,  also,  Ewald  regards  the  prophets  as  differing 
from  the  poets  in  this,  that  the  former  permit  a  greater  length  and 
extension  and  variety.  "  It  cannot,"  he  says,  "  forget  the  oratorical 
sentiment  and  feeling  in  which  the  rhythm  has  originated  j  a  free 
discourse  which  aims  to  produce  an  effect  on  others  longs  for  great- 
er fulness  and  breadth,  stronger  emphasis,  and  readier  repetitions 
of  thoughts  and  words  than  the  language  of  pure  poetry  allows." 

But  notwithstanding  these  and  other  distinctive  differences  be- 
tween the  Hebrew  prophet  and  the  Hebrew  poet,  it  will  be  highly 
conductive  to  a  knowledge  of  strictly  oratorical  number  to  study 
the  structure  of  "  Hebrew  Poetry,"  commonly  so  called,  and  more 
particularly  such  of  its  forms  as  are  bound  up  with  the  arlthmus 
of  prophetic  discourses.-  These  features  are  chiefly  rhythm  and 
parallelism. 

1  Poet.;  Biicher  i.,  p.  90.  See  Proph.,  vol.  i.,  Intro.,  sec.  2  ;  Jour.  Sac.  Lit., 
1st  Series,  vol.  i.,  p.  74,  295  (1848) ;  2d  Series,  vol.  iii.,  p.  329  (1852-3).  We 
have  in  the  main  followed  Dr.  Donaldson's  translation. 


474  AETTHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE. 

§  I.  Rhythm  has  been  variously  defined.  We  shall  hereafter  dis- 
cuss the  significations  of  the  word  as  formerly  employed  in  classic 
prosody  and  rhetoric.  In  treating  of  Hebrew  poetry,  where  there 
is  no  syllabic  metre,  the  term  is  used  by  modern  writers  to  desig- 
nate the  vibration  or  bounding  movement  of  a  verse,  or  members 
of  a  verse,  requiring  in  its  delivery  one  elevation  and  one  depres- 
sion of  the  voice.  Thus  the  verse  or  member  of  the  verse  is  pro- 
nounced as  one  foot,  and  the  long  and  variable  rising. and  falling  of 
the  .voice  resemble  the  arsis  and  thesis  of  the  shorter  and  more 
regular  classic  foot.  The  Hebrew  rhythm  is  sometimes  influenced 
by  assonance.  In  the  5th  chapter  of  Lamentations  the  same  sound 
recurs  forty  times  in  twenty-two  verses.  But  in  Hebrew  poetry 
this  like  alliteration  and  rhyme  is  incidental.  A  verse  in  Hebrew 
poetry  is  such  an  expression  as  forms  a  complete  sense,  or  conveys 
a  distinct  thought.  It  may  consist  of  either  two  or  three  lines.  A 
strophe  is  such  a  series  of  verses  as  are  homogeneous,  both  in  form 
and  in  numbei*.  Externally  the  strophe  is  characterised  either  by 
the  refrain  or  alphabetical  beginnings ;  internally  the  strophe  is 
circumscribed  by  the  rounding  off  of  the  thought. 

These  definitions  prepare  us  to  return  to  the  subject  of  Hebrew 
rhythm.  This  depends  on  the  lines  or  members  of  the  verse 
which,  though  not  severely  restricted,  contain  on  an  average  seven 
or  eight  syllables  each.  We  may  remark,  by  the  by,  that  we  here 
follow  Ewald,  who  in  the  main  follows  the  Masorites,  except  in  the 
song  in  Isaiah  xiv.  4-23.1  p^  single  verse-member  may  embody 
and  exhaust  the  general  rhythm,  so  that  the  first  abrupt  and  em- 
phatic half  challenges  the  corresj)ondu3g  one  to  keep  it  company,  as 
in  Judges  a'.  3 : 

"  Hear,  ye  kings  ;  give  ear  ye  princes  !  " 

Or, 

"  I    to  Jalive,  I  will  sing  I  " 

Here,  as  also  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  4,  the  beautiful  rise  and  full  of 
the  voice  constitute  the  music  of  the  single  member  of  the  verse. 
Such  a  first  member,  which  is  the  rise  of  the  verse,  is  succeeded  by 
another,  which  is  its  counterpart,  and  which  is  elicited  by  it.  This 
forms  the  fall  of  the  verse,  as  Judges  v.  12  : 

"  Up  then',  up  then',  Deborah' ! 
Up'  then,  'up  then,  'utter  the  song  !  " 

Thus  these  two  members,  as  rise  and  fall,  constitue  the  verse.  But 
it  is  to  be  observed  that  a  number  of  variations  and  modifications 

1  Proph.  Alt.  Bund.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  400-403. 


ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE.  475 

may  arise  out  of  this  fundamental  form.  The  variation  may  be 
a  mere  continuation  or  direct  amplification  of  the  fundamental 
rhythm,  just  as  when  a  trochaic  dimeter  is  extended  to  a  trimeter' 
It  may  be  a  composition  by  which  a  rhythm  which  is  complete  in 
itself,  is  yet  treated  only  as  a  half,  and  made  to  refer  to  a  new  half, 
and  thus  a  more  complicated  and  diversified  rhythm  is  produced- 
This  is  as  if  a  hexameter  and  pentameter  were  combined  to  make 
a  new  verse,  which  represented  the  rise  and  fall  in  a  wider  com- 
pass. Or,  on  the  contrary,  Ave  may  have  a  diminution  or  enfeeble- 
ment  of  the  jirimitive  form. 

Now,  in  the  absence  of  a  syllabic  metre,  the  thoughts  alone  give 
form  to  the  verse.  If,  therefore,  two  members  are  the  fundamen- 
tal constituents  of  the  verse,  they  must  have  two  corresponding 
thoughts  to  sustain  the  life  of  the  verse.  But  the  manner  in  which 
the  thoughts  are  distributed  shows  diiferent  gradations  of  symme- 
try: 

(«)  The  most  powerful  and  beautiful  concord  is  sometimes  pro- 
duced by  the  echo  of  the  whole  sentence  where  the  sense  which 
has  been  poured  forth  in  a  complete  proposition  in  the  first  mem- 
ber, mounts  up  again  in  the  second  in  order  to  exhaust  itself  more 
thoroughly,  as  Gen.  iv.  23  ;  Prov.  iv.  3  ;  x.  i.  As  the  falling  mem- 
ber is  sometimes  feeble  in  itself,  an  important  word  of  the  first 
member  reserves  its  force  for  the  second,  as  Isa.  xlviii.  11 ;  Ixiii.  18 ; 
Zech.  ix.  17.  Frequently,  too,  only  a  principal  part  of  the  sense 
of  the  first  member  is  further  developed  in  the  second,  as  Psa.  xlix. 
6;  Job  xxxviii,  5;  Prov.  i.  3.  The  rhythm  assumes  a  somewhat 
more  tranquil  form  when  the  members  merely  string  together  short 
cognate  sentences  in  rhetorical  style,  as  Psa.  i.  1 ;  xv.  3,  4. 

{h)  The  contrary  of  this  is  the  less  animated  or  more  sluggish 
rhythm  which  arises  when  the  sentence,  being  too  long  for  one 
member,  is  obliged  to  trail  itself  through  two,  so  that  the  first  mem- 
ber is  only  broken  ofi"  at  an  important  part  of  the  sentence,  as  Psa. 
ex.  5  ;  cxli.  10. 

(c)  This  may  be  called  an  intermediate  rhythm.  It  is  where 
two  sentences  are  brought  together,  as  protasis  and  apodosis,  or  so 
that  the  one  expresses  the  antithesis,  the  comparison,  or  the  ground 
of  the  other,  or  are  only  brought  together  by  the  sense  of  the 
whole  passage  in  order  to  form  a  complex  thought.  Hence  arises 
a  rhythm  of  tranquil  power,  in  which  thd  want  of  external  harmony 
is  compensated  by  the  higher  internal  'harmony  of  the  thoughts 
(Prov.  xi.  22;  xiv.  30;  Psa.  i.  12).  But  this  rhythm  cannot  always 
be  separated  from  the  preceding.  Cases  like  Isa.  xxxviii.  13  stand 
midway  between  the  cases  {h)  and  (c). 


476  ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE. 

What  modifications,  then,  may  the  structure  of  the  verse  under- 
go, and  what  forms  may  it  assume  ?     Let  Ewald  answer  : 

I.  A  sbifjle  member,  which  we  will  denote  by  the  sign  a  or  1:0, 
never  can  constitute  a  perfectly  isolated  verse ;  but  a  verse  of  one 
member  may  occasionally  maintain  its  ground  beside  other  verses, 
as  a  contrast  to  the  usual  norm,  as  soon  as  there  is  an  unusual  ebb 
in  the  diction  itself  It  is  allowable  at  the  commencement  of  a  long 
series,  as  Psa.  xviii.  2 ;  xxiii.  1 ;  Jer.  v.  30 ;  vi.  2,  or  it  may  occa- 
sionally be  suitable  at  the  end  (Exod.  xv.  18;  Psa  xcii.  9). 

II.  The  hl-memhral  verse,  <^  or  1:1,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not 
only  the  normal  verse,  but  also  the  commonest  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

III.  According  to  the  conditions  which  have  been  explained 
above,  there  are  two  ways  in  w^hich  a  verse  containing  more  than 
tico  members  may  arise : 

1.  By  the  amplification  of  the  members  from  two  to  three,  the 
complete  fall  being  reserved  by  the  second  member  for  the  third. 
Here  all  three  constitute  a  single  whole,  each  possessing  as  much 
power  as  the  other — ^^,  or  1:1:1  (Psa.  vii.  G,  7;  v.  12;  vi.  7;  xv. 
3,  4 ;  xxiv.  4). 

2.'  The  following  various  forms  of  verse  are  produced  by  compo- 
sition : 

a.  Four  members,  two  and  two,  therefore,  in  reality  like  two  nor- 
mal verses,  but  so  that  the  two  members  being  more  lightly  and 
rapidly  uttered,  are  opposed  as  one-half  only  against  the  other,  and 
both  thus  closely  weave  themselves  into  the  web  of  a  more  pon- 
derous verse.  Employing  the  slur  or  tie  of  elementary  music,  it 
may  be  expressed  thus :  ^  ^,  or  2  :  2.  This  exactly  corres- 
ponds to  the  Indian  Sloha  (Psa.  xviii.  7 ;  xxviii.  1 ;  lix.  17). 

(j-  Composition  produces  two  unequal  halves  :  thus,  2:1.  Here 
two  members,  which  might  possibly  constitute  a  verse  by  them- 
selves, being  more  rapidly  pronounced,  and  merely  conjoined  as  the 
one-half  of  the  verse,  poise  themselves  against  one  member  as  the 
other  half  (2  Sam.  i.  22;  Psa.  ii.  1,  2;  xi.  2;  xxiii.  3;  iii.  8;  vii.  9 ; 
XX.  6 ;  Isa.  xxxviii.  13).  Sometimes  the  poet  throws  in  a  third 
member,  parenthetically,  between  the  first  and  the  second  (Psa. 
ci.  2;  cvi.  9;  cvii.  4).  A  fourth  member  is  in  like  manner  joined 
to  three,  where  they  are  a  mere  amplification  of  two,  then  3  :  1,  as 
1  Sam.  ii.  1. 

y-  When,  by  means  of  this  unequal  composition,  three  members 
come  together,  no  two  of  which  are  indej3endent,  and  no  i^vo  are 
on  exactly  equal  counterpoise  to  each  other,  yet  the  three  fit  easily 
into  each  other ;  in  such  a  case  another  short  but  important  half 


ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE.  477 

may  be  subjoined  to  all  three,  so  that  the  two  unequal  compositions 
balance  each  other.  The  following  two  cases  are  possible  :  3  :  1 
and   3:2.        Thus    «^_^^   (Psa.    Ivii.    1;    xxxi.    20),  or   ah^d   (Pga- 

cxli.  4;  i.  3).  Moreover,  ^^i  (Psa.  xi.  4);  and  1^2^  (2  S^.  xxiii. 
5;  1  Sam.il.  10.)  ^  ~^ 

3.  It  is  a  very  important  phenomenon  that  the  verse  of  many 
members,  after  it  has  thus  developed  itself  entirely,  agam  assumes 
jDerfectly  new  forms  by  means  of  contraction  and  abridgment. 
Two  members  of  a  long  verse,  being  two  which  the  sense  conjoins 
more  closely,  is  sometimes  compressed  so  as  to  form  a  single  larger 
verse ;  thus  forming  a  new  species  of  lyrotracted  rhythm,  whereby 
one  member  contains  on  an  average  from  ten  to  eleven  syllables, 
and,  consequently,  exceeds  the  usual  measure  by  one-half,  or  even 
by  more.  In  such  cases  the  freer  rhetorical  character  of  the  verse 
necessarily  becomes  more  j^rominent  than  its  genuine  singing  na- 
ture. It  is  more  recitative  than  song.  .  .  The  place  which  such  a 
protracted  member  occupies  is  the  beginning  of  a  verse,  or  place  of 
the  first  two  members.  It  is  as  if  the  voice  enjoyed  a  freer  course 
at  the  beginning,  where  it  is  not  yet  exhausted ;  a  supposition  on 
which  the  Masorites  proceeded  not  only  in  the  poetic  verse,  but  in 
the  prosaic  sentence.  In  this  case  the  long  member  is  balanced  by 
two  succeeding  ones  of  ordinary  length.  It  may  be  represented 
thus:  A  cd  {^1  Sam.  i.  21;  Psa.  Ixii.  4,  5,  10,  11).  In  rare  in- 
stances a  shorter  member,  c,  corresponds  to  yl,  as  in  Psa.  xviii.  12 ; 
XXX.  8 ;  xli.  10.  But  the  second  half  is  so  inclined  towards  the 
heavy  conclusion  that  a  member  here  may  be  surprisingly  short,  as 
in  Psa.  xxix.  9.  It  is,  moreover,  possible  here  also  to  have  a  case 
like  ^^«^,  as  in  Psa.  cxli.  5;  or  even  £,'^  «[f ^  as  Psa.  xxxix.  13; 
or   ^  c^«,  as   Psa.   xl.   6.      This   freer   and    lighter   structure   has 

rather  a  tendency  to  rhetorical  diffuseness,  and  is  peculiarly  adapted 
to  an  agitated  diction.  This  protracted  rhythm  is  very  rarely  ex- 
tended to  a  second  member,  as  in  Psa.  xvii.  4 :  A  J^  d  e,  so  that 
A  B  may  be  equivalent  to  ah  c ;  to  a  tkird  at  the  same  time,  so 
that  the  whole  verse  consists  of  A  H  C,  and  therefore  only  ex- 
hibits on  a  larger  scale  the  amplification  of  the  structure  from  ^ 
to  t^J,  as  Prov.  xxx.  4 ;  Psa.  xl.  13. 

4.  We  have  now  fixed  the  limits  of  the  structure  of  the  verse. 
But  if  the  coil  of  thoughts  cannot  unroll  itself  in  a  single  vers©, 
then  the  following  verse  may  take  it  up  with  new  strength  without 
beginning  a  fresh  sentence,  or  by  the  use  of  an  anadiplosis,  or  a  re- 
frain, or  a  free  iteration,  as  Psa.  xcvi.  12,  13  compared  with  Psa. 
xcviii:  8,  9 ;  Psa.  xviii.  12,  13;  Isa.  xxxviii.  12,  13 ;  Lam.  i.  9-11. 


478  ARITIIMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE. 

Sometimes  a  sentence  is  trailed  through  several  verses,  as  Psa. 
Ixxxiii.  7,  8.  In  some  such  instances  the  thread  of  the  tissue  is 
taken  up  again  more  loosely  at  each  member,  and  more  firmly  at 
each  new  verse,  until  it  has  run  out,  as  in  Psa.  viii.  4-9. 

This  pliant  rhythm  is  capable  of  infinite  variety,  and  easily  adapts 
itself  to  the  expression  of  every  internal  experience,  and  to  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  poetry,  whether  gnomic,  dramatic,  or  lyrical. 

a.  The  gnomic,  or  sententious  rhythm,  is  the  most  symmetrical 
and  tranquil.  It  has  two  members,  consisting  of  seven  or  eight 
syllables  on  the  average.  Some  of  the  gnomic  sentences,  however, 
have  many  members,  or  trail  themselves  through  many  verses. 

/3.  The  dramatic  rhythm  divides  the  verse  into  two  halves,  the 
longest  verse  only  containing  five  members.  But  these  members 
may  extend  to  uncommon  length.  This  is  the  rhythm  of  the  Song 
of  Songs.  Here  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  construction  of  two 
members  into  one  in  all  parts  of  the  verse.  A  J)  C,  ov  A  H  d  e, 
frequently  occur.  This  rhythm  is  not  visible  in  the  book  of  Job, 
wliich,  except  in  some  highly  tragic  passages,  aims  to  sustain  a 
gnomic  tranquillity. 

^.  The  lyrfcal  rhythm  is  of  all  varieties.  The  gnomic  symmetry 
and  tranquillity  is  here  very  rare,  but  not  altogether  wanting.  (1.) 
Animation  and  excitement  sometimes  produce  long  and  protracted 
rhythms,  as  2:1,  and  the  composite  form  2:2 ;  moreover,  the  verse 
which  has  dilated  members.  (2.)  The  passionate  mood  and  stormy 
movement  of  the  thoughts  may  disturb  the  "concord  of  the  members 
and  the  equal  structure  of  the  verse.  To  this  head  belongs  the 
disparity  in  the  number  of  the  members  in  both  halves  of  the  verse, 
such  as  2:1,  3:1, 3:2.  This  disparity  may,  however,  be  removed  by  the 
apparent  effect  which  the  shorter  half  makes  to  become  equivalent 
in  power  to  the  longer  one.  In  rare  cases  a  member  of  the  average 
length  is  associated  with  another  which  is  very  short  and  abrupt. 
Then  the  deficiency  is  made  up  by  the  depth  of  the  mute  feeling.  It 
is  suitable  for  exclamation  or  some  paroxysm  of  agony,  as  Psa.  xxx. 
3;  Job  xiv.  4,  comi^ared^with  Ps.  viii.  2,  10;  xxvi.  1;  lix.  12.  As- 
sonance is  not  uncommon  in  the  Psalms.  Rhyme  is  incidental,  as  in 
prose  ( Psa.  viii.  5).  The  alphabetical  Psalms  have  a  symmetrical 
rhythm,  in  which  the  members,  whether  of  ordinary  or  of  longer 
or  of  a  shorter  compass,  are  arranged  together,  and  regularly  fill 
the  verse. 

As  to  the  prophetic  discourses,  Ewald  admits  that  their  rhyth- 
mical structure  partakes  more  of  the  rhetorical  style,  and  gradu- 
ally lapses  even  into  prose.  And  yet  he  finds  here  the  poetical 
rhythmus,  and  particularly  in  the  discourses  of  the  greater  proph- 


ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE,  479 

ets,  where  there  is  less  external  ornament  than  in  the  poets,  so  that 
they  show  the  movement  of  the  rhythm  the  more  clearly  of  the 
two. 

In  the  prophets,  as  in  the  poets,  the  rhythm  changes  decicleclly 
and  beautifully  with  the  subject  and  tone  of  the  discourse.  Thus 
an  uneven  triple  rhythm  is  introduced  with  great  effect  when  the 
discourse  sits  down  on  a  proud  height,  as  if  to  subdue  the  exalted 
glow  of  the  imagination  (Isa.  iv.  2-5;  ix.  5;  xxx.  25,  26;  xix.  18- 
Micah  iv.  7-9 ;  v.  4-7),  while  a  very  short  and  compressed  verse, 
after  a  loftily  moving  passage,  beautifully  prepares  the  way  for  its 
rapid  conclusion  (Micah  v.  8).  One  rule  is  never  constantly  fol- 
lowed, for  all  the  various  kinds  of  rhythm  may  change  with  each 
verse  according  to  the  inspired  feeling  or  thought  of  the  moment. 

But,  as  Ewald  has  shown,  the  prophetical  rhythm  differs  from 
the  poetical  in  its  length  and  extension.  Herein  the  prophetical 
rhythm  has  in  some  degree  a  form  of  its  own.  The  most  usual 
construction  is  that  of  verses  with  members  extended  to  great 
length,  while  verses  with  two  or  three  short  members  occur  but 
seldom.  Besides  the  verses  of  the  long  members  we  have  already 
described  as  found  in  poetry,  there  are  verses  with  three  long  mem- 
bers, each  of  which  is  equal  to  two  or  three  short  ones,  as  Isa. 
xxxiii.  1.5,  A  B  C=ab  cd  ef.  In  verse  20  of  the  same  chapter  we 
have  a  B  C.  Verses  with  only  one  member,  or  so  short  as  to  seem 
such,  are  found  at  beginnings,  at  pauses,  or  at  conclusions  (Jer.  v. 
30 ;  vi.  2).  Ewald  is  not  authorised  by  facts  to  declare  that  verses 
hardly  divided  into  members  and  gradually  sinking  into  prose  were 
just  beginning  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah.  His  examples  (Jer.  vii. 
33;  Zech.  xii.  11)  do  not  bear  out  this  ass'ertion.  These  cases  show 
no  sinking  in  the  feeling,  and  none  in  the  rhythm ;  for  the  short  ' 
member,  "  and  none  shall  fray  them  away,"  is  a  free  varied  iteration 
of  the  last  member  of  the  preceding  verse,  to  be  followed  by  an- 
other in  verse  34.  The  subject  of  the  refrain  is  pathetically  rhyth- 
mical : 

'■  for  they  shall  bury  in  Tophet  till  there  be  no  place. 

and  none  shall  fray  them  away. 

for  the  land  shall  be  desolate." 

Ewald  endeavours  to  construct  strophes  out  of  some  of  the  prophetic 
discourses.  He  acknowledges,  however,  that  in  the  prophetical  books 
the  strophe  takes  a  somewhat  different  form  from  that  of  the  poetical. 
It  is  not  so  fresh  and  lively,  so  varied  and  so  constantly  new  as  in  the 
latter,  but  much  more  uniform  and  inflexible.     Nor  does  he  assert 


480  ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE. 

that  the  strophe  is  found  in  every  prophetic  discourse.  He  does 
not  find  it  in  Joel  except  in  the  beginning.  He  finds  it  in  Jeremiah 
and  Malaehi,  catches  glimpses  of  it  in  Ezekiel,  but  loses  it  quite  in 
Haggai  and  Zechariah.  But  it  is  only  by  defining  strophe  a  divis- 
ion, real  or  imaginary,  that  we  can  with  any  propriety  apply  the 
term  to  the  proj^hetic  sermons.  To  support  his  hypothesis  he  ven- 
tures to  suppose  that  in  the  earlier  times,  during  the  public  deliv- 
ery of  the  discourse,  an  appropriate  musical  performance  was  intro- 
duced at  each  pause  and  after  every  strophe,  either  by  the  prophet 
himself  or  by  his  attendant,  as  is  still  done  by  the  public  story-tell- 
ers in  Oriental  countries.  But  there  is,  unhappily  for  these  inter- 
ludes, no  Scripture  fact  to  support  them,  as  there  is  no  intimation 
in  the  Masoretic  divisions  for  his  theory  about  the  strophe.  Ewald 
is  equally  wide  of  the  mark  when  he  asserts  that  the  refrain  or  the 
repetition  of  the  same  beginning  or  ending  is  more  frequent  and 
characteristic  with  the  prophets  than  with  the  poets.  There  are 
more  refrains  in  the  136th  Psalm  than  in  all  the  prophetical  books. 
There  are  rhetorical  refrains  in  Amos  i.  3- ;  Isa.  ix.  8-.  But  the  rep- 
etitions of  iooes  in  Isa.  v.  8-24;  Hab.  ii.  6-20  can  in  no  just  sense, 
whether  objective  or  subjective,  be  termed  refrains. 

^  II.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  foregoing  observations  relate  chiefly 
to  the  length  of  verses,  members,  and  strophes.  Hitherto  we  have 
followed  Ewald.  "We  now  proceed  to  examine  the  subject  of  par- 
allelism, not  so  much  in  respect  of  the  length  of  its  members,  which 
has  already  been  fully  discussed,  as  of  its  internal  and  external  na- 
ture in  general.!  Hebrew  parallelism  is  essentially  either  a  meas- 
ured regression  or  a  regulated  pleonasm. 

(I.)  The  first  kind  of  jiarallelism  we  shall  consider  may  be  termed 
cognate.  In  this,  parallel  lines  correspond  to  each  other  by  ex- 
pressing the  same  or  related  ideas,  the  second  line  often  amplifying 
or  diversifying  the  idea  expressed  by  the  first.  This  is  called  cx- 
cnjasia  by  SchOettgen,  and  synonymous  parallelism  by  Lowth,  who, 
as  Jebb  has  shown,  did  not  employ  this  term  with  due  discrimma- 
tion  and  exactness  (Isa.  liii.  1-5 ;  Ix.  1-3 ;  Hos.  xi.  8,  9).  This  par- 
allelism has  also  been  called  direct.  It  admits  of  many  varieties, 
the  most  remarkable  of  Avhich  is  an  ascent  or  cumulative  force  in  the 
terms,  clauses,  or  lines.     Among  these  varieties  are  the  following : 

1.  This  parallelism  is  sometimes  formed  by  the  iteration  of  the 
former  member,  either  in  whole  or  in  part  (Isa.  xv.  i. ;  xxvi.  5,  6 ; 
Hos.  vi.  4 ;  Nah.  i.  2  ;  John  viii.  23). 

1  Schaettgen,  Ilorje  Ilebraica?,  vol.  i.,  pp.  1249-1263;  Lowth,  Lectures  on 
Hebrew  Poetry,  Lect  xix.;  Jebb,  Sacred  Literature,  pp.  23-74,  335-362. 


ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE.  481 

2.  Often  something  is  wanting  in  the  latter  member,  Avhich  must 
be  repeated  from  the  former  to  complete  the  sentence  (Isa.  xli.  28 ; 
xUx.  7). 

3.  Occasionally  the  whole  of  the  latter  division  answers  only  to 
some  part  of -the  former  (Isa.  Ix.  1). 

4.  Sometimes,  also,  there  are  triplet  parallelisms  (Isa.  ix.  20 ;  Hos. 
vi.  1,2;  Joel  iii.  1?>).  Others  are  fomid  in  the  New  Testament, 
as  Matt.  vi.  3,4,  6,  17,  18;  vii.  7,  8. 

6.  Parallelisms  of  four  lines  generally  form  two  regular  distichs  ; 
but  there  is  sometimes  a  peculiarity  in  the  distribution  of  the  sen- 
tences :  the  latter  members  are  to  be  alternately  referred  to  the 
former  (Isa.  i.  3;  ii.  7;  xxx.  16;  xlix.  4;  liv.  5;  Amos  i.  2).  In 
the  New  Testament,  Matt.  iii.  12 ;  Luke  xii.  22,  23 ;  John  xv.  10 ; 
James  iii.  4. 

6.  In  periods  of  five  lines,  a  line  not  parallel  is  some  times  placed 
•at  the  end  of  the  verse  or  period  (Isa.  xliv.  26 ;  Hos.  xiv.  9 ;  Luke 

xii.  33,  34;  John  iii.  5,  6.) 

7.  In  some  instances  each  line  consists  of  double  members.  It  is 
then  termed  bi-membral  (Isa.  Ixv.  21,  22 ;  James  iv.  8-10 ;  v.  2,  3). 
In  some  instances,  however,  one  of  these  members  is  an  antithetic 
parallelism,  as  in  Isa.  Ixv.  22. 

(II.)  Antithetic  parallelism  consists  of  two  lines,  which  are  related 
to  gach  other  by  an  opposition  of  thoughts  or  words,  as  1  Sam.  ii. 
4-7.  (Compare  Luke  i.  52,  53;  Isa.  ix.  10;  liv.  7,  8,  10;  Ixv.  34; 
Luke  vii.  44-46  ;  John  vii.  6  ;  viu.  14,  35,  38 ;  xvi.  16,  28.) 

(III.)  Introverted  parallelism  consists  of  such  an  arrangement  of 
the  lines  of  a  verse  or  period  that  the  first  corresponds  with  the 
last,  the  second  with  the  penultimate,  and  so  throughout,  in  an  order 
that  looks  inward  to  the  middle  of  the  verse  or  period,  commencing 
and  concluding  with  the  thought,  which  is  most  important,  and 
placing  in  the  centre  the  thought  to  which  less  prominence  is  to  be 
given.  This  kind  of  parallelism  naturally  stands  next  in  order  to 
the  antithetic;  for  as  that  is  founded  on  the  figure  antithesis,  so  this 
is  founded  on  ejxtnodos.  We  are  indebted  to  Bishop  Jebb  for  the 
discovery,  definition,  and  illustration  of  this  arrangement  of  paral- 
lels. Though  the  figure  e2')ano(los,  or  inverted  chiasmus,  had  before 
been  found  in  many  parts  of  Scripture,  yet  Jebb  was  the  first  to 
seek  for  it,  not  in  words,  propositions,  and  sentences,  but  in  the 
parallelisms  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  Testaments  (Isa.  xxvii.  12^ 
13  ;  Ezek.  i.  27 ;  Hos.  xiii.  14 ;  Matt.  vi.  24 ;  vii.  6 ;  xxiii.  16-^2  \ 
Luke  xii.  35-40;  John  iii.  31;  Heb.  ix.  11,  12;  x.  33,  34;  James  i. 
22-25). 

(lY.)  Parenthetical   parallelism   exists  where  a'  line  or  two  is 


482  ARITHMUS  IN  HEBREW  ELOQUENCE. 

placed  between  two  other  lines  or  two  distichs  with  which  it  is  not 
parallel.  Lowth  gives  this  species  of  parallehsm  a  place  among  the 
diiferent  kinds  of  synonymous  parallelisms,  but  we  venture  to  des- 
ignate it  by  another  term,  and  make  it  the  subject  of  anew  division. 
As  the  last  mentioned  parallelism  is  based  on  epcmodos,  so  this  is 
based  on  j^are^ithests — a  term  which  is  here  employed  in  a  limited 
and  special  sense.  Some  of  these  interposed  lines  are ;  "  wdien  a 
multitude  of  shepherds  is  called  forth  against  him  "  (Isa.  xxxi.  4) ; 
"from  his  place  shall  he  not  remove"  (Isa.  xlvi.  7);  "and  the 
heavens  and  the  earth  shall  shake  "  (Joel  iii.  16) ;  "  and  Ekron :  for 
her  expectation  shall  be  ashamed "  (Zech.  ix.  5 ;  Luke  xii.  33,  34 ; 
John  xiv.  27  ;  James  iii.  5,  6). 

(V.)  Synthetic  or  constructive  parallelism  is  a  correspondence  and 
equality  between  different  propositions,  noun  answering  to  noun, 
verb  to  verb,  member  to  member  negative  to  negative,  interroga- 
tive to  interrogative,  and  so  of  all  other  parts  of  construction.  This 
is,  according  to  Lowth's  division,  the  third  and  last  sort  of  parallel- 
ism. It  is  not  without  synonymes,  repetitions,  antitheses,  and  par- 
entheses ;  but  it  is  chiefly  marked  by  directness,  progress,  and  de- 
velopment (Isa.  xiv.  4-9 ;  xliii.  2 ;  1.  5,  6 ;  Hos.  xiv.  6,  7). 

The  preacher  should  freely  imitate  these  parallelisms ;  thereby 
will  he  avoid  a  monotonous  return  of  the  isocolus  and  an  affected 
fervour  and  sententiousness.  Periods  framed  on  these  models  facili- 
tate delivery ;  nor  are  they  ill  adapted  for  the  expression  of  deep 
thoughts. 

In  the  prophetic  parallelisms,  as  Ewald  has  remarked,  a  thought 
is  so  very  often  divided  between  two  members  of  a  verse  that  the 
one  Avould  not  give  a  complete  sense  without  the  other.  This  is 
most  noticeable  in  Isa.  iii.  12;  v.  17;  xi.  7,  14;  xvi.  5;  xxi.  14; 
Jer.  iv.  15 ;  Ezek.  vii.  26.  The  same  author  adds  that  when  a  simi- 
lar or  even  the  same  word  is  repeated  in  a  second  member,  a  small 
change  of  the  expression  usually  takes  place,  if  it  be  no  more  than 
in  the  sound  or  in  the  change  of  person  and  the  suffix,  where  the 
sense  will  bear  different  forms  and  representations  (Amos  v.  16 ; 
Jer.  vi.  23;  ix.  16;  Isa.  xv.  3,7;  xvi.  3;  xxi.  11;  xxiii.  13).  In  the 
last  case  the  suffix  is  changed  three  times,  since  the  sense  actually 
bears  three  variations  through  all,  and  in  the  end  refers  to  the  same 
thing. 

But  we  must  not  pause  here.  In  order  to  broad  and  just  views 
of  number  we  must  not  only  survey  the  avitJunus  of  the  Hebrews 
but  also  that  of  the  Hellenists. 


ARITHMUS  IN  HELLENISTIC  ORATORY.  483 

Subsection  VI. — Aeithmus  in  Hellenistic  OnATOiiY. 

The  arithmus,  or  number,  of  the  Hellenistic  Greek  is  much  in- 
debted to  the  Dorians,  through  the  Macedonians,  for  its  distinctive 
qualities.  For  in  spite  of  the  adverse  oijmions  of  K.  O.  Muller,i 
the  Doric  forms  so  often  found  in  the  Alexandrian  and  Hellenistic 
Greek  compel  us  to  adhere  to  Herodotus,  who  assigns  to  the  Mace- 
donians a  Doric  origin.  Great  was  that  Asiatic  revolution  in  lan- 
guage which  began  more  than  three  hundred  years  before  Christ. 
Alexander  the  Great,  by  levying  reinforcements  from  the  subju- 
gated nations,  by  planting  Greek  colonies  among  them,  and  partic- 
ularly by  laying  the  foundations  of  Alexandria,  paved  the  way  for 
diffusing  alike  a  knowledge  of  the  common  or  vulgar  Greek  and 
of  the  Hebrew  religion  through  the  version  of  the  Seventy.  Out 
of  the  commingled  Macedonian  and  Aramean  sprang  a  language 
still  Greek,  but  vulgar,  the  diction  of  the  common  people.  But 
then  it  had  the  sonorous  vowels  and  enharmonic  intervals  of  the 
Doric,  and  something  of  the  parallelism  and  idiom  of  the  Hebrew. 
It  also  possessed  a  twofold  sacredness ;  for  to  the  Greek  it  recalled 
the  Doric  language,  in  Avhich  he  had  sung  hymns  to  the  gods,  and 
Apollo  had  given  almost  all  his  prose  oracles,  while  to  the  Jew  it 
brought  back  the  solemn,  deep-toned  prophesyings  of  the  syna- 
gogue and  the  psalms  of  the  temple.  Writers  and  other  men  of 
culture  still  appealed  to  the  Attic  dialect  as  the  standard  of  ele- 
gance ;  but  the  Divine  Spirit,  aiming  to  save  the  many  rather  than 
to  please  the  few,  condescended  to  choose  as  a  veliicle  the  mother 
tongue  of  the  many,  the  current  words  of  the  farm,  the  tented 
field,  the  boat,  the  market,  and,  above  all,  of  the  plain  and  rustic 
home.  There  is  indeed  abundant  proof  that  the  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament  (bating  its  Hebraisms)  was  to  the  Attic  Greek  what  the 
English  of  our  common  version  of  the  Bible  is  to  the  English  of 
Addison— the  former  being  the  language  of  common  life,  and  the 
latter  the  language  of  elegant  literature  and  of  refined  conversa- 
tion. But  we  have  no  warrant  to  stigmatise  the  Hellenistic  as  vul- 
gar and  barbarous.  Learned  critics^  have  shown  that  inspired  fish- 
ermen spoke  better  Greek  than  was  written  by  the  seventy  learned  , 
translators  of  Alexandria ;  that  tJne  Divine  Spirit  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament writers  abstained  from  employing  many  unusual  and  cor- 


1  Hist,  and  Antiq.  of  Doric  Race.  * 

2  Michaelis,  De  Textu.  Nov.  Test. ;  J.  A.  H.  Tittmann's  Opuscula ;  Blackwall's 
Sacred  Classics  ;  Dr.  Campbell's  Intro.  Four  Gospels. 


484  ARITHMUS  IN  HELLENISTIC  ORATORY. 

rupted  words  which  are  found  in  the  Septuagint,  a  version  made 
about  280  years  before  Christ,  and  that  while  their  style  is  not  At- 
tic, it  has  not  erred  against  the  nature  and  usage  of  the  Greek,  nor 
been  guilty  of  the  levity,  negligence,  and  bai'barism  which  the  Sej)- 
tuagint  so  often  betrays.  The  apostle  Paul  was  indeed  reproached 
by  his  adversaries  as  being  "  rude  in  speech  ;"i  but  this  reproach 
probably  had  no  other  ground  than  the  fact  that  in  his  sermons  and 
epistles  he  used  the  jjlain  language  which  was  current  among  the 
mass  of  his  converts.  No  disgrace  this,  when  we  consider  the  gen- 
eral efficacy  of  the  Gospel,  and  when  we  recollect  that  Xenophon 
was  not  ashamed  to  confess,  "  I  am  indeed  ideotes,  .an  unlearned 
man.  .  .  My  words  I  may  not  use  with  the  art  of  the  sophists  ;"2 
that  Soci*ates  aj)plied  the  same  epithet  to  himself;  he,  too,  was  ide- 
otes  as  compared  with  the  Sojyhoi.'^  Chrysostom  (De  Sacerdotio) 
acutely  observes  that  Paul  does  not  say  that  he  is  "  rude "  in 
knovdedge — in  other  words,  that  he  cannot  argue  convincingly. 

The  writer  on  rhetoric  who  had  an  early  influence  in  forming  the 
common  or  Macedonian  dialect  was  Aristotle,"*  whose  works  are  oc- 
casionally coloured  by  this  idiom.  It  is,  therefore,  important  to  in- 
quire what  were  his  teachings  on  the  subject  of  number.  "  The  form 
of  the  style,"  says  he,  "  should  be  neither  metrical  nor  without 
rhythm ;  for  the  first  has  no  power  to  persuade,  since  it  aj^pears  to 
have  been  studied,  and  at  the  same  time  it  draws  attention  to  the 
similarities  of  cadence.  .  .  That  style,  however,  which  is  without 
rhythm  has  no  measure.  Now  the  diction  ought  to  be  measured, 
yet  without  metre,  for  what  is  destitute  of  measure  is  displeasing 
and  indistinct.  But  by  number  are  all  things  measured,  and  in 
(prose)  composition  the  number  is  to  be  regarded  as  rhythm  (time) 
of  which  the  metres  are  certain  divisions.^  Hence  the  sentence 
should  have  rhythm,  though  not  metre,  for  then  it  Avouldbei:)oetry. 
And  it  should  not  be  exactly  rhythm,  although  it  will  be  so  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  .  .  But  of  the  rhythms  (times)  the  heroic  is  stately,  and 
not  adapted  to  conversation,  and  deficient  in  varied  cadence. .  .  The 
iambic,  on  the  contrary,  is  the  very  style  of  the  multitude ;  whence  it 
is  that  of  all  metres  persons  in  conversation  give  most  frequent  utter- 

1  2  Cor.  xi.  6.  This  meant,  aQcording  to  Chrj'sostom  (De  Sacerdotio,  L.  iv.), 
"  unskilled  in  the  nice  subtlety  of  foreign  eloquence." 

2  CynegcticKS,  c.  xiii.,  sees.  4,  5.  * 

^  Flato  Ilippias  Minor,  at  the  end:  "Now  that  myself  or  anj*  other  ideot en 
should  be  wandering  thus  is  not  at  all  to  be  wondered  at ;  but  if  you  the  so2}Jioi 
wander  also,  that  will  be  to  us  a  direful  thing  indeed." 

4  Rhet.,  Lib.  iii.,  cap.viii. 

5  "  Metres  are  members  of  rhythms,"  Poetic,  chap.  iv. 


ARITHMUS  IN  HELLENISTIC  ORATORY.  485 

ranee  to  iambic  lines.i  But  in  a  speech  there  should  be  a  degree  of 
stateliness  and  departure  from  the  conversational.  Yet  the  trochaic 
metre  is  too  trifling,  and  so  are  all  tetrametres,  for  they  are  a  kind  of 
dancing  rhythm.  But  the  j)oean  remains  which  orators  in  the  time 
of  Thrasymachus  began  to  adapt.  .  .  Of  all  the  rhythms  that  have 
been  mentioned,  this  is  the  only  one  out  of  which  it  is  not  possible 
to  construct  a  metre ;  so  that  in  employing  it,  most  qf  all  rhythms, 
an  orator  will  elude  detection.  At  present,  indeed,  the  orators  em- 
ploy one  paean.  .  .  And  there  are  two  species  of  paeans  opposed 
to  each  other,  whereof  the  one  is  adapted  to  the  opening  (just,  in 
fact,  as  they  employ  it) ;  this  is  that  one  of  which  the  long  syllable 
is  first  and  the  three  short  ones  follow —  ^  v_^  _..  The  other,  on 
the  contrary,  has  the  three  short  syllables  first,  and  the  long  sylla- 
ble at  the  end  w  ^  w  — .  This  makes  a  good  conclusion ;  whereas  the 
short  syllable,  owing  to  its  being  incomplete,  makes  the  sentence 
seem  mutilated. " 

It  has  been  overlooked  that  Aristotle  here  nicely  discriminates 
between  the  terms  aritJwms  and  rhythrims.  The  latter  is  a  poetical 
term,  and  as  here  made  use  of  signifies  in  general  prosodical  time, 
but  particularly  a  foot  as  measured  by  time.  Dionysius  Halicar- 
nassus^  uses  the  word  both  in  the  singular  and  plural  as  synonymous 
with  foot  and  feet.  In  a  more  comprehensive  sense  the  term  meant 
time  as  divided  by  speech  or  music  or  motion.^  Hence  the  word 
was  sometimes  used  independently  of  the  idea  of  metre,  which  sig- 
nifies the  arrangement  in  verse  of  long,  short,  or  common  times.4 
And  accordingly  rhythm  was  considered  as  the  father  of  metre,^  and 
metres  as  members  of  rhythms.*^  When,  therefore,  Aristotle  says 
that  in  rhetoric  "arithmus  is  rhythm,"  he  imports,  as  we  think,  that 
number  has  the  same  application  to  prose  that  time  has  in  poetry. 
Number,  as  having  to  do  with  quantities  of  all  kmds,  can  determine 
what  poetic  feet  are  most  suitable  for  the  beginnings  and  endings  of 
periods ;  whereas  metre,  as  being  concerned  with  the  measure  of 
poetic  lines  exclusively,  has  here  no  pi'oper  application.  Herein, 
however,  he  must  be  understood  as  speaking  generally ;  for  Diony- 
sius'' teaches  and  examples  prove  that  in  exceptional  cases  metres 
or  poetic  lines  may,  with  happy  effect,  occur  in  prose.  In  brief, 
then,  as  in  poetry,  rhythm  is  the  father  of  metre,  so  in  prose,  arith- 
mus  is  the  father  of  rhythm, 

1  Herniog  ,  Peri  Ideon,  chap.  i. 

2  De  Comp.  Verb.,  chap.  xvii.    Compare  chaps,  xix.  and  xxv. 
S-Sj'rianus  in  Hermog.  De  Form.  Orat.  4  Longinus,  Fragment  No.  3. 
5  lb.            6  Arlstotls,  Poetic,  chap.  iv.  7  Ut  supra. 


486  ARITHMUS  IN  HELLENISTIC  ORATORY. 

One  of  the  best  commentators  on  Aristotle  is  Aristotle  him- 
self. He  employs  the  term  arithmus  in  a  twofold  sense,  as  sig- 
nifyintr,  first,  that  which  has  been  or  can  be  numbered;  secondly, 
that  by  which  we  number  {De  I^/ii/sica,  B.  iv.,  c.  xi.  and  xiv.).  "  Time 
is  not  motion,  except  so  far  as  motion  has  arithmus.  A  proof  of  this 
is  that  we  judge  of  the  more  and  the  less  (of  all  things)  by  arith- 
mus, but  of  the  more  and  the  less  of  motion  by  time.  Time,  there- 
fore, is  a  certain  arithmus  {Ibidem,  B.  iv.,  c.  xi.).  The  facts  of '  prior 
and  posterior '  belong  to  motion,  and  time  is  in  these,  so  far  as  they 
can  be  measured  by  arithmus.  .  .  .  Time  is  the  arithmus  of  every 
motion.  Hence  time  is  the  arithmus  of  continued  motion,  and  not 
of  a  certain  motion  merely  {lb.,  B.  iv.,  c.  xiv.).  Rhythm  delights 
us  by  means  of  a  known  and  orderly  aritJtmus,  and  (in  dancing)  it 
moves  us  in  an  orderly  manner  "  {De  Ilarmonia  in  Problem.,  sec. 
19,  ^38).  The  rhythm  that  is  regulated  by  arithmus  or  number 
is  the  most  pleasing,  because  arithmus  detects  every  deficiency  or 
excess  in  the  arsis  and  thesis  as  regulated  by  time.  For,  as  both  in 
poetry  and  oratory,  rhythm  can  neither  shorten  or  lengthen  times, 
so,  in  both,  number  can  estimate  the  diminution  or  increase  which 
a  proper  delivery  may  demand.  But  metre  which  has  its  times  in- 
violably fixed,  is  ill-adapted  to  the  freedom  of  oratoiy,  wherein 
even  the  most  elastic  laws  of  rhythm  are  not  scrupulously  kept. 
Number,  then,  takes  into  every  account  all  things  that  belong  to  it, 
reckoning  the  native  weight  and  effect  of  the  discourse  no  less  than 
quantities  of  the  words  and  phrases  whereby  it  is  conveyed  to  the 
ear. 

The  first  to  confound  these  important  distinctions  appears  to  have 
been  Cicero.  He  taught^  that  what  the  Romans  called  mamrus 
(number)  the  Greeks  denominated  rhythmis,  which  he  defines  Avhat- 
ever  offers  to  the  ear  any  regular  measure,  be  it  ever  so  far  removed 
from  verse.  In  another  place  he  says  that  the  pi\3on,  because  it 
has  more  syllables  than  three,  is  by  some  regarded  as  a  rhythm  and 
not  a  foot.  Again  he  says,  that  what  is  called  number  in  prose 
springs  not  only  from  number  but  also  from  the  symmetrical  struc- 
ture? of  the  words  and  members  of  a  period.-  QuintilianS  has  re- 
peated this  error,  and  so  misled  all  who  have  consulted  him  re- 
specting this  matter. 

Though,  as  we  have  already  ob:«crve(l,  Dionysius  took  one  excep- 
tion to  the  teachings  of  Aristotle  as  to  metre,  the  former  was  not 
guilty  of  misguiding  Qumtilian  and  other  ]voman  rhetors  on  the 

1  Orator,  cliap.  xx.  2  Ibidem,  chaps.  Ix.  and  Ixiv. 

3  Inslilut.  Oral.,  L.  ix.,  c.  vi.,  sec.  40. 


AEITHMUS  IN  HELLENISTIC  ORATORY.  487 

enh^ect  of  ai'ithm US ;  for  he  says  with  discrimination,^  "oN  umber 
(aritJunus)  contributes  not  a  little  to  the  dignity  and  sublimity  of 
discourse,  and  I  hazard  nothing  in  saying  that  rhythms  {rhythmoi) 
and  metres,  which  belong  to  poetry,  may  also  be  employed  in 
prose."  Nor  did  the  distinction  between  these  two  words  which 
Longinus  also  preserved  help  to  disabuse  the  later  Latin  rhetors  and 
grammarians.  He  mentions  incidentally  in-  his  work  on  the  Sub- 
lime^  that  he  had  discussed  the  subject  of  melody  in  two  treatises 
(now  lost),  and  a  fragment  of  his  concerning  metre  still  exists.  In 
the  celebrated  treatise  above  mentioned  he  regards  the  difference 
between  the  two  words  in  question  as  we  now  proceed  to  show. 
He  treats  at  some  length  of  melody  as  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
emotion  of  the  sublime,  and  gives  as  an  examj^le  thereof  this  sen- 
tence of  Demosthenes,  which  he  subjoined  to  a  decree  in  his  De 
Corona :  "  This  very  decree  scattered  like  a  vapour  the  danger 
which  at  that  time  hung  over  the  city."  He  admires  the  melody 
even  more  than  he  does  the  sentiment  of  this  period.  It  consists 
of  dactylic  rhythms,  the  finest  metre,  and  most  conducive  to  the 
sublime.  Transpose  a  clause,  or  take  away  or  add  a  syllable,  and 
you  will  soon  perceive  how  melody  can  contribute  to  sublimity. 
And  yet  in  an  earlier  section  (34)  he  acknowledges  that  if  the  ex- 
cellence of  an  oration  is  to  be  estimated  by  its  aritJuniis,  and  not 
by  its  sincerity,  then  Hyperides  is  sujierior  to  Demosthenes,  and 
that  in  every  point  except  melody  he  has  imitated  all  the  good 
qualities  of  Demosthenes,  and  added  thereto  the  proprieties  and 
graces  of  Lysias.  But  while  Longinus  places  Hyperides  far  below 
Demosthenes,  in  spite  of  his  more  careful  attention  to  arithmxis^  he 
is  far  from  undervaluing  this ;  for  he  says  (sec.  40)  that  "  many  po- 
ets and  other  writers,  who  have  no  natural  faculty  for  conceiving 
sublime  ideas,  and  have  often  employed  common  and  vulgar  words, 
have  nevertheless  so  melodiously  arranged  these  words,  and  given 
to  their  sentences  such  a  dignified  air  and  measured  step,  that  they 
have  made  their  trivial  thoughts  pass  for  more  than  they  are  worth, 
just  as,  among  many  others,  Philistus  has  done,  and  Aristophanes 
in  some  lines,  and  Euripides  in  a  great  many." 

It  appears  not  to  have  occurred  to  Longinus  that  the  common  and 
vulgar  words  of  which  he  writes  so  disparagingly  are  the  very  best 
materials  for  a  melodious  composition,  and  that  Euripides  found  it 
no  difficult  thing  to  dispose  them  in  poetical  numbers.  So  far  fi-om 
this,  he  would,  in  very  many  instances,  have  found  it  difficult  to 
have  composed  otherwise.     The  familiar  and  colloquial  style  of  the 

1  De  Comp.  Verb.,  chap.  xvii.  2  Sec.  39. 

32 


488  ARITHMUS  IN  HELLENISTIC  ORATORY. 

Greek  plays,  except  in  the  choruses  where  it  is  more  elevated,  has 
an  artless  music  which  is  beyond  the  reach  of  art,  and  yet,  melo- 
dious as  it  is,  it  cannot  in  this  respect  be  pronounced  superior  to  the 
Hellenistic  Greek. 

In  particular,  the  Hellenists,  like  the  Dorians,  to  whom  they 
owed  so  much  (and  who  wrote  entire  poems  without  the  sibilant) 
were  bent  on  exterminating  the  malicious  and  untunable  sir/tna. 
Take  some  of  the  later  nouns  endin"  in  lux ;  in  Attic  and  other 
earher  writers,  these  often  end  in  dis.  In  Luke  ii.  7  we  find 
HardXvfia  ;  in  Plato's  Protagoras  HardXvdii ;  in  Luke  xxiii.  24; 
Phil.  iv.  6,  ainji-ia ;  Attic,  airi]6iz.  So  of  nouns  with  other  end- 
ings, Matt,  i-  11,  f.uvoiKE6ia  ;  Plato  (De  Legib.,  c.  viii.),  /-lEtoixtjGii ; 
Acts  ix.  36,  i.ia'jjjrpia  ;  Attic,  na^ii]rpiz.  Among  verbs,  1  Cor.  xvi. 
22,  7;r(M ;.  Plato's  Repub.,  f (jrcj ;  John  xvii.  7,  lyvi^xc'-'^  ;  Attic 
kyvwxcc'ii ;  Rev.  ii.  22,  bvvi;i ;  Attic,  dvvadai.  It  would  be  in- 
structive to  cite  many  other  examples  of  this  description,  and  par- 
ticularly to  observe  how  sibilants  that  were,  in  some  instances, 
once  depraved  Hellenistic  words,  were  gradually  cast  out.  For. 
instance,  the  Alexandrian  Greek  inserted  the  syllable  6a  in  the 
termination  of  the  third  plural  in  the  imperfect,  and  the  second 
adrist,  ending  in  zo€v.  Se(i  Septuagint,  Exod.  xv.  27 ;  Psa.  xlvii.  4; 
Exod.  xvi.  24;  xviii.  28.  It  is  very  observable  that  while  in  these 
and  other  places  the  Septuagint  exhibits  this  Asiastic  termination 
the  New  Testament  betrays  but  a  single  instance,  Rom.  iii.  13, 
eduAiovdav  for  the  Attic  sdoXiovy.  For  the  Hellenistic  Greek  to 
have  thus  purged  itself  in  some  measure  from  these  sibilant  termin- 
ations Avas  no  small  contribution  towards  euphony;  and  when  we 
remember  how  troublesome  such  terminations  are  whenever  the 
succeeding  word  begins  with  a  sibilant,  we  are  so  grateful  to  the 
Hellenists  for  returning  to  the  Doric  that  we  can  cheerfully  par- 
don them  all  their  unavoidable  barbarisms. 

In  euphony  the  peasants  of  Galilee  surpassed  Socrates ;  the  word- 
music  of  the  Christian  preacher  of  Tarsus  outdid  the  melody  of 
Demosthenes.  After  reading  the  high  symphonies  of  the  Attic 
orators,  it  is  pleasant  to  turn  to  the  New  Testament  and  listen  to 
the  broad  and  manful  chaunt  of  the  common  people  of  the  Alexan- 
drian empire  ;  to  hear  again  those  Doric  words  which  "  in  his  deep- 
mouthed  song  Pindar  j^oured  immense."  The  rusty  harp  of  the 
captive  Hebrew  had  long  hung  among  the  willows  of  Euphrates, 
but  when  it  heard  the  martial  trumpet  of  the  army  of  Macedon,  its 
ancient  strings  responded  to  the  soimd,  and  prophesied  that  the 
Greek  tongue  would  soon  be  spoken  in  the  East  by  the  sons  of 
Jacob  and  the  disciples  of  Jesus,  and  be  made  more  harmonious  by 


NUMBER  AS  APPLIED  TO  ENGLISH  ORATORY.  489 

* 

the  Spirit  who  inspired  the  odes  of  David.  This  is  confirmed  by 
the  general  principle  that  the  talk  of  the  common  people  in  all 
lands  is  very  harmonious.  "  It  is  a  pleasing  amusement,"  says  John 
Mason/  the  author  of  "  Self- Knowledge,"  "  in  which  I  have  often 
indulged  myself,  to  listen  how  naturally  men  run  into  those  num- 
bers in  vulgar  style,  which  are  best  adapted  to  the  spirit  of  the  sub- 
ject they  talk  of,  or  the  passions  which  animate  the  person  that 
speaks,  and  which,  to  a  curious  observer,  are  distinguishable  no  less 
by  the  numbers  of  his  style  than  the  tones  of  his  voice.  .  .  And 
almost  all  the  foregoing  rules  you  may  observe,  with  a  little  atten- 
tion, to  be  clearly  exemj)lified  in  the  dialect  of  the  most  illiterate 
persons.  For,  however  defective  they  may  be  in  propriety  of  ex- 
pression, they  are  generally  very  happy  in  their  rhythmus,  to  which 
they  are  directed  by  the  ear  or  natural  harmony  of  sounds.  In  a 
particular  manner  you  may  observe  the.  beauty  of  their  closes,  for 
they  commonly  finish  their  periods  with  anapaests  or  iambics  (Aris- 
totle2  says  chiefly  with  iambics),  and  very  frequently  with  an  em- 
phatical  word ;  that  is,  emphatical  either  in  sound  or  sense."  Let 
no  one,  therefore,  think  it  a  small  thing  to  master  a  laAv  of  language 
which  all  men  instinctively  and  unwittingly  think  of — a  law  which 
we  must  learn  to  obey  if  we  would  speak  naturally  and  popularly 
with  ease  to  ourselves,  and  without  unpleasantness  to  our  plainest 
hearers.  Nor  are  the  cultivated  less  sensible  to  the  charm  of  num- 
ber. Augustine  was  first  attracted  to  hear  Father  Ambrose  by  the 
amenity  of  his  style ;  and  Chrysostom's  melodious  cadences  must 
have  heralded  and  commended  the  doctrines  of  the  cross  to  many^  a 
courtly  ear ;  for  while  he  neither  adopted  nor  commended  the 
smoothness  of  Isocrates,  yet  a  solemn  and  majestic  music  still  lin- 
gers in  his  periods,  although  so  many  centuries  have  j^assed  away 
since  his  golden  mouth  gave  them  immortal  tqnes. 


StJBSECTIOX  YII. NUMBEK    AS   APPLIED    TO    EnGLISU    OuATOKY. 

Having  in  the  preceding  pages  examined  the  subject  of  Hebrew 
and  Hellenistic  number  and  the  structure  of  every  form  of  Hebrew 
sentence,  we  have  thus  prepared  the  way  for  the  study  of  arltJunus 
as  applicable  to  the  periods  of  the  English  speaker.  A  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  English  sentences  should,  however, 
be  first  obtained  by  all  who  would  study  and  apply  the  j)rinciples 

1  Essays  on  Poetical  and  Prosaic  Numbers  and  Elocution,  p.  74  (second  ed.)) 
London,  1761.  2  Poetic,  chap.  iv.  3  De  Sacerdotio,  L.  iv.,  c.  vi. 


490  NUMBER  AS  APPLIED  TO  ENGLISH  ORATORY. 

of  number  with  the  greatest  advantage.  Nearly  every  variety  of 
EngUsh  sentence  has  been  classified  and  illustrated  by  Professor 
Mandeville,  both  i^  his  "  Course  of  Reading  "  and  in  his  "  ElemenJ:s 
of  Reading  and  Oratory."  Few  will  ever  be  enabled  to  read  and 
speak  well  by  confining  their  vocal  exercises  to  the  elaborate  sys- 
tem he  has  constructed ;  but  all  may  learn  therefrom  better  than 
anywhere  else  the  structure  of  almost  all  kinds  of  Enghsh  sen- 
tences, and  thus  gain  a  knowledge  of  a  much  neglected  branch  of 
the  art  of  composition. 

Every  syllable  except  a  monosyllable  has  some  prosodical  foot 
or  feet,  and  consequently  every  kind  of  style  possesses  number ; 
but  no  species  of  composition  in  which  feet  are  imskilfully  disposed 
at  the  beginnings  and  endings  of  periods  can  properly  be  termed 
harmonious.  Feet  have  been  divided  by  rhetoricians  into  two 
classes,  according  to  their  supposed  quality : 

T]ie  Strong  or  Noble.  The  Weak  or  Base. 

Iambic  —  —  Pyrrhic  ^^  ^-^ 

Spondee Trochee  —  ^- 

Anapaest  -^  --  —  Tribrach  -^  — -  — ' 

Cretic  —  ^  —  Dactyl  —  -.^  — ' 

Bacchic  —- Amphibrach  — '  —  -~- 

Molossus Palimbacchic ^^ 

These  distinctions  are  founded  on  two  things:  First,  the  quan- 
tities or  number  of  times.  The  foot  that  fcontains  the  greatest 
number*  of  times  is  in  general  the  strongest  or  noblest.  Thus  as 
the  short  syllable  is  the  original  unit  for  the  measure  of  time,  a 
spondee  is  stronger  than  a  i^yrrhic,  because  the  former  consists  of 
four  times  and  the  latter  of  two.  Secondly,  the  quantity  of  the 
syllable  with  which  the  foot  ends.  A  foot  that  has  a  long  final  syl- 
lable is  stronger  than  one  that  terminates  with  a  short  one.  Thus 
a  bacchic  is  stronger  than  a  palimbacchic.  Such  in  general  is  the 
comparative  value  of  these  feet  in  themselves  considered ;  but  still 
some  of  the  weak  feet,  when  estimated  in  connection  with  others, 
have  been  denominated  strong.  For  example,  according  to  Dio- 
nysiusi  the  dactyl  becomes  noble  Avhen  blended  with  the  spondee 
m  heroic  verse.  It  is  too  weak,  however,  to  close  a  sentence  musi- 
cally. 

It  has  been  observed  that  among  the  noble  feet  the  most  excel- 
lent are  those  in  whicli  the  final  long  syllable  is  preceded  by  a  short 
one ;  for  the  final  syllable  is  thus  rendered  more  emphatic,  and 


1  De  Comp.  Verb.,  chap.  xvii. 


NUMBER  AS  APPLIED  TO  ENGLISH  ORATORY.       491 

therefore  still  longer,  by  contrast.  And  accordingly  the  iambic 
and  sunilar  feet  are  the  strongest.  But  this  remark  can  only  apply 
to  cadences,  otherwise  it  would  be  impossible  to  reconcile  it  with 
the  assertion  of  Aristotle,^  that  this  foot  was  more  employed  by 
the  Greeks  in  common  talk  than  any  other.  Still,  however,  it 
should  here  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  last  syllable  of  a  prose  sen- 
tence, like  that  of  a  poetic  line,  is  generally  allowed  to  pass  for 
either  long  or  short,  as  best  suits  the  close,  and  hence  it  is  called 
"  common." 

Some  of  the  ancient  rhetors  thought  they  discovered  in  the  noble 
feet  a  language  peculiar  to  e^ch.  The  spondee,  they  say,  is  grave 
and  majestic ;  the  molossns  sublime  and  stately ;  the  bacchic  strong 
and  solemn ;  the  cretic  bold  and  eager ;  the  anapaest  rapid  and  ve- 
hement ;  the  iambic  well  adapted  to  express  anger.  The  last  two 
are  martial  rhythms  both.  Dionysius^  teaches  that  as  we  are  often 
compelled  to  express  our  ideas  by  words  and  phrases  that  are  com- 
posed of  base  feet,  we  should  aim  to  elevate  and  refine  these  by 
mixing  them  with  such  as  are  noble.  True,  rhetorical  number  can 
never  impart  much  dignity  to  common  thoughts,  and  yet  the  neg- 
lect of  it  may  greatly  detract  from  the  majesty  of  those  that  are  re- 
ally noble.  It  has  been  observed  that  such  noble  feet  as  result 
from  the  imion  of  the  dactyl  and  the  spondee  are  employed  by 
Homer  in  describing  Thersites,  and  by  Horace  in  recounting  the 
dispute  between  Rupilius  and  Persius.  Hence  it  is  manifest  that 
mimber  cannot  exalt  the  familiar  and  the  ludicrous,  although  its 
absence  or  neglect  can  prevent  the  noblest  and  the  grandest  ideas 
from  appearing  to  the  best  advantage.  When  measured  and  apart, 
these  feet  are  found  to  possess  very  different  values,  and  yet  "  each 
kind,"  as  Quintilian^  holds,  "  is  useful  in  its  proper  place ;  for  grav- 
ity and  slowness  where  there  is  need  of  rapidity,  and  quickness 
and  precipitation  where  there  is  need  of  solemnity,  are  justly  and 
equally  reprehensible." 

The  principal  rules  of  number  are  the  following : 
I.  For  the  beginnings  of  periods,  Aristotle,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  recommends  the  paeon  anterior — that  is,  the  foot  which  begins 
with  a  long  syllable  and  is  followed  by  three  short  ones :  —  -^  -^  -_. 
With  'him  concurs  Quintilian,  although  he  thinks  we  may  some- 
times begin  with  short  syllables,  and  quotes  the  first  words  of  De- 
mosthenes' De  Corona  as  an  imobjectionable  number.  He  adds 
that  the  cretic  —  ^w-  —  makes  an  excellent  commencement.     He  is 

1  Rhet.,  L.  i.,  c.  viii. ;  cf.  Poet.,  c.  viii.  2  Jjt  mpra,  chap,  xviii. 

8  Inst.  Orat.,  L.  ix.,  chap,  iv.,  sec.  83, 


492  NUMBER  AS  APPLIED  TO  ENGLISH  ORATORY. 

also  of  opinion  that  the  first  half  of  a  poetic  line  is  unj^leasing  at 
the  beginning  of  a  period,  but  the  first  j^art  of  a  verse  sometimes 
forms  an  elegant  conclusion,  while  the  last  part  of  a  line  frequently 
opens  a  sentence  not  ungracefully.  He  considers  attention  to  the 
initial  numbers  of  some,  though  secondary,  importance;  for  then 
the  hearer  pays  strict  attention,  and  the  conclusion,  however  grace- 
ful, may  lose  all  its  charms  if  we  are  awkward  at  the  outset  and 
awkward  continue  until  near  the  goal. 

II.  For  the  endings  of  periods  Aristotle  recommends  tlije  pseon 
posterior  w  v_.  v-/  —  Cicero^  says  this  kind  of  paj'on  is  almost  equal, 
not  indeed  in  the  number  of  the  syllables,  but  by  the  measure  of  the 
ear  to  the  cretic.  There  are,  we  dare  say,  cases  not  a  few  wherein 
this  paeon  is  quite  equal  to  the  cretic.  The  jioeon  Cicero  does  not 
reject,  but  prefers  others.  Quintilian  approves  it  still  less,  but  adds 
that  j)ossibly  those  who  liked  it  were  men  that  fixed  their  attention 
rather  on  the  language  of  common  life  than  on  that  of  oratory.  He 
would,  in  our  poor  judgment,  have  been  more  nearly  right  if  he  had 
said  that  in  the  time  of  Aristotle  the  Greek  orators  began  to  use 
the  language  of  common  life. 

(2.)  The  dichoree  or  double  trochee,  —  ^-  —  —  is  a  concluding 
foot,  which  is  approved  both  by  Cicero  and  Quintilian.  The  latter 
says  that  it  is  a  favourite  ending  with  many.  It  is  found  at  the  end 
of  the  well-known  example  from  one  of  the  speeches  of  Carbo,  which 
the  great  Roman  orator  adduces  :  Patris  dictum  sajnens  teme7-itas 
filil  comprohavit — a  sentence  which  was,  it  seems,  received  by  the 
people  with  wonderful  applause.  Upon  this  Mason^  has  remarked 
that  "  as  the  last  syllable  is  common,  it  may  be  considered  as  long, 
and  then  the  last  three  syllables  may  be  considered  a  bacchic; 
again,  as  the  last  syllable  may  be  considered  as  hypercatalectic^  or 
suj)ernumerary,  so  the  three  preceding  syllables  may  be  measured 
as  a  cretic ;  both  of  which  are  strong  and  generous  feet.  And  this  is 
the  reason  that  a  dichoree,  though  it  be  in  itself  a  base  and  feeble  foot> 
yet  makes  so  graceful  a  close.  Marmontel'^  cites  a  parallel  instance 
from  Fletchier's  Eulogy  on  Turenne,  "  De  la  religion  et  de  la  patrie 
eploree."  In  his  preference  for  the  dichoree,  Cicero  was  perhaps  influ- 
enced by  some  of  his  Oriental  teachers,  for  he  tells  us  that  Asiatic 
orators  commonly  rounded  tlieir  periods  with  this  foot.  But  still, 
even  in  English,  it  often  makes  a  happy  cadence. 

(3).  The  cretic,  —  —-  —  as  an  ending,  is  preferred  by  Cicero*  to 

1  De  Oratore,  L.  iii.,  cap.  xlvii.,  and  Orator,  cap.  Ixiv. 

2  Essay  on  tlie  Power  of  Number,  p.  28. 

3  Ilarmonie  du  Style ;   Elements  de  Litt<5rature,  vol.  iii.,  p.  33. 
4Cf.  Dionj's.,  de  Comp.  Verb.,  chap.  xxv. 


NUMBER  AS  APPLIED  TO  ENGLISH  ORATORY.      493 

the  piBon.  This  foot  may  be  well  j^receded  by  the  anapaest,  or  the 
paeon  posterior  -^  ^--  -^  — .  A  double  cretic  naay  also  be  em- 
ployed with  success. 

(4.)  The  dochmius  —^ ^-^  —  is  highly  approved  by  Cicero 

for  every  part  of  a  period,  on  condition  that  it  be  employed  but  once 
in  a  period,  since  its  repetition  would  make  the  sentence  appear  too 
numerous.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  rhythmus  of  the  drummer.  Quintilian 
also  recommends  us  to  place  a  bacchic  before  its  concluding  iambic 
because  the  cadence  will  then  be  a  dochmius. 

(5.)  The  dactyl  is  thought  by  Quintilian  to  make  a  good  prose 
ending.  Though  the  last  syllable  is  common,  yet  if  it  be  admitted 
as  long  it  becomes  a  cretic.  He  adds  that  the  dactyl  may  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  cretic  or  the  iambic,  but  not  the  spondee,  much  less 
the  trochee.  Cicero,^  however,  is  of  an  opinion  somewhat  differ- 
ent. The  dactyl,  he  thinks,  may  be  placed  before  the  last  foot  when 
the  last  foot  is  either  a  trochee  or  a  spondee,  and  that  the  dactyl, 
the  tribrachys,  and  the  iambic  are  all  of  them  infelicitous  cadences, 
except  when  the  dactyl  takes  the  place  of  the  cretic,  because  of  the 
doubtful  length  of  the  last  syllable.  On  this  point,  again,  Quin- 
tilian says  :  "  I  am  not  ignorant  that  a  short  syllable  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence  is  accounted  long,  because  the  time  in  Avhich  it  is  deficient 
is  in  some  degree  supplied  by  that  which  follows  it ;  but  when  I 
consult  my  own  ear,  I  feel  that  it  makes  a  great  difference  whether 
the  concluding  syllable  be  really  long,  or  only  be  accepted  as  long." 
And  he  says  repeatedly  that  it  makes  a  difference  whether  two  con- 
cluding feet  are  contained  in  one  word,  or  whether  each  consists  of 
a  single  word.  He  also  says,  in  another  place,  that  all  terminations 
of  periods  formed  of  short  syllables  have  less  weight  than  such  as 
consist  of  long,  nor  are  they  admissible  except  where  the  closing 
words  are  rapid  and  emphatic.  Whereto  we  may  add  this  other 
opinion  of  Quintilian,  that  the  tribrach  is  not  a  very  good  ending, 
if  the  last  syllable  be  accounted  short,  as  it  certainly  must  some- 
times be,  except  in  cases  where  the  last  word  is  very  emphatic. 

(6.)  As  to  the  iambic,  though  Cicero  does  not  recommend  it  for 
the  endings  of  periods,  he  would  not  exclude  it  therefrom.  And 
Quintilian,  as  we  have  already  seen,  accepts  it  as  a  termination,  and 
particularly  when  it  is  preceded  by  the  bacchic,  since  the  cadence 
will  then  be  a  dochmius.  The  same  author  says  that  a  si:)ondee 
may  very  properly  go  before  this  foot. 

(7.)  The  molossus  is  regarded  by  Quintilian  as  a  good  conclu- 
sion, i^rovided  it  have  before  it  a  short  syllable  of  any  foot  whatever. 

1  Orator,  cha;is.  xx.  and  Ivi. 


494  NUMBER  AS  APPLIED  TO  ENGLISH  ORATORY. 

(8.)  The  baccliic  may  conclude  a  period,  and  may  either  be  dou- 
bled or  take  a  trochee  or  a  spondee  before  ijt   —  -^  ^— or 

(0.)  The  palimbacchic  is  held  to  be  a  very  proper  ending,  unless 
we  wish  the  last  syllable  to  be  long.  It  may  be  preceded  either  by 
a  molossus  or  a  bacchic  with  a  pleasing  effect, ^-'  or 

(10.)  The  amphibrach  is  also  considered  a  good  ending.  By 
lengthening  the  final  syllable  it  becomes  a  bacchic. 

(11.)  Quintilian  allows  even  a  pyrrhic  to  terminate  a  period  if  it 
be  preceded  by  a  trochee,  for  then  the  two  form  a  paeon — an  ante- 
rior one,  however,  we  may  add,  which  both  Aristotle  and  himself 
would  confine  to  the  opening  of  the  sentence.  But  still,  it  is  fair  to 
subjoin,  he  would  admit  this  foot  only  where  rapidity  of  language  is 
demanded,  and  no  emjDhasis  is  to  be  laid  on  the  close. 

(12.)  The  spondee  ought  not  to  be  excluded  from  the  end  of  a 
period ;  for,  as  Cicero  says,  though  it  is  a  slow  and  heavy  foot,  yet 
it  has  an  air  of  gravity  and  nobleness,  especially  in  clauses  and 
members  where  the  weight  of  the  feet  is  thus  compensated  for 
their  paucity,  Quintilian  likewise  apj^roves  this  foot,  and  carefully 
specifies  the  feet  that  may  go  before  it.  If  the  pyrrhic  precedes 
the  spondee  it  will  detract  from  its  gravity,  and  if  the  pa3en  pre- 
cedes, the  effect  will  be  still  worse.  Two  spondees  can  scarcely 
ever  be  used  in  succession  unless  they  can  be  made  to  consist,  as  it 
were,  of  three  members.  Quintilian,  adversely  to  Cicero,  as  quoted 
in  ^5,  thinks  that  a  dactyl  cannot  properly  be  prefixed  to  a  spon- 
dee, because  we  dislike  the  end  of  a  verse  at  the  close  of  a  sentence ; 
but  the  anapaest  and  the  cretic  may  be,  as  also  the  iambic,  which  is 
found  in  both,  but  is  shorter  than  either  by  a  syllable ;  for  thus  one 
short  syllable  will  go  before  three  long  ones.  This  is  agreeable  to 
what  he  says  in  respect  of  the  molossus  {^1).  He  thinks  that  this 
foot  has  great  stability,  and  that  Demosthenes  frequently  employed 
it.  Mr.  Mason  shows  that  we  may  sometimes  place  two  or  three 
or  even  four  spondees  in  succession,  particularly  when  we  intend  to 
fix  an  impression  by  dwelling  on  the  words  that  convey  it,  as  in 
this  sentence  from  Cicero's  speech  against  Verres,  beginning : 
"  Ctedebatur  virgis  civis  Komanus,"  etc. 

The  ancient  rhetoricians  give  some  general  directions  for  speak- 
ing and  writing  in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  number,  some  of  which 
are  iij  substance  as  follows : 

1.  The  Itoman  orators  occasionally  secured  a  numerous  stylo  by 
using  grammatical  figures,  esi^ecially  such  as  consist  in  a  change  of 
case  and  number.     In  our  language  one  case  can  very  rarely  b(?  put 


NUMBER  AS  APPLIED  TO  ENGLISH  ORATORY.  495 

for  another  without  provokmg  criticism.  As  to  change  of  number 
it  is  otherwise ;  by  synechdoche  the  singular  is  sometimes  used  for 
the  plural,  and  the  reverse.  When  a  speaker  is  impassioned,  our 
language,  like  the  Hellenistic  Greek,  allows  him  to  change  person. 
We  may  likewise  employ  the  present  tense  for  the  future  or  for  the 
past,  and  the  past  for  the  present. 

2.  Qumtilian  recommends  a  resort  to  the  hijperhaton^  or  the  re- 
moval of  a  word  to  a  distance  from  its  natural  place.  He  says  that 
many  writers  diversify  their  language  by  long  hyherhata ;  but  he 
admonishes  us  not  to  cultivate  a  studied  negligence  so  far  as  to  in- 
troduce hi/perhata,t\\^t  are  extravagantly  long.i  We  term  this 
figure  transposition,  or  inversion.  In  our  language  it  is  of  less  fre- 
quent occurrence  than  in  the  Greek  or  Latin.  True,  we  may  place 
the  nominative  after  the  verb,  as  "  Blessed  are  the  peacemakers ;  " 
"  Behold,  there  came  wise  men."  We  are  also  permitted,  for  the 
'sake  of  emphasis,  to  place  before  a  verb  a  noun  in  the  objective 

case,  a  pronoun  with  a  preposition,  as  "  Therewith  bless  we  God." 
— St.  James;  or,  "One  such  court  there  is,"  etc. — Sherlock. 

3.  Of  all  figures  none  is  more  friendly  to  number  than  antithesis. 
This  hint  is  well  illustrated  by  the  celebrated  couplet  of  Denham, 
which,  because  of  its  mysterious  and  unaccountable  sweetness,  Dry- 
den  proposed  to  his  readers  as  a  puzzle  in  prosody : 

"  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;   though  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong  without  rage  ;  without  o'erflowing,  full." 

,  Whatever  other  excellences  these  verses  may  or  may  not  possess, 
certain  it  is  that  they  contain  four  antitheses,  and  that  the  distich 
is  antithetical  throughout.  True,  its  music  is  indebted  not  a 
little  to  its  transpositions,  but  without  antitheses  it  would  have 
been  impossible  to  make  so  rhythmical  a  distribution  of  the  em. 
phatic  words.  Mr.  MasonS  thinks  that,  while  the  charm  of  the  dis- 
tich is  partly  due  to  these  things,  it  is  also  much  beholden  to  the 
order  and  quantity  of  the  poetical  numbers.  "  The  poet,"  says  he, 
"  has  introduced  into  these  two  lines  every  one  of  the  dissyllabic 
feet— the  iambic  and  pyrrhic  in  the  first,  and  the  trochee  and  spon- 
dee in  the  second— so  that  it  hath  all  the  advantage  of  harmony 
which  variety  of  numbers  can  give  it.  Nor  is  it  less  happy  in  the 
disposition  of  these  numbers.  For  in  the  first  line,  excepting  the 
fourth  foot,  they  are  all  iambics :  the  last  part  of  each  falling  not 


1  Inst.  Oraf.,  L.  viii.,  chap,  vi.,  and  L.  ix.,  c.  iv. 

2  Essays  on  Numbers  and  Elocution,  p.  60,  Lond.  ed.,  1761. 


49G      NUMBER  AS  APPLIED  TO  ENGLISH  ORATORY. 

only  on  the  accented  syllables  but  the  emphatical  words,  and  those 
in  contrast,  too,  makes  the  sound  and  sense  most  perfectly  accord. 
The  fourth  place  is  possessed  by  a  pyrrhic,  -which  is  always  an 
agreeable  movement.  The  second  line  begins  Avith  a  trochee,  which 
gives  motion,  as  it  were,  to  the  river,  biU  is  immediately  checked 
by  the  spondee  and  iambic  that  alternately  follow.  So  that  the 
stately  flow  of  the  numbers  expresses  that  of  the  river  they  de- 
scribe, and  the  sound  is  still  an  echo  to  the  sense."  We  may  add 
that,  though  the  antithesis  abounds  in  the  prophetic  eloquence,  yet 
such  is  the  state  of  modern  English  criticism  (which  principally  ad- 
mires the  negative  excellences  of  sermons),  that  we  should  employ 
this  figure  as  little  as  possible. 

4.  When  four,  five,  or  more  short  syllables  follow  one  another 
we  may  improve  the  feet  by  inserting-among  them  some  word  or 
syllable  containing  a  long  quantity,  as,  '•  how  much  soever  "  for 
"  however  much."  Mr.  Mason  gives  us  the  following  example  : 
"  This  doctrine  I  apprehend  to  be  erroneous  and  of  <i  pernicious 
tendency."'  The  eftect  of  the  many  short  quantities  Avhich  weaken 
this  sentence  may  be  destroyed  by  a  slight  change  in  its  form  and 
import :  "  This  doctrine  I  take  to  be  not  only  false,  but  of  very 
pernicious  tendency."  Sometimes  the  insertion  of  a  short  syllable 
between  two  long  ones  smoothens  the  path  of  a  sentence,  as  in  these 
words  from  Cicero  in  Verr. :  .  .  .  "  hunc  per  hosce  dies  sermonem 
vulgi."  "  Why,"  asks  Quintilian,  "  does  he  use  hosce  in  preference 
to  hos,  for  hos  would  not  be  harsh  ?  I  should  perhaps  be  imable  to 
assign  any  reason,  but  I  feel  that  hosce  is  the  better."  The  euphonic 
figui-es  are  prothesis,  epenthesis,  paragoge,  and  tmesis. 

5.  An  ellipsis  will  frequently  hel]?  the  number.  We  may  either 
contract  two  syllables  into  one,  or  drop  a  word  or  phrase.  The 
elliptical  figures  are  ai^hairesis,  apocope,  and  syncope. 

G.  Few  figures  are  more  helpful  to  number  than  amplification, 
more  especially  when,  as  in  Milton,  Taylor,  and  Hooker,  it  gives 
expression  to  depth,  variety,  and  fulness  of  thought.  Still  it  is  to 
be  remembered  that  superficial  views  of  the  Scripture  are  apt  to  be 
the  truest  and  most  impressive, 

7.  Let  the  sentence  always  close,  if  possible,  not  only  with  a  good 
number,  but  an  emphatic  word.  Not  that  the  emphatic  word 
ought  uniformly  to  be  the  very  last.  It  must  often  be  content  to 
be  within  three  or  four  syllables  of  the  last.  Nor  should  it  escape 
our  observation  that  words  composed  of  feeble  feet  may  in  ettect 
become  strong  Avhcn  they  receive  the  emphasis.  Mr.  ]\Iason  ob- 
serves that  this  last  word  will  produce  a  very  agreeable  eftect  if  by 
paronomasia  or  antithesis  it  have  reference  to  some  preceding  word 


NUMBER  AS  APPLIED  TO  ENGLISH  ORATORY.  497 

in  the  sentence,  as  "  unhappy  man  who,  obtaining  the  pleasure  he  so 
long  pursued,  finds  himself  at  last  possessed  of  pain!  "  . 

By  way  of  caution  in  the  use  of  the  preceding  rules  and  examples, 
it  is  important  to  observe  : 

A.  That  the  feet  shoxild  be  strong  or  weak,  according  to  the  sub- 
ject or  idea,  as  Quintilian  teaches,  by  recommending  even  the  pyr- 
rhic  for  the  cldse  of  some  sentences.  He  also  says  that  the  feet  to 
which  the  Greek  rhetoricians  object  will  force  themselves  upon  us 
in-  spite  of  our  utmost  efforts.  Long  syllables  have  more  impres- 
siveness  and  weight ;  short  ones  more  lightness.  Short  syllables, 
if  they  be  mixed  with  long,  may  be  said  to  run ;  if  they  are  con- 
tinued in  unbroken  succession,  to  bound.  Statements  of  facts  re- 
quire a  mixture  of  all  kinds  of  feet..  Arguments  should  not  admit 
more  long  than  short  syllables,  nor,  on  the  contrary,  should  they 
admit  the  tribrachys,  which  imparts  quickness  but  not  force  to  the 
numbers.  The  elevated  portions  of  a  discourse  demand  long  and 
sonorous  feet,  like  the  dactyl  and  the  pseon.  Rougher  parts  are 
best  expressed  in  iambics.  They  are  opposed  to  calmness,  not  only 
because  they  consist  of  but  two  syllables,  and  consequently  allow 
of  more  frequent  beats,  but  because  every  foot  rises  springing  and 
bounding  from  short  to  long,  and  is,  for  that  reason,  preferable  to 
the  trochee,  which  from  a  long  falls  to  a  short.  The  more  subdued 
parts  of  a  discourse,  such  as  portions  of  the  peroration,  call  for  syl- 
lables that  are  long  indeed,  but  less  sonorous.  Such  are  the  judi- 
cious precepts  of  Quintilian. 

B.  That  we  should  be  on  our  guard  against  the  too  frequent  use 
of  a  favourite  foot,  or  of  a  phrase  which  is  extremely  melodious. 
"  An  interchange  of  feet,"  says  Cicero,^  "  v/ill  have  these  good  ef- 
fects, that  the  audience  will  not  be  tired  of  any  ofiensive  sameness, 
and  that  we  shall  not  appear  to  make  similar  endings  on  purpose." 
And  yet  this  orator  employed  his  favourite  close,  "  esse  videatur,"' 
eleven  times  in  his  oration  Pro  Lege  Manilla.  Nor  did  its  reit- 
eration stop  with  Cicero,  for  his  imitators  took  up  the  strain  after 
his  death,  and  went  on  repeating  it  more  than  a  hundred  years,  so 
that  Quintilian2  was  compelled  to  declare  that  the  phrase  was  in  his 
day  too  much  in  use. 

C.  That  when  necessary,  number  should  be  sacrificed  to  strength, 
clearness,  truth,  and  feeling.  "  In  general,"  says  Quintilian,  "  if  I 
were  obliged  to  make  a  choice,  I  would  prefer  words  harsh  and 
rough  to  such  as  are  excessively  delicate  and  nerveless  ;•  and  indeed 
we  grow  every  day  more   effeminate  in  our  style,  tripping,  as  it 

1  De  Orat.,  L.  iii,  c.  1.  2  L.  ix.,  c.  iv.,  ^  73. 


498  CADENCE  AS  AFFECTED  BY  VERBAL  FORMS. 

■were,  to  the  exact  measures  of  a  dance."  To  this  we  may  add  the 
authority  of  Demetrius  Phalereus  .^  "  Too  much  study  and  toil  in 
measuring  the  members  of  a  period,  and  in  balancing  the  antithe- 
ses, hampers  the  freedom  of  the  mind  and  cripples  the  force  of  an 
oration. 2 

TJ.  That  while  we  are  not  to  ignore,  we  are  not  always  to  follow 
the  rule  laid  down  by  Cicero,  Dionysius,  Quintilian,  and  other  clas- 
sic rhetoricians,  never  to  begin  a  prose  period  with  the  feet  which 
begin  a  poetic  line,  nor  conclude  it  with  those  that  close  such  line, 
and  never  to  admit  into  prose  the  feet  of  an  entire  and  original 
line.  Though  this  may  be  a  good  general  law  for  the  secular  ora- 
tor, it  is  liable  to  unavoidable  infractions,  and  especially  by  the  sa- 
cred orator,  whose  elevated  themes  often  transport  him  to  Helicon 
and  Sion  hill.  And  accordingly  critics  detect  hexameters  in  the 
writings  of  the  apostles  Paul  and  James  (Heb.  xii.  18;  Jas.  i.  17). 
We  only  add  that  these  laws  of  number  may  be  very  frequently 
made  void  by  beginning  or  ending  a  period  M'ith  a  word  uncom- 
monly long. 

Subsection  YIII. — Cadexce  as  Affected  by  Yeebal  Forms. 

Let  it  not  be  thought  that  number  as  treated  by  the  classic  rhet- 
ors has  little  application  to  English  composition.  By  scanning  the 
beginnings  and  endings  of  a  few  English  sentences,  any  intelligent 
reader  may  disabuse  himself  of  this  delusion.  The  Greek  and  Ro- 
man arithrmts  and  the  more  primaeval  Hebrew  parallelisms  have 
their  source  in  those  powers  of  music  which  are  agreeable  to  al- 
most all,  delightful  to  many,  and  to  some  even  transporting.  The 
Greek  rhythm,  with  its  arsis  and  thesis,  finds  its  resemblance  in  the 
modern  musical  bar  and  in  our  English  versification,  while  the  He- 
brew parallelisms  may  be  traced  in  the  prose  of  some  of  the  best 
English  writers. 

The  subject  of  cadence,  in  so  far  as  it  is  governed  by  7iuinbcr, 
we  have  already  considered.  Here  we  are  to  lay  down  a  few  I'ules 
which  have  ]iarticular  reference  to  those  phrases,  words,  and  sylla- 
bles by  which  cadence  is  either  favourably  or  unfavourably  aftbcted. 
But  still  it  should  be  remembered  that  some  of  these  rules  find 
their  best  explanation  in  the  laws  of  number. 

1  Tlepi  'EpnTjvEiai,  cap.  xxvii. 

2  Of  the  orator  Fox's  impetuous  torrent  of  feeling  it  has  been  happily  said 
that  "  all  the  waves  did  not  form  wavirig  lines." 


CADENCE  AS  AFFECTED  BY  VERBAL  FORMS.  499 

As  to  verbal  cadence,  the  following  rules  are  to  be  observed : 
1.  Avoid  concluding   sentences  with  adverbs,  prepositions,  or 
other  inconsiderable  w^rds.     There  are,  however,  exceptions  to 
this,  as  m  the  following  sentence  :     "  In  their  prosperity  my  friends 
shall  never  hear  of  me;    in  their  adversity,  always."     Especially 
should  we  keep  ourselves  from  concluding  sentences  with  the  par- 
ticles which  mark  the  cases  of  nouns,  as  of,  to,  from,  loith,  hy.     "  A 
late  divine,"  says  Mason,  "  speaking  of  the  Trinity,  hath  this  ex- 
pression :  '  It  is  a  mystery  which  we  firmly  believe  the  truth  of, 
and  humbly  adore  the  depth  of 'i     Here,"  adds  Mason,  "  the  lan- 
guage is  expressive  but  not  harmonious.     And  what  is  the  reason 
of  this  ?     Not  merely  because  each  clause  of  the  sentence  ends 
with  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case  (which,  if  it  be  sometimes  deemed 
an  inaccuracy,  yet  does  not  always  interrupt  the  smooth  flow  of 
the  words),  but  because  it  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  base  and 
feeble  numbers,  viz.,  pyrrhics  and  trochees,  which,  by  a  small  trans- 
position of  the  words,  might  easily  be  avoided,  as  thus :    '  It  is  a 
mystery  the  truth  whereof  we  firmly  believe,  and  the  depth  of 
which  we  humbly  adore.'      According  to  this  disposition  of  the 
words,  the  sentence  is  composed  altogether  of  strong  ancl  generous 
feet,  viz.,  iambics  and  anapaests."     It  ought,  on  the  other  hand,  to  be 
considered  that  the  above  example,  so  often  since  Mr.  Mason's  day 
cited  as  a  warning,  is  good  idiomatic  English,  and  makes  up  in  clear- 
ness and  ease  what  it  lacks  in  strength  and  cadence.     It  has  like- 
wise eschewed  the  untuneful  "  which."     Nor  is  this  all ;  so  thor- 
oughly idiomatic  are  the  prepositions  in  question  that  it  is  not 
easy  in  many  instances  'to  escape  them  either  by  transposition  or 
substitution.     Take  for  example  this  from  Tillotson :    ..."  Avhich 
sense  he  could  find  no  way  to  support  without  such  pitiful  and 
wretched  shifts,  such  precarious  and  arbitrary  suppositions  as  a  man 
of  so  sharp  a  reason  and  judgment  as  Socinus  could  not,  I  thought, 
have  ever  been  driven  to."     Long  and  liquid  monosyllables  make  a 
good  cadence,  as  ease,  same,  shine. 

2.  Generally,  however,  simple  verbs  are  better  than  compound  as 
termmations  of  members  and  sentences.  When  the  last  particle  is 
short,  emphatic,  and  abrupt  it  makes  a  very  bad  cadence ;  e.  g.,  come 
up,  loent  over  to,  bring  about.  When,  however,  it  is  unemphatic, 
it  may  in  some  cases  make  a  happy  close,  as  dispose  of  These 
rules  do  not  apply  to  the  familiar  style  wherem  compound  verbs 
very  often  contribute  to  vivacity. 


1  Dr.  Ward  thinks  that  the  unpleasant  sound  arises  from  the  accent  falling 
on  the  last  syllable.— /Sys^.  of  Oratory,  vol.  i.,  p.  382. 


500  CADENCE  AS  AFFECTED  BY  VERBAL  FORMS. 

3.  The  pronoun  it  should,  if  possible,  be  avoided  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence,  more  especially  when  it  is  joined  with  some  of  the  prepo- 
sitions; as,  uiitli  it,  in  it,  to  it.  When  it  forces  itself  upon  us  un- 
avoidably, we  may  return  to  good  old  English,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  strength  and  melody,  by  employing  in  their  place  thereicith, 
therein,  thereto. 

4.  Any  short  concluding  phrase  which  expresses  exception,  quali- 
fication, limitation,  or  some  subordmate  circumstance,  is  apt  to  de- 
tract from  strength  and  melody,  for  this  reason,  among  others,  that 
it  is  either  commonly  composed  of  short  syllables,  or  is  read  with 
rapidity ;  as,  "  a  great  advance  towards  this  union  was  the  coalition 
of  parties,  so  happily  begun,  so  successfully  carried  on,  and  of  late' 
so  unaccountably  neglected,  to  say  no  tcorse.^^  "  Godliness  and 
honesty,  joined  with  industry  and  benevolence,  will  ever  be  foimd 
a  surer  path  to  prosperity  than  the  tricks  of  cunning  and  policy  in 
fjeneral.''''  We  must,  notwithstanding,  except  this  cadence  of  Rob- 
ert Hall :  "  Yet  some  benefit  will  not  fail  to  result  from  them,  even 
in  their  loioest  degree.'''' 

5.  In  enumerations  where  the  conclusion  is  made  of  several 
nouns  connected  by  a  conjunctive  particle,  melody  will  be  occasion- 
ally promoted  by  placing  an  adjective  before  the  last  noun. 

G.  Very  long  words  are,  as  we  have  said,  unsuital)le  for  the  close 
of  a  period.  With  long  phrases  and  members  of  sentences  it  is  often 
the  reverse,  especially  at  the  end  of  paragraphs  and  subdivisions, 
Avhere  they  have  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  the  Alexandrine,  Avhich 
closes  the  Spencerian  stanza. 

7.  Words  that  consist  of  very  short  syltables  do  not  conclude  a 
grave  and  weighty  period  melodiously;  e.  e/.,  "contrary,"  "circum- 
stances," "  particularly,''  "  disinterestedness."  We  may  except  cases 
where  the  thoughts  are  familiar  and  playful,  and  where  a  train  of 
long  syllables  going  before  is  enlivened  by  a  succession  of  short 
syllables  at  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

While  the  strict  observance  of  the  rules  of  cadence  is  not  cer- 
tainly a  very  imiDortant  grace  of  style,  their  neglect  is,  to  some  cars, 
very  unpleasant.  Poddridge  justly  complains  of  Charnock  and 
Bates — no  mean  writers  both — that  they  are  wanting  in  cadence. 
Among  the  sermons  remarkable  for  cadence  are  those  of  Jeremiah 
Seed,  Hugh  Blair,  Robert  Hall,  and  Timothy  Dwight.  Chrys- 
ostom's  cadences  are  monotonous,  while  those  of  John  Logan 
are  marked  by  an  agreeable  variety.  But  much  attention  to  this 
sul)ject  in  sermons  is  fatal  to  frankness  and  energy  of  style,  and  in- 
jurious to  one's  character.  Hagenbach  mentions  a  certain  critic 
who  charged  Reinhard  with  commencing  one  of  his  sermons  with 
three  short  svllables ! 


EUPHONY.  501 

SCTBSECTIOK  IX. EuPHONT. 

This  term  is  here  employed  as  importing  such  a  choice  and  collo- 
cation of  letters,  syllables,  and  words  as  secure  their  smooth  and 
melodious  enunciation.  It  has  -principally  to  do  with  the  qualities 
of  articulate  sounds  in  their  relation  to  sj^eaking  and  hearing.  Lim- 
iting itself  to  the  vocal  qualities  of  connected  letters,  syllables,  and 
words,  its  province  is  less  extensive  than  the  juncturax  of  the  Latin 
rhetoricians,  which  also  had  reference  to  phrases,  members,  and  pe- 
riods. Demetrius  Phalereus^  says  that  the  ancient  Greek  musicians 
distributed  words  into  four  classes — the  rough,  the  smooth,  the  me- 
diate, and  the  elevated.  The  smooth  are  composed  chiefly  of  vow- 
els, as  the  Greek  Alai  ( Ajax) ;  the  rough  are  crowded  with  conso- 
nants, while  the  mediate  or  compact  have  a  moderate  proportion 
of  both.  He  gives  Biiowa  (thunder)  as  a  good  example  of  the  ele- 
vated or  high  sounding.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  almost  every- 
thing the  Greek  and  Latin  rhetoricians  say  on  this  subject  is  equally 
relevant  and  applicable  to  the  English  language. 

Euphony  requires  us  to  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  the  multiplica- 
tion of  sibilants.  The, Attics  were  inclined  to  condemn  their  ex- 
cessive use,  and  yet  their  dialect  has  its  full  share  of  them.  Plato 
and  Eubulus  have  derided  the  accumulated  sigmas  of  Euripides, 
who,  in  the  following  line  of  his  Medea^  seems  to  have  aimed  to  do 
his  worst : 

"EdGj6d  6\  Goi  L6a6iv'EXXj']va)V  udot. 

Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus^  is  exceedingly  bitter  against  the  sigma. 
''  It  is,"  says  he,  "  disagreeable  and  harrassing,  and  when  it  recurs 
freqiiently  it  is  very  distressing.  This  hissing  sound  seems  more 
proper  for  wild  beasts  than  for  rational  creatures."  Some  of  the 
ancients  used  it  rarely  and  cautiously.  Lasus  composed  a  whole 
poem  without  it ;  and  Pindar  has  left  us  his  opinion  abou.t  it  in  the 
following  words :  "  Long  ago,  O  men,  were  banished  the  long-  • 
winded  sounds  of  the  dithyrambs  and  the  impure  sigma."  On 
these  lines  of  Pindar,  Athenoeus*  has  the  followmg  comment :  "  Pin- 
dar uttered  this  sentence  with  reference  to  the  ode  which  was  com- 
posed without  a  6  in  it,  as  if  some  riddle  had  been  proposed  to  him 
to  be  expressed  in  a  lyric  ode,  since  many  were  puzzled  because 
they  considered  it  impossible  to  abstain  from  the  (;,  and  because 

1  Cicero,  De  Orat.,  L.  iii.,  chap,  xliii.  ;  Orat.,  ^44;  Quint.,  Inst.  Orat.,  L.  ix., 
cliap.  iv.,  sees.  82-43.  2  De  Elocutione,  sec.  178. 

3  De  Conip.  Verb.,  cap.  xiv.  4  L.  x.,  cap.  Ixxxii. 


502  EUPHONY. 

they  did  not  approve  the  way  m  which  the  idea  was  executed." 
Hence  Dionysius  censures  Thucydides  for  the  collocation  in  the 
preface  of  his  history,  \l(J>jydioi  ^weypaipE.  The  d  before  the  S 
cannot  along  with-  the  latter  make  one  syllable,  and  consequently 
there  is  a  hiatus  difficult  to  pronounce  between  the  two  letters. ^ 

We  learn  from  Cicero^  that  some  of  the  earlier  Latin  orators 
sedulously  omitted  this  sibilant  in  some  cases,  and  particularly  drop- 
ped the  last  letter  in  the  termination  tis  when  it  was  not  followed 
by  a  vowel;  as,  "  Qui  est  om?iibii'  2yrinc€2)s.''^  Quintilian^  enlarges 
on  this  subject  as  follows  :  "  Consonants  are  also  liable  to  jar  with 
one  another  in  the  connection  of  words,  and  especially  such  as  are 
of  a  harsher  nature,  as  s  at  the  end  of  a  word  with  x  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  following;  and  the  hissing  is  still  more  unpleas- 
ant if  two  of  these  consonants  clash  together,  as  ^^Ars  studiormn.''' 
This  was  Servius'  reason  for  cutting  off  the  letter  s  whenever  it  ter- 
minated a  word  and  was  followed  by  another  consonant — a  prac- 
tice which  Lauranius  blames  and  Messala  defends ;  for  they  do  not 
think  that  Lucilius  retained  the  final  6'  when  he  said,  "  Serenus  fuit " 
and  "  Dignus  locoque." 

The  EngUsh  language  has  for  hundreds  of  years  been  corrupting 
its  native  euphony.  This  fact  may  be  illustrated  by  the  gradual 
change  into  s  of  the  eth  of  the  third  person  singular  of  tlie  jjrcsent 
tense  At  what  time  this  abbreviation  began  Ave  are  unable  to 
specify.  Ben.  Jonson,  in  his  Grammar  (the  edition  of  16.34),  says 
that  the  third  person  singular  is  made  of  the  first  by  adding  eth, 
which  is  sometimes  shortened  into  s.  But  after  the  death  of  Jon- 
son, in  1637,  some  editor  substituted  commonly  iov  sometimes.  But 
Peter  Whalley,  in  his  critical  edition  of  Jonson's  works,  published 
in  1756,  says:  "It  seemeth  to  have  been  jDoetical  license  wliich 
first  introduced  tins  abbreviation,  but  our  best  grammarians  have 
condemned  it  upon  some  occasions,  though  perhaps  not  to  be  abso- 
lutely banished  the  common  and  familiar  style."  Addison,  in  the 
135th  No.  of  the  Spectator,  dated  1711,  writes  in  qualified  jirotest 
against  the  change  as  one  which  had  already  taken  i)lace.  "  This 
has,"  he  says,  "  wonderfully  multiplied  a  letter  which  was  before  too 
frequent  in  the  English  tongue,  and  added  to  that  hissing  in  oiu* 


1  The  Hellenistic  Greek  is  in  general  superior  to  the  Attic  in  jioint  of  sihila- 
tion,  and  j'et  there  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule;  e.g.,  dvJi  for  dvijiv, 
IXsiido/uat  for  ezm,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  Tipafifiavov  is  in  this  and  other 
respects  better  than  dHijUTTodoj',  which  a  Cyprian  bishop  was  on  one  occasion 
80  nice  as  to  substitute  for  it  (see  anecdote  in  Bingham,  B.  vi.,  c.  iii.,  sec.  4). 

2  Orat.,  cap.  xlviii.  3  L.  ix.,  c.  iv'. 


EUPHONY.*  503 

f 


language  which  is  taken  so  much  notice  of  hy  foreigners ;  but  at 
the  same  time  humours  our  taciturnity  and  eases  us  of  many  super- 
fluous syllables."  And  accordingly  Ben.  Jonson,  Milton,  Bacon,  and 
Jeremy  Taylor  oftenest  retain  this  th  when  its  employment  does 
not  lengthen  the  word,  as  in  hath,  doth,  etc.  But  they  frequently 
use  it  in  cases  where  it  adds  a  syllable  to  the  word.  Mr.  Mason, 
about  the  year  1751,  laid  down  this  rule,  among  others,  for  acquir- 
ing a  numerous  style :  "  The  frequent  concurrence  of  s  must  be 
avoided,  because  it  creates  a  disagreeable  hissing  in  the  voice,  a 
fault  which  foreigners  universally  find  in  our  language,  and  is  occa- 
sioned by  three  letters  in  the  English  alphabet  which  convey  that 
sound,  viz.,  s,  e,  and  soft  c;  and  we  still  increase  it  by  an  affectation 
of  changing  the  termination  eth  into  es."  In  the  second  edition  of 
this  essay,  published  in  1761,  he  still  stigmatises  this  change  as  an 
affectation.  But  Dr.  Charles  Coote,  in  his  Grammar  published  in 
1788,  informs  us  that  in  his  day  the  termination  etli.  was  very  rarely 
employed.  Mr.  F.  W.  Newman  "  regards  it  as  a  question  about  to 
open  hereafter  whether  a  translator  of  Homer  ought  not  to  adopt 
the  old  dissyllabic  landis,  hoiaidls,  hartis,  for  lands,  hounds,  harts." 
A  really  blessed  thing  it  would  be  for  public  speakers  if  such  ter- 
minations could  be  revived  and  brought  back  into  common  prose. 

The  Ionian  Greeks  were  not  insensible  to  the  euphony  of  0  as 
compared  to  the  d,  and  Luke  and  Paul  have  followed  this  dialect 
in  Acts  xxi.  35,  where  dva/SaO/uoi  is  used  instead  of  dva;3a6M6?,a.nd 
in  1  Tim.,  iii.  13,  where  /SdOjiip?  is  emi:»loyed  for  fidd/.ioi.  Our  poets 
continue  to  employ  the  termination  eth  whenever  their  feet  or  their 
rhyme  demand  it.  Nor  can  it  be  quite  obsolete  in  serious  dis- 
course so  long  as  the  commonly  received  version  of  the  Bible  is 
daily  read  and  quoted  in  private  and  in  public  on  Sundays  and  other 
days  of  worship.  How  much  this  Anglo-Saxon  ending  contributes 
to  the  euphony  of  the  English,  the  student  may  ascertain  by  open- 
"ing  the  Bible  almost  at  random,  as  at  such  texts  as  the  followmg : 
Isa.  xliv.  14,  25  ;  Iv.  1,  2;  Ixiii.  1 ;  Matt.  vi.  4;  John  xiv.  5;  Heb. 
i.  2,  7;  ii.  18;  vi.  7;  xii.  6. 

Euphony,  less  than  brevity,  was  consulted  in  the  alteration  which 
contracted  into  one  syllable  the  termination  of  the  past  tense,  as  in 
the  words  droioned,  walked,  arrived.  Addison  justly  complams  that 
this  "  has  very  much  disfigured  the  tongue  and  turned  a  tenth  part 
of  our  smoothest  words  into  as  many  clusters  of  consonants.  This 
is  the  more  remarkable  because  the  want  of  vowels  in  our  language 
has  been  the  general  complaint  of  our  politest  authors."  In  some 
things,  indeed,  printers  and  talkers  have  for  many  years  been  changing 
our  language,  to  the  no  small  vexation  of  orators  and  poets. 


504  i:ui'iio.\Y. 

Certain  elements  of  our  language  are  by  Dr.  Rush^  called  "  Ato- 
nies," or  "  Aspirations,"  from  their  incapacity  of  intonation  and  their 
limited  power  of  variation  in  pitch.  These  are,  j^  as  in^^/pey  t  as 
in  tent ;  c  hard  and  k  as  in  cake ;  /as  in  Ji/e  ;  c  soft  and  s  as  in 
cease  ;  h  as  in  lie  ;  th  as  in  thin  ^  sh  as  in  inish.  Of  these  sharji, 
abrui)t  consonants  the  hardest  to  pronounce  are  ^),  ^,  Ic.  Next  in 
difficulty  of  enunciation  are  the  aspirated  mutes, /J  th^  h.  But  per- 
haps the  very  worst  are  combinations  of  the  two,  as  in  hotchjyotch. 
The  abrupt  consonants,  as  Mr.  Alexander  Bain2  observes,  are  the 
most  easily  somided  in  alternation  with  long  vowels,  as  in  Attica^ 
appear. 

The  flat  mutes,  i,  v,  f?,  th  as  in  thhie^  (j,  allow  a  certain  continu- 
ance of  voice,  and  are  therefore  more  easily  pronounced.  Thus 
above  is  easier  than  puff ;  (jo,  thou,  than  cut.  The  liquids,  /,  hi, 
)i,  r,  and  the  sibilants,  s,  sh,  z,  zh,  all  represent  continuous  sounds, 
which,  for  smoothness,  more  nearly  resemble  vowels,  particularly 
w^hen  they  do  not  terminate  words;  e.  //.,  rain,  loom,  shame,  leisure. 
When  these  letters  conclude  words  they  are  sometimes  more  ab- 
rupt, as  in  her,  slam,  flasli,  p>1iiz.  This  class  of  consonants  are  less 
euphonious  when  they  alternate  with  vowels,  as  in  elimination, 
clamminess,  azure.  An  abrupt  and  flat  mute  cannot  be  easily  pro- 
nounced together,  as  uj^,  hij,  eke,  go.  Even  an  intervening  vowel, 
if  short,  does  not  suflice  to  make  the  enunciation  easy;  c.  g.,pah, 
keg,  ted.  A  long  vowel  or  a  combined  liquid  or  sibilant  will  re- 
move the  difficulty,  as  in  tocdl,  prol)C,tro(le,  Jieccl. 

In  order  to  euphony,  then,  Avords  should  contain  a  due  propor- 
tion of  consonants,  and  especially  of  liquids,  as  elementary,  forti- 
tude, capacity. 

Long  Avords  are  generally  more  agreeable  to  the  ear  than  mono- 
syllables. One  reason  of  this  is  that  in  such  cases  two  accented 
syllables  never  meet.  And  yet  not  a  few  phrases  composed  of 
monosyllables  have,  Vhen  read  with  proper  emphasis,  the  musical 
effect  of  an  equivalent  long  word. 

Avoid  if  possible  the  use  of  compound  Avords,  the  several  parts 
of  which  are  not  closely  united,  and  consequently  are  not  easily 
enunciated  as  one  Avord,  as  ■unsuccessfulness,  harfacedncss,  icrong- 
Jieadedncss.  Mr.  jMauAvariug  taught  that  a  cretic  before  a  dactyl 
makes  a  good  cadence;  c.  g.,  "  What  Avilf  this  end  in  but  treacher- 
ous knavery?"  but  that  a  spondee  before  a  dactyl  is  bad,  as  Avhen 
Ave  substitute  downright  for  treacherous.  Mr.  Mason,  however, 
thinks  the  latter  close  quite  as  good  as  the  former ;  but  this  Avord 


1  l'liilijs«>iiliy  of  ilie  Iluniau  Yoke.         2  English  Cuiii[>.  and  Rhct.,  p.  111. 


EUPHONY.  505 

is  not  a  good  spondee,  as  the  short  syllable  is  almost  a  long  one, 
and  as  the  word,  being  compound,  admits  a  pause  between  its  two 
parts.  This  rule  also  applies  to  compound  verbs,  as  put  off,  look 
on,  come  at.  We  should  except  cases  where  the  preposition  and 
verb  easily  coalesce,  as  ^oithdraw,  undertake,  overset.  Shun  like- 
wise the  use  of  such  words  as  have  the  syllables  which  follow  the 
accented  syllables  crowded  with  consonants  that  do  not  readily  co- 
alesce, as  questionless,  chroniclers,  conventiclers. 

Employ  not  such  words  as  have  too  many  syllables  following  the 
accented  syllable,  as  primarily,  cursorily,  circumstances  ;  nor  such 
w^ords  as  have  a  short  or  unaccented  syllable  followed  by  another 
short  or  unaccented  syllable  very  much  resembling  it,  as  holily, 
sillily,  loiolily,  farriery. 

Shun  words  -which  have  too  many  open  vowels  in  succession, 
causing  a  disagreeable  aperture  of  the  mouth,  and  resembling  in 
sound  the  language  of  the  Algonquins,  as  bamboozle,  cooperate, 
zoological. 

Long  vowels  in  unaccented  syllables  should,  if  i:»ossible,  be  avoid- 
ed, as  a  m  reprobate,  ow  in  follov;,  u  in  contribute.  And  yet  some 
w^ords  there  are  which  allow  us  more  time  to  pronounce  these  vow- 
els, as  us??al,  mountaineer,  melody. 

Guard  against  a  collision  of  consonants,  as  in  the  w^ords  hedg'd, 
fledg'd,  drudg'd,  adjudg'd.  This  often  happens  when  the  vowels, 
if  not  omitted,  are  short  and  accented,  as  scratched,  strengthened, 
jiftldy.  Would  that  we  could  revive  the  older  and  better  pronun- 
ciation which  added  a  syllable  to  the  current  ultimate. 

Euphony  demands  a  proper  alternation  of  long  and  short  or  of 
accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  as  degree,  report,  consider. 

Hitherto  we  have  treated  of  euphony  in  its  relation  to  single 
words.  Let  us  now  consider  the  subject  of  jwictura,^  in  so  far  as 
it  concerns  the  euphonious  connection  of  two  or  more  words. 

Words  of  similar  length,  accent,  or  opening  or  closing  syllable, 
should  be  either  avoided  or  kejDt  at  a  distance  from  one  another  ; 
e.  g.,  "  Peter  was  needy,  feeble,  and  peevish."  Cicero  was  often  ral- 
lied on  account  of  this  line,  0  fortunatam  natani  me  consule  Bo- 
mam. 

Avoid  such  tautophonies  as  the  quick  succession  of  several  geni- 
tives with  the  preposition  0/ prefixed ;  e.  g.,  "the  consideration  of 
the  truth  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome." 

Repeat  not  similar  syllables  or  sounds  at  the  end  of  one  word 

1  Cicero  De  Orat.,  L.  iii.  c.  xliii ;  Orat.,  ()44,  45;  Quint.,  L.  ix.,  c.  iv., 
^32-43. 


506  EUPHONY. 

and  the  beginning  of  the  next,  thus :  '^Another  therefore  may  nuike 
a  due  rise  of  the  commandt/ient  uieiidoned.^^ 

Prepositions  in  compound  words  should  not  be  repeated  after 
them,  as,  "  an  inquiry  into,^''  "  an  /?2sight  into."  These  phases  are 
indeed  sanctioned  by  usage,  but  both  euphony  and  analogy  demand 
that  the  former  be  "  an  inquiry  concerning "  or  ''  as  to,''  and  the 
latter  "  an   insight  of" 

And,  in  spite  of  usage,  a  word  terminating  with  a  vowel  distinct- 
ly heard,  should,  if  convenient,  be  followed  by  a  word  beginning 
with  a  consonant.  When,  on  the  contrary,  a  word  closes  Avith  a 
consonant,  we  should,  if  possible,  place  after  it  a  word  beginning 
with  a  vowel,  as,  "  in  respect  of,"  rather  than  "  with  respect  to." 

Guard  against  two  accented  syllables  in  succession,  as  "  an  entire 
absence,"  "  a  correct  record."  Also  beware  of  a  long  succession  of 
unaccented  syllables,  as  "  the  exigencies  of  our  eleemosynary  insti- 
tutions." 

Alliteration,  like  rhyme  and  assonance,  should  not  often  occur  in 
l^rose  except  accidentally.  Especially  ought  we  to  guard  against 
beginning  successive  words  with  the  letters  w  and  s.  An  expletive 
will  sometimes  prevent  an  alliteration  of  two  hard  sounds,  as  "  we 
do  wipe"  (Luke  x.  11).  The  alliterations  which  abound  in  the  ser- 
mons of  Dr.  Chalmers  are  agreeable  because  spontaneous. 

Pope,  in  the  following  lines  of  his  Essay  on  Criticism,  has  shown 
by  examples  in  the  verses  themselves  how  untunable  are  collisions 
of  vowels,  the  intrusion  of  expletives,  and  a  procession  of  long 
monosyllables : 

"  Tliese  equal  syllables  alone  require, 
Though  oft  the  ear  the  02)cn  vowels  tire  ; 
"While  expletives  their  feeble  aid  do  join, 
And  ten  low  ivords  oft  creep  in  one  dull  line.''^ 

Dante  puts  into  the  mouth  of  a  stupid  giant  certain  unmeaning 
words  in  which  the  broad  vowel  a  frecjuently  recurs : 

liaphcl  mat  amcch  tzahi  almi. 

Euphony  is  promoted  by  a  due  alternation  of  words  of  different 
length,  and  especially  by  avoiding  several  long  words  in  succes- 
sion. 

"We  should  remember,  however,  that  euphony  may  be  cultivated 
to  excess,  and  harsh  combinations  of  sounds  are  sometimes  admis- 
sible for  the  sake  of  preventing  a  satiety  of  mellitluous  words. 
Besides,  the  sense  to  be  conveyed  not  unfrequently  demands  what 
are  in  themselves  very  disagreeable  sounds.  When  Milton  is  de- 
scribing the  gate  of  hell  turning  on  its  huiges,  the  words  have  a 


ONOMATOPCEIA.  507 

jarring,  harsh,  and  grating  sound ;  when  representing  the  opening 
of  the  gate  of  heaven,  the  words,  like  the  golden  hinges  themselves, 
emit  celestial  melodies.  In  some  measure  applicable  to  the  orator 
is  Poj)e's  well-known  advice  to  the  poet : 

"  Soft  is  the  strain  when  zephyr  gently  blows, 
And  the  smooth  stream  in  smoother  numbers  flows  ; 
But  when  loud  surges  lash  the  sounding  shore, 
The  hoarse   rough  verse  should  like  the  torrent  roar." 

Of  the  famous  couplet  of  Denham,  elsewhere  considered,  Mr. 
Crowe'  observes  that  it  has  but  one  sibilant,  and  this  {s)  being  at 
the  beginning  of  the  word,  does  not  dwell  upon  the  ear ;  neither 
has  it  any  strong  aspirate.  In  the  first  line  r  is  the  only  rough  con- 
sonant, neither  is  there  any  broad  vowel  or  diphthong,  while  the 
vowels  in  gentle,  not,  and  dtdl,  are  combined  with  the  liquids  7i  or  I. 
In  the  second  line,  the  word  strong  has  a  broader  vowel  and  a  larger 
combination  of  consonants.  The  broad  diphthong  oic  and  the  let- 
ter r  occur  repeatedly,  but  as  these  are  temj^ered  by  letters  of  a 
dilFerent  quality,  viz.,  short  i  and  by  long  o,  they  are  sonorous,  but  not 
rough.  It  may  be  so  subjoined  that  the  arrangement  of  the  long 
and  short  vowel  sounds  here  well  harmonise  with  the  sense. 

These  things  are  indeed  of  most  importance  to  the  poet,  and  yet 
the  orator  cannot  afford  altogether  to  neglect  them.  All  the  fol- 
lowers of  Isocrates,  it  would  appear,  bestowed  too  much  attention 
upon  these  small  matters,  while  Demosthenes  evidently  inclined  to 
the  opposite  extreme.  As  to  Cicero,  we  must  think,  in  spite  of 
Quintilian's  opinion  to  the  contrary,  that  both  in  his  orations  and 
didactic  works,  he  was  far  too  careful  about  these  things.  Be  this 
as  it  may,  the  English  preacher  will  find  that  the  style  will  be 
euphonious  in  proportion  as  it  is  popular,  so  that  if  he  aims  to  be 
understood  and  felt  by  all,  he  will  naturally  observe  a  euphony 
which  art  cannot  greatly  improve.  It  will  be  chiefly  when  he  is 
expressing  sentiments  magnanimous,  grand,  and  magnificent,^  that 
he  will  have  occasion  to  give  to  his  diction  any  uncommon  degree 
of  harshness. 

SUESF.CTIOX  X. OxOilATOrCEIA. 

The  imitative  or  suggestive  properties  of  words  may  contribute 
not  only  to  grace,  but  also  to  energy  and  perspicuity  of  style.  They 
are,  according  to  Dionysius,^  discovered  in  the  Greek  poets,  more 

1  Laws  of  Versification,  p.  226. 

2  Demetrius  Phalereus,  De  Elocutione,  sec.  48.         3  De.Comp.  Verb.,  sec.  16. 


508  '  ONOMATOPCEIA. 

especially  in  Homer,  but  the  fact  is  that  they  may  be  traced  in  all 
literary  compositions,  ancient  and  modern.  Philologists  are  now 
studying  them  as  among  the  clews  to  a  knowledge  of  what  lan- 
guage essentially  is.  We  here  discuss  the  resemblance  of  sound 
and  sense  as  related  to  gracefulness.  This  resemblance  has  been 
frequently  detected ;  first,  in  words  denoting  sounds;  secondly,  in 
words  rejiresenting  motions ;  thirdly,  in  some  words  that  are  sup- 
posed to  express  emotions  and  passions, 

1.  Of  the  first  class,  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
Greek  of  the  New  afford  many  examples,  as  the  Hebrew  kfirfi  and 
the  Greek  kracho  for  the  English  cry,  because  of  fear  or  joy,  or  Heb. 
hrdal^  Gr.  ololutzo,  to  cry  aloud  dithyrambically  in  prayer  or  praise. 

Not  only  in  words,  but  phrases  also,  do  the  sounds  echo  the 
sense,  as  in  the  original  of  Job  xxvi.  11  :  "  The  pillars  of  heaven 
tremble,  and  are  astonished  at  his  reproof"  Also  Psa.  xviii.  7  : 
"  Then  the  earth  shook  and  trembled ;  the  foundations  also  of  the 
hills  moved  and  were  shaken  because  he  was  wroth." 

2.  The  last  example  seems  to  express  not  only  sound  but  mo- 
tion, and  therefore  belongs  partly  to  the  second  class.  It  is  indeed 
very  observable  that  such  words  as  describe  motion  belong  essen- 
tially to  the  first  class,  because  it  is  principally  by  the  different 
sounds  made  by  different  motions  that  these  words  represent  them. 
The  English  words  prec'tpitation  and  impetuosity  are  instances  of 
this  remark.  Thus  in  Hebrew  slow  motion  is  expressed  by  dadah. 
The  word  for  slippery  places,  helaklakkoth,  imitates  the  sound  of 
withdrawing  the  foot  from  the  mire.  In  Psa.  xxxviii.  10,  "  my 
heart  pantetlt?^ — Heb.  seharhar.  In  the  original  of  Psa.  xviii.  10, 
"  And  he  rode  upon  a  cherub,  and  did  fly :  yea,  he  did  fly  upon  the 
wings  of  the  wind,"  we  hear  the  sound  of  a  swift  vibratory  motion 
like  that  of  pinions.  In  the  original,  from  verse  13,  "  The  Lord 
thundered  in  the  heavens,  and  the  Highest  gave  his  voice,"  we  hear 
first  the  sharp  and  near  fall  of  the  bolt,  and  then  the  redoubling  of 
the  thunder  among  the  mountains.  Botli  the  motions  and  the 
sounds  of  ocean  waves  are  imitated  in  this  line : 

"  Dark-heaving,  boundless,  endless,  and  sublime." 

Campbell  and  his  disciples  condemn  Pope  for  using  the  Alexan- 
drine to  describe  quick  motions,  as  in  the  lines : 

"Flies  o'er  th'  unbending  corn,  and  skims  aloiiy  the  main. 

Thunders  impetuous  down, and  smokes  along  the  ground." 

But  after  criticism  has  oi)poscd  these  verses  to  the  utmost,  they 


DIGNITY.  509 

still  remain  as  admirable  examples  of  the  power  of  the  Alexan- 
drine in  expressing  quick  motions  repeated  over  great  distances 
which  are  divided  into  two  parts.  Witness,  too,  how  the  conjimc- 
tioh  and  describes  the  transition  from  the  hill  to  the  plain  and  from 
the  land  to  the  sea.  The  final  stopping  of  an  old  clock  is  admira- 
bly represented  in  the  following  lines  from  Dryden's  tragedy  of 
Edipus.  The  speaker  annomices  the  death  from  mere  old  age  of  a 
person  whose  life  had  been  prolonged 

"  Till,  like  a  clock,  worn  out  with  eating  time, 
The  wheels  of  weary  life  at  last  stood  still." 

3.  As  to  the  third  class,  usage  has  decided  that  there  are  some 
states  of  mind  that  are  occasioned  by  or  have  an  analogy  to  the 
sensations  joroduced  by  sounds  or  motions.  That  part  of  the  the- 
ory of  number  which  demands  that  we  should  employ  strong  or 
feeble  feet  according  as  our  subject  is  grave  or  lively,  and  vary 
them  according  to  the  nature  of  the  thought  or  feelmg,  is  founded 
on  this  mysterious  principle.  We  may  add  to  this  what  is  implied 
in  not  a  few  metaphorical  adjectives,  as  rough  or  soft  applied  to 
manners,  or  quick  to  the  temper,  and  turhident  to  the  passions. 

Subsection  XI. — Dignity. 

By  this  term  we  here  intend  the  use  of  such  a  diction  and  style 
as  are  worthy  of  the  speaker,  the  hearers,  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject, the  character  of  the  thoughts,  and  the  object  of  the  discom-se. 
There  may  indeed  be  gracefulness  of  an  inferior  kind  without  dig- 
nity, or  even  propriety  (which  we  may  regard  as  a  species  of  digni- 
ty), but  both  are  requisite  to  gracefulness  of  a  high  description. 
The  classic  rhetoricians  often  restricted  the  term  to  designate  pro- 
priety and  elegance  in  the  use  of  tropes  and  figures ;  but  it  can  be 
best  determined  by  answering  wisely  the  questions,  Who  ?  What  ? 
Where  ?  By  what  means  ?  How  often  ?  For  what  purpose  ?  In 
what  manner  ?    At  what  time  ? 

Properly  to  vary  the  manner  of  expression  is,  according  to  Isoc- 
rates,!  among  the  things  that  demand  great  talents  and  diligence. 
Language  that  would  be  grand  in  one  speech  would  be  tumid  in  an- 
other; while  low  words  become  ridiculous  when  found  in  dis- 
courses of  the  demonstrative  kind.2     Some  of  Virgil's  critics  have 

1  Oratio  V.  contra  Sophist. 

2  Arist.,  Rhet.,  L.  iii.,  c.  vii. ;  Cicero,  De  Orat.,  L.  iii.,  c.  xxiv. ;  Quint.,  L.  viii., 
c,  iii. ;  Log.,  c.  i. ;  Segueri,  Arte  Predicar  Bene,  Trat.  iv.,  chap.  sxii. 


510  DIGNITY. 

illustrated  the  nature  of  rhetorical  dignity  by  their  comments  on 
one  of  his  lines  in  his  Eclogues,  and  repeated  with  one  alteration  in 
his  Georgics.  In  the  fifth  eclogue  (verse  37),  the  shepherd,  accord- 
ing to  some  copies,  thus  complains  of  the  barrenness  of  his  laud : 

"  Infelix  lolium  et  steriles  nascunter  avenae." 

But  in  the  Georgics  (L.  i.,  v.  154),  instead  of  the  plain  word  nas- 
cunter, grow,  the  poet  substitutes  a  metaphor,  dominantur,  com- 
mand. In  the  former  poem,  composed  in  the  low  style,  it  was 
proper  for  the  shepherd  to  speak  in  familiar  terras ;  but  in  the  lat- 
ter, which  belongs  to  the  middle  style,  where  the  poet  sj^eaks  in 
his  own  person,  and  addresses  the  greatest  men  in  Rome,  a  meta- 
phor drawn  from  government  is  agreeable  to  the  dignity  of  the  au- 
thor and  of  his  readers. ^ 

The  quality  imder  consideration  is  not,  in  its  general  relations, 
foreign  to  any  part  of  rhetoric,  although  it  is  more  strictly  a  part 
of  the  subject  of  adaptation.  It  is  here,  be  it  observed,  considered 
chiefly  in  its  relation  to  gracefulness.  Dignity  is  best  exemplified 
by  the  preaching  of  Christ,  of  the  apostles,  and  prophets ;  but  in 
order  to  the  most  profitable  study  of  the  inspired  addresses,  with 
a  view  to  the  cultivation  of  the  sense  of  rhetorical  propriety,  we 
have  to  take  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  circumstances  of  per- 
son, •  motive,  subject,  audience,  time,  and  place.  Thereby,  and 
thereby  alone,  can  we  secure  ourselves  against  the  temptation  to 
put  on  a  false  dignity  of  style.  Arnobius,-  a  converted  rhetor  of 
Sicca,  in  Africa,  and  the  teacher  of  Lactantius,  defends  the  Scrip- 
ture style  by  an  appeal  to  the  example  of  the  pagan  philosophers 
themselves :  "  Some  philosophers  properly  adopted  a  vulgar  man- 
ner of  style  when  they  might  have  spoken  with  greater  elegance 
and  richness,  lest,  forsooth,  they  might  impair  the  stern  gravity  of 
speech,  and  revel  rather  in  the  pretentious  show  of  the  sophists. 
For  indeed  it  evidences  a  worthless  heart  to  seek  enjoyment  in 
matters  of  importance ;  and  when  you  have  to  deal  with  those  who 
are  sick  and  diseased,  to  pour  into  their  ears  dulcet  sounds,  not  to 
apply  a  remedy  to  their  wounds."  On  the  other  side  lurks  the 
danger  of  attempting  to  awaken  emotion  by  the  deliberate  sacrifice 
of  dignity.  When  we  analyse  the  ground  of  some  ])rcachci"s'  pow- 
er, we  find  that  it  resolves  itself  into  fetches  and  surprises,  wherein 
the  speaker  runs  lightly  towards  an  abyss  of  profanity  or  an  inor- 
ganic deep  of  nonsense,  and  then,  turning  on  his  heel,  makes  his 
escape  to  less  dangerous  ways.     Or  else  they  occasionally  venture 

1  Wards  Oratory,  vol.  i.,  pp.  15G,  157.  2  Advcrsus  Gaiies,  L.  i.,  c.  lix. 


NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE.  511 

indirectly  to  su^rgest  sentimental  and  romantic  ideas.  They  touch 
upon  amorous  Uiemes,  as  Jeremy  Collier  says  the  chorus  m  the 
TracMnicB&o-  they  glide  along  like  swallows  upon  the  water; 
they  skim  the  surface  without  dipping  a  feather. 

Straio-htforwardness  of  style  is  promotive  of  its  dignity.  Haply 
it  was  an  analogous  directness  of  step  which  Agur  admired  m  a 
lion,  a  greyhound,  a  he-goat,  and  a  king  (Prov.  xxx.  29-31). 

Everything  considered,  we  are  inclined  to  adopt  the  opmion  ot 
Cicero,!  that  propriety  or  dignity  of  style  is  not  a  thing  that  can  be 
taught.  Any  how,  it  can  only  be  taught  in  a  negative  or  fault-hnd- 
ino-  way  And  yet  hereto  we  can  hardly  apply  the  maxnn  of  Chrys- 
ostomUhat  the  artist  should  be  allowed  to  be  the  proper  judge 
of  his  own  work.  We  should  rather  hearken  to  those  who  Irom 
time  to  time  venture  to  criticise  our  sermons,  although  they  are 
perhaps  either  ignorant  or  malicious,  or  even  both  combmed.  Lu- 
■  ther  says  that  a  good  preacher  should  be  willing  to  be  vexed  and 
criticised  by  everybody. 

SuBSECTiox  XII.— Nattjr\lxess  and  Individuality  of  Style. 

Another  essential  property  of  the  graceful  is  naturalness.  No  ac- 
tion that  is  either  improper  to  the  race  to  which  the  agent  belongs, 
or  unsuitable  to  him  as  an  individual,  can  be  imfeignedly  graceful. 
In  personal  traits  there  is  a  mysterious  charm  which  art  can  never 
counterfeit  with  any  tolerable  success,  for  it  is  the  work  of  the 
o-reat  Creator.  This  is  especially  observable  of  style.  Our  inter- 
est in  many  very  faulty  compositions  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
lano-uao-e  and  the  manner  of  expression  are  faithful  not  only  to  the 
thouglits,  but  above  all  to  the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  writers 
This  it  is  that  confers  a  lasting  value  on  many  volumes  of  published 
correspondence,  and  causes  us  to  set  great  store  by  certain  letters 
of  our  friends,  which  are  devoid  of  important  matter,  and  even 
blemished  with  levity  and  nonsense.  We  treasure  them  because 
they  are  the  characteristic  efleusions  of  a  well-known  mmd. 

Still  more  graceful  are  the  honest,  spontaneous,  and  fearless  ut- 
terances of  the  Christian  whose  individuality  is  composed  of  two 
natures,  the  old  and  the  new,  partly  at  war  and  partly  in  alliance 
And  hence  in  every  true  preacher  there  is  an  individuality  which 
is  as  much  beholden  to  grace  as  to  nature.  This  twofold  hie  ought 
to  pervade  the  sermon.     It  is  this  that  gives  features  and  complex- 

1  De  Orat.,  L.  i.,  c.  xxix.  2  De  Sacerdotio,  L.  v.,  c.  v. 


512  NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE. 

ion  to  a  discourse,  Avliilst  almost  endless  combinations  of  phases  in 
Christian  experience  and  in  humanity  contribute  not  a  little  to  the 
unfailing  variety  and  freshness  of  the  ordinance  of  preaching. 

Some  bold  critics  have  characterised  the  respectives  styles  of  the 
sacred  speakers  and  writers  with  more  confidence  than  reverence 
and  judgment.  JNIalachi  is,  they  say,  a  dialogistic  reasoner,  Ha- 
bakkuk  sublime,  Nahum  bold,  Micah  has  vehemence  and  tender- 
ness, Amos  energy  and  graphic  vividness,  Hosea  abruptness  and 
fiery  brevity,  Ezekiel  is  marked  by  imagery,  detail,  erudition,  re- 
l)0se,  and  unity  of  application ;  Jeremiah  is  at  once  plaintive  and 
practical ;  Isaiah  is  mainly  energetic  and  exultant,  but  also  the  ver- 
satile master  of  all  styles.  Now,  while  we  are  not  disposed  to  cen- 
sure any  fair  rhetorical  analysis  of  the  sacred  compositions,  we 
must  deprecate  the  practice  of  attempting  thence  to  determine  the 
idiosyncrasies,  peculiar  capacities,  and  respective  styles  of  the  in- 
spired writers  themselves.  In  the  case  of  such  a  prophet  as  Isaiah, 
or  Jeremiah,  or  Ezekiel,  Avho  has  left  us  many  of  his  inspired  ad- 
dresses, we  can  perhai)S  be  permitted  to  speak  of  their  rhetorical 
peculiarities  with  modest  assurance ;  so  may  we  likewise  speak  of 
the  dictional  qualities  of  St.  John  and  St.  Paul,  both  of  whom 
were  inspired  to  write  or  speak  on  different  subjects.  The  simplicity, 
directness,  the  particularity,  and  emphasis  of  St.  John  s  style,  as  ex- 
hibited in  his  gospel  and  epistles,  are  less  observable  in  treating  the 
prophetic  themes  which  occupy  the  book  of  Revelation,  where  the 
rhetorical  qualities  of  an  Ezekiel,  a  Daniel,  and  a  Zechariah  are 
blended  with  his  own.  As  to  St.  Paul,  we  gather  from  his  epistles, 
his  speeches,  and  his  discourse  entitled  "  The  Epistle  to  the  He- 
l)rews,"  that  his  style  adapted  itself  admirably  to  the  matter  in 
hand;  that  in  his  speeches  before  his  judges  his  style  was  suited 
not  only  to  his  special  aim  as  an  apostle,  but  to  judicial  oratory  in 
general ;  that  in  his  sermon  before  a  Hebraising  church  he  adopted  a 
style  of  alternate  argument  and  exhortation,  such  as  was  every  way 
proper  for  a  religious  discourse  of  that  nature  ;  that  in  his  epistles 
he  shows  that  open-heartedness,  variety,  negligence,  and  animation 
which  the  epistolary  style  demands,  and  at  the  same  time  those 
Christian  virtues  which  became  an  apostle  in  writing  on  the  most 
solemn  sul)jects  to  the  churches  he  had  planted.  Dr.  Ilug  said 
he  "  would  like  to  compare  St.  Paul  with  Isocrates,  whose  letters 
to  Dcmonicus,  and  some  of  those  to  Nicocles,  bear  a  certain  re- 
semblance to  St.  Paul's  in  design  and  purport."  In  thus  wishing 
to  bring  together  these  letters,  Dr.  Hug  showed  that  he  had  re- 
ceived a  more  thorough  rhetorical  training  than  most  theologians 
and  Biblical  scholars  have  received;  for  they  are  often  found  com- 


NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE.  513 

paring  St.  Paul's  epistles  with  classic  Greek  or  Latin  orations.  Dr. 
Friederich  Kuster  has  endeavoured  to  prove  that  St.  Paul  modeled 
the  language  of  his  epistles,  to  a  considerable  extent,  upon  the  ora- 
tions of  Demosthenes  1  He  acknowledges,  however,  that  the  apos- 
tle's "  acquaintance  with  Demosthenes  in  no  way  destroyed  his  own 
individuality,  nor  his  Rabbinical  erudition,  nor  the  impulse  of  his 
fiery  spirit,  which  hurries  him  forward  with  such  facility  into  par- 
entheses, anacolutha,  and  negligent  arrangement  of  words  that  are 
far  from  Demosthenean."  If  any  one  has  wi'itten  largely  on  various 
subjects,  we  may,  after  long  study  of  his  works,  recognise  his  style, 
"just  as,"  to  borrow  a  simile  from  Sextus,  "  a  man  knows  a  friend 
under  all  the  vai'ious  casts  and  turns  of  his  countenance."  Thus  he 
who  has  daily  for  many  years  read  the  sermons  of  the  celebrated 
French  preachers  will  easily  detect  the  logic  of  Bourdaloue,  the 
pathos  of  Massillon,  and  the  sublimity  of  Bossuet.  We  concur, 
however,  with  the  learned  Jeremiah  Jonesi  in  the  opinion  that  a 
person  may  be  easily  deceived  in  this  matter  ;  and  therefore  there 
il  need  of  the  greatest  care  and  long  and  intimate  acquaintance 
with  an  author  before  we  venture  to  judge  of  the  character  of  his 
style. 

But,  in  order  to  examine  this  subject  more  closely,  let  us  now 
inquire  what  is  naturalness  of  style  ?  We  answer,  those  qualities 
which  are  found  peculiar  to  an  individual  when  science  and  art  have 
developed  what  is  good  and  removed  what  is  bad  among  his  per- 
sonal characteristics.  It  is  only  by  knowledge  and  training  that 
our  natural  gifts  and  energies  can  be  discovered  and  distinguished 
from  such  Avrong  prejudices  and  bad  habits  as  are  the  results  of 
false  instruction  in  early  life. 

Naturalness  may  be,  and  often  is,  imderstood  to  be  that  quality 
which  is  peculiar  to  an  individual,  or  peculiar  to  that  which  is  writ- 
ten or  spoken  by  him  spontaneously  on  any  occasion,  at  any  pe- 
riod of  life.  In  this  sense  the  communications  of  the  most  igno- 
rant and  immature  minds  may  have  a  seeming  naturalness ;  but  in 
many  cases  of  this  kind  it  is  ultimately  found  that  what  first  ap- 
peared natural  was  sheer  affectation,  the  chequered  effect  of  indis- 
criminate imitation,  or  the  random  effusion  of  brazen  independence, 
or  else  the  modest  mistake  of  one  who  has  a  wrong  object  or  an 
unwise  aim.  This  kind  of  naturalness  may  sometimes  be  confound- 
ed with  what  the  French  term  naivete,  or  that  which  is  natural  to  a 
child,  or  the  involuntary  and  unconscious  simplicity  of  a  modest, 
right-minded,  but  ignorant  i:)erson.     As,  however,  naivete  is  an  at- 

1  Method  of  Settling  the  Canon,  vol.  i.,  p.  76  (Oxford  ed.,  1798). 


514  NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE. 

tribute  of  sincrle  expressions  or  actions,  it  cannot  in  strictness 
be  j)redicate(I  of  style,  which  is  always  supposed  to  be  the  instru- 
ment and  the  result  of  habit.  The  word  natural  is  many  a  time 
used  to  designate  what  is  familiar.  Thus  some  speakers  are  com- 
monly said  to  have  a  natural  manner,  who  on  all  themes  and  occa- 
sions use  a  diction  and  delivery  which  are  only  proper  for  certain 
subjects  of  conversation.  Some  declare  that  what  they  have  writ- 
ten or  spoken  is  natural  because  they  are  certain  that  it  is  not  the 
product  of  study  or  imitation,  or  any  thought  whatever.  They 
conclude  that  what  is  not  the  manifest  effect  of  art  must  be  the 
effect  of  nature ;  whereas  nature  is  not  the  inevitable  antitheton  of 
art.  All  the  vices  and  bad  habits  that  are  contracted  unawares,  and 
all  the  nameless  and  mysterious  blunders  to  mIucIi  the  unnatural  is 
ever  leading  men,  are  equally  remote  from  true  nature  and  true  art. 
Others,  again,  hold  that  the  natural  state  of  man  is  that  to  which 
he  has  a  tendency,  and  hence  that  intellectual  improvement  is  the 
natural  style  of  human  society,  since  history  demonstrates  that  all 
nations  have  made  some  progress  in  the  arts  and  sciences.  And  yet 
these  writers  do  not  undertake  to  maintain  that  there  is  in  human 
society  a  tendency  to  moral  progress.  But  we  should  recollect  that 
most  of  the  ancient  nations  at  length  visibly  stopped  and  Avent 
backward  in  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  that  if 
some  modern  nations  are  kept  from  a  similar  pause  in  civilisation, 
and  a  similar  return  to  barbarism,  it  is  wholly  owing  to  the  regen- 
erating power  of  the  religion  of  Christ.  This  proposition  is,  how- 
ever, best  demonstrated  by  the  undeniable  growth  of  the  juvenile 
intellect,  and  every  man's  progress  in  knowledge  from  early  infancy 
to  the  period  of  senile  decay.  This  is  observable  generally  even  in 
those  nations  which,  as  such,  and  on  an  average,  have  begun  to  re- 
tuni  to  savage  life.  This  principle  applied  to  rhetoric  would  war- 
rant the  inference  that,  in  so  far  as  one's  natural  style  is  traceable 
to  his  intellect,  it  is  likely  to  be  continually  growing  better,  but  that 
in  so  far  as  it  is  traceable  to  his  heart,  it  is  liable  to  be  constantly 
changing  for  the  worse.  At  any  rate,  the  natural  in  style  is  in  many 
actual  cases  found  undergoing  this  twofold  change,  while  the  de- 
cline of  spiritual  life  also  operates  indirectly  upon  style  by  retard- 
ing the  progress  of  the  intellect,  sometimes  to  such  a  degree  that 
the  intellect  is  not  merely  brought  to  a  stand-still,  but  likewise 
compelled  to  follow  the  retrogression  of  the  heart.  But  far  other- 
wise it  is  where  sanctifying  grace  makes  spiritual  j)rogress  a  kind  of 
second  nature.  There  the  heart  and  the  intellect  do  not  ]»ull  each 
other  in  opposite  directions,  but  propel  an<l  draw  each  other  for- 
ward to  the  twofold  profiting  of  rhetorical  naturalness. 


NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE.  515 

Now,  as  that  kind  of  naturalness  which  true  rhetoric  approves  is 
both  discovered  and  improved  by  long  study  and  practice,  it  may 
be  of  some  service  to  the  reader  in  determining  this  property  to  bear 
in  mind  the  following  criteria  : 

1.  That  which  is  not  expressed  with  sincerity  is  either  unnatural 
or  culpably  natural.  Indirection  and  double-dealing  do,  indeed, 
appear  to  be  natural  to  some  men,  as  an  extreme  reserve  is  a  per- 
sonal characteristic  of  others.  Men  of  either  of  these  two  classes 
may  well  ask  themselves  whether  they  ought  to  begin  to  preach 
before  they  have  by  the  help  of  the  Spirit  of  Truth  begun  to  gain  a 
mastery  over  their  respective  enemies.  "  The  personality  of  the 
preacher  should  be  a  sanctified  personality  which  shines  in  the  light 
of  Christ."! 

2.  As  a  want  of  sincerity  may  prompt  us  to  an  unnatural  expres- 
sion of  our  thoughts  and  feelings,  so  a  lack  of  physical  strength  or 
soundness  may,  if  long  continued,  have  an  influence  on  style.  "  Ob- 
servation," says  Professor  H.  N.  Day ,2  "  abundantly  shows  how  a 
naturally  imaginitive  and  highly  impassioned  style  may  be  grad- 
ually changed  into  one  that  is  dry  and  tame  by  the  continual  influ- 
ence of  the  conviction  that  M^e  are  unable  appropriately  to  deliver 
strongly  impassioned  discourse.  A  conscious  power  and  skill  to 
express  with  effect  the  most  highly-wrought  discourse  will,  on  the 
other  hand,  ever  be  stimulating  to  the  production  of  it."  A  good 
illustration  of  this  remark  is  Cotta,  as  he  is  described  by  Cicero  :^ 
"  He  had  a  ready  invention,  and  spoke  correctly  and  freely ;  and  as 
he  very  prudently  avoided  every  forcible  exertion  of  his  voice,  on 
accoimt  of  the  weakness  of  his  lungs,  so  his  language  was  equally 
adapted  to  the  delicacy  of  his  constitution.  There  was  nothing  in 
his  style  but  what  was  neat,  compact,  and  healthy;  and  (what  may 
justly  be  considered  as  his  greatest  excellence),  though  he  was 
scarcely  able  and  therefore  never  attempted  to  force  the  passions 
of  the  judges  by  a  strong  and  spirited  delivery,  yet  he  managed 
them  so  artfully  that  the  gentle  emotions  he  raised  in  them  answered 
the  same  purpose  and  produced  the  same  effect  as  the  violent  ones 
•which  were  excited  by  Sulpicius."  And  the  contrary  is  equally 
true,  that  an  unsuitable  style  often  produces  an  unfavorable  effect 
on  the  delivery  and  the  vocal  organs  of  the  preacher.  Thus  the 
man  of  ardour  and  sensibility,  who  habitually  writes  his  sermons  in 
a  style  proper  for  an  essay  or  dissertation,  is  liable  to  impair  his 
elocution  and  even  his  general  health. 


1  Palmer,  in  Homiletik,  p.  689. 

2  Elements  of  the  Art  of  Rhetoric,  2d  Division,  Pt.  ii.,  c.  iv.        3  Brutus,  c.  Iv. 


51G  NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE. 

3.  Beware  of  a  favourite  professor's  manner  of  thinking,  writing, 
and  utterance.  Richard  Rothe,  of  Heidelberg,  was  in  the  habit  of 
saying  to  graduating  students,  "  Do  your  best  to  shake  me  olf  from 
you." 

4.  Preachers  not  a  few  are  so  anxious  to  preserve  their  oflBcial 
character  and  standing  that  they  lose  all  naturalness,  and  acquire 
one  or  more  of  tlie  various  kinds  of  atFectation.  This  may  partly 
account  for  the  historical  fact  that  comparatively  few  ecclesiastics 
of  high  rank  have  ever  been  distinguished  as  popular  preachers,  or 
if  they  were  popular  in  the  early  part  of  their  mmistry  they  ceased 
to  be  so  in  no  long  time  after  they  were  advanced,  or  rather  de- 
graded, to  some  new  and  coveted  rank  or  title.  The  natural  in 
style  and  delivery  is  not  unfriendly  to  the  preservation  of  official 
propriety,  but  it  is  ever  in  danger  of  being  destroyed  by  the  as- 
sumption of  ecclesiastical  dignity  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other 
by  too  low  an  esteem  for  the  official  service  of  God. 

5.  What  is  natural  to  men  in  preaching  on  certain  subjects  or  oc- 
casions would  be  unnatural  to  them  if  preaching  on  other  subjects 
or  occasions.  And  yet  each  preacher,  when  writing  or  speaking 
spontaneously,  will  betray  some  traits  that  are  marked  if  not  unique. 
One  is  distinguished  for  a  particular  habit  of  thought,  or  feeling,  or 
method  in  treating  all  subjects ;  another  for  certain  modes  of  ex- 
pression on  all  oceasionr. ;  some  again  have  one  almost  uniform  way 
of  constructing  their  sentences ;  others  draw  their  figures  from 
their  own  favourite  sources,  or  employ  certain  kinds  of  figures  al- 
most exclusively,  or  show  an  idiosyncrasy  in  the  wording  or  appli- 
cation thereof  Some,  alas !  are  ever  inclined  to  the  platitudinous, 
and  as  they  shuffle  along  they  make  good  the  maxim,  Via  trita, 
via  tuta. 

6.  A  real  and  trusty  naturalness  being  of  slow  growth  and  late 
maturity  in  most  public  speakers,  that  which  is  the  natural  style 
and  delivery  of  most  young  preachers  will  consequently  need  to  be 
checked,  or  spurred  forward,  or  otherwise  instructed.  At  this  pe- 
riod the  natural  will  demand  the  exercise  of  vigilance  and  self-de- 
nial. Always  and  chiefly  ought  they  to  guard  against  all  the  ap- 
])roaches  of  egotism  and  dogmatic  positiveness.  But  the  occasional 
use  of  the  pronoun  I  is  not  necessarily  egotistic.  It  may  be  the 
expression  of  the  deepest  humility.i  A  few  young  preachers,  like 
Spencer  and  Summerfield,  have  exhibited  peculiar  traits  which, 
along  with  their  fervent  piety,  constituted  the  principal  attraction 
and  charm  of  their  sermons.     The  preaching  of  Jeremiah,  Luther, 


1  Tholuck's  Sermons,  Biblical  Cabinet,  Edinburgh,  vol.  xxviii.,  pp.  93,  94. 


NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE.  517 

Latimer,  and  Whitefield  everywhere  betrays  the  individual  man 
without  eclipsing  in  the  least  their  themes.  Their  sermons  will  al- 
ways have  a  special  value  for  their  refreshing  naturahiess.  Their 
later  sermons  especially  possess  that  fascination  which  a  great, 
good,  and  deeply  experienced  soul  ever  has  when  it  pours  out  all 
its  thoughts  freely  and  with  unaftected  simphcity.  This  it  is  that, 
more  than  anything  else  perhaps,  characterises  that  indescribable 
quality  which  we  term  sweetness  of  style.  "  When  the  children 
say  '  the  blackberries  are  ripe,'  I  know,"  writes  Mr.  Donald  G. 
Mitchell,  "  that  they  are  black  only,  and  I  can  wait.  When  the 
children  report,  '  the  birds  are  eating  the  berries,'  I  know  I  can  still 
wait.  But  when  they  say,  '  the  bees  are  eating  the  berries,'  I  know 
that  they  are  at  full  ripeness."  And  yet,  remarkably  enough,  this 
perfect  sweetness  of  style  is  not  often  very  popular.  Most  of  the 
children  of  the  kingdom  prefer  that  red  and  green  acidity  which 
sets  their  teeth  on  edge. 

And  hence  maturity  in  knowledge  and  in  sanctification  will  de- 
velop a  right  individuality.  In  preaching  both  piety  and  na- 
ture should  speak,  but  the  former  should  speak  first  and  oftenest. 
But  still  he  who  studies  to  be  natural  more  than  he  studies  to  be 
pious  may  be  very  popular  in  a  world  where  certain  decorous  vices 
are  of  all  things  the  most  popular.  The  rhetoric  which  Aspasia 
taught  Pericles  may  have  been  far  more  fascinating  to  the  degener- 
ate Athenians  than  that  which  was  taught  by  the  more  honest 
Anaxagoras. 

7.  Not  only  in  self-examination  but  in  giving  our  opinions  of 
other  men,  we  should  remember  that  the  Creator  has  made  us  dif- 
fer, and  that  no  endeavours  of  ours  after  "  a  symmetric  develop- 
ment of  the  faculties  "^  can  destroy  this  beautiful  and  needful  diver- 
sity. "  '  Our  beloved  brother  Paul  writes,'  says  St.  Peter,  '  accord- 
ing to  the  wisdom  given  unto  him.'  But  there  are  Peters  in  our 
days  who  would  say,  '  Paul  is  too  learned.  Awaj  with  these  things 
w^hich  are  hard  to  be  understood.  We  should  be  more  simple.  I 
dislike  all  this  reasoning.'  And  there  are  Pauls  who  would  say, 
'  Peter  is  rash  and  unguarded.  He  should  put  a  curb  on  his  im- 
petuosity.' And  there  are  Johns  who  would  say,  '  They  should 
both  discharge  their  office  in  my  soft  and  winning  manner.  No 
good  will  come  of  this  fire  and  noise.'  "^  We  frequently  hear  criti- 
cisms on  innate  peculiarities  of  style  that  are  equally  superficial  and 
one-sided.     "  Some  men,"  says  Mr.  Arthur,^  "  always  treat  richness 


1  Palmers  Homiletik,  p.  711.  2  Cecil's  Remains. 

Tongue  of  Fire  ;  cf.  Palmer's  Homiletik,  p.  700. 


518  NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE. 

of  style  as  if  it  were  the  result  of  efibrt,  just  as  if  deal,  whieli  al- 
ways owes  its  colour  to  art,  were  to  say  of  mahogany,  or  maple,  or 
rosewood,  *  What  labour  it  must  have  been  to  produce  all  these 
shadings  ! '  No  labour  whatever  ;  it  is  all  in  the  grain."  But  let  no 
indolent  and  self-conceited  reader  take  occasion  from  this  principle 
to  excuse  every  fault  by  saying,  "  It  is  my  peculiarity."  And  we 
have  to  consider,  that  not  only  are  we  unlike  one  another,  but 
that  the  preacher  is  in  some  sense  a  witness  whose  testimony  may 
be  weakened  by  the  artificial  and  theatrical  way  in  which  he  had 
been  taught  to  give  the  same.  We  do  well,  therefore,  to  respect 
the  scruples  of  those  students  who  are  unwilling  to  deliver  sermons 
and  prayers  as  exercises  in  elocution.  Such  were  Stier  and  Rothe, 
who  in  their  address  to  the  authorities  in  Wittenberg  Seminary  held 
the  following  language  :  ■'  We  are  convinced  that  the  work  of  preach- 
ing is  indissolubly  bound  up  with  the  person  of  him  Avho  performs 
it  and  with  his  own  living  conviction  ;  so  that,  every  testimony  and 
every  discourse  of  the  preacher  should  be  no  other  than  the  imme- 
diate and  free  utterance  of  the  Spirit  living  in  him."  In  his  JCeri/k- 
tiJi,^  Stier  stigmatises  such  rehearsals  as  profane,  and  maintains  that 
"  we  must  actually  preach  if  we  would  learn  to  preach ;  that  we 
cannot  learn  to  preach  effectively  by  rehearsing  any  more  than  we 
can  learn  to  swim  on  dry  groimd,  or  to  walk  by  sitting  in  a  chair ; 
and  that  he  who  has  been  wont  to  preach  to  benches  as  if  they 
were  men  will  afterwards  preach  to  meij  as  if  they  were  benches." 
These  difficulties  he  may  in  ])art  overcome,  either  by  composing 
sermons  that  are  especially  applicable  to  students,  or,  what  is  bet- 
ter, by  reciting  secular  compositions  under  the  superintendence  of 
a  competent  professor,  but  by  all  means  apart  from  other  students, 
lest  he  unwittingly  adojit  the  faults  of  one  or  more  of  them,  or  be 
discouraged  by  their  unjust  and  abusive  criticisms. 

But  may  we  not  imitate  ?  Certainly  Ave  may,  and  in  some  meas- 
ure must.  What,  then,  are  we  to  imitate  ?  In  general,  we  answer, 
the  peculiar  excellences  of  the  best  orators.  Thus  Cicero  imitates 
the  energy  of  Demosthenes,  the  copiousness  of  Plato,  and  the  sweet- 
ness of  Isocrates.-  But  let  us  say  here,  once  for  all,  that  such  imi- 
tation is  perilous  before  we  have  thoroughly  mastered  the  princi- 
})les  of  rhetoric.  This  was  the  error  of  Ilermogenes,  who,  in  his 
wanderings  among  the  beauties  of  his  author,  frequently  lost  sight 
of  the  great  landmarks  of  oratory.  This  was  also  the  error  of  the 
critic  Aristophanes,  and  still  more  of  his  famous  disciple,  Aristar- 

1  Pp.  29-31 ;  cf.  Life  and  Labours  of  Stier,  by  his  two  sons. 

2  Inst.  Orat.,  L.  x.,  c.  i.,  sec.  108. 


NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE.  519 

chus,  who  confined  their  admiration  to  the  ten  Attic  orators  whose 
lives'  Plutarchi  briefly  relates.  The  speeches  of  these  they  minutely 
analysed,  commented  on,  and  held  up  as  models  for  imitation.  As 
these  unenlightened  eftbrts  to  emulate  the  best  qualities  of  several 
great  orators  were  justly  thought  to  cramp  the  genius  and  mar  in- 
dividuality, some  went  to  the  other  extreme,  and  confined  them- 
selves to  only  one  pattern,  the  best  of  its  kind.  Among  these  was 
Cardinal  Bembo.^  He  made  Cicero  his  exclusive  pattern,  and  rec- 
ommended his  friends  to  confine  themselves  to  the  imitation  of  but 
one  master.  But  Dr.  Wards  thinks  that  this  course  is  apt  to  lead 
to  that  stiftness  of  style  which  he  detects  in  Bembo  and  other  Cice- 
ronians.  Still,  however,  Bembo's  way  was  none  of  the  worst  for 
reaching  a  pure  Latinity.  A  third  method  is  recommended  by 
Quintilian*  and  Vossius.^  They  would  have  us  first  make  choice 
of  one  only  for  a  considerable  time,  the  best  of  his  kind,  and  then 
join  with  him  one  or  more  who  most  nearly  approach  him  in  ex- 
cellence, and  then  others  perhaps ;  but  we  should  still  continue  to 
be  most  conversant  with  the  first  and  best.  Conformably  to  this  is 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds'  counsel  to  young  artists.^ 

In  following,  however,  the  advice  of  Quintillan  and  Vossius, 
which  is,  all  things  considered,  the  best,  we  must  take  some  pains 
to  select  such  models  as  are  within  the  reach  of  our  capacity ;  oth- 
erwise we  may  squander  our  time  in  quest  of  things  unattainable. 
Cicero  says  that  Nature  herself  led  Sulpicius  irresistibly  into  a  suc- 
cessful imitation  of  the  magnificent  and  noble  style  of  Crassus.? 
And  yet  it  is  to  be  feared  that  many  proceed  very  thoughtlessly  in 
choosing  their  patterns,  or  rather,  perhaps,  they  bestow  much 
thought  on  their  models,  but  none  on  themselves  with  a  view  of 
ascertaining,  first,  what  is  natural  to  them ;  next,  how  far,  if  at  all, 
the  defects  of  their  nature  may  be  most  efiectually  remedied ;  and 
finally,  to  what  degree  or  in  what  points  their  natural  excellences 
are  susceptible  of  improvement.  Neither  educators  nor  pupils 
haive  as  yet  valued  highly  enough  this  remark  of  Quintilian :»  "  Such 
a  teacher,  however  he  may  wish  everything  that  is  right  to  be  foimd 
in  the  highest  excellence  in  his  pupils,  will  not  labour  to  any  pur- 
pose in  that  to  which  he  shall  see  that  nature  is  opposed." 

More  especially  should  we  beware  of  imitating  too  sedulously 
such  distinctive  qualities  of  great  orators  as  force  themselves  upon 


1  In  a  separate  book,  usually  bound  up  with  liis  Morals. 

2  Epist.  ad  J.  F.  Pico.  3  Oratorj^  vol.  ii.,  p.  420. 

4  m  supra,  L.  x.,  c.  ii.,  sees.  24-26.  5  De  Imitate.,  c.  xi.,  sees.  5,  6. 

6  Discourse  vi.  7  De  0-n^    L.  ii.,  c.  xxi.  8  B.  x  ,  c.  ii.,  sec.  21. 

34 


520  NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE. 

general  attention.  The  manner  and  peculiar  marks  hy  which  fjrcat 
artists  are  distinguished,  Sir  Joshua  lleynolds  holds  to  be  gener- 
ally, if  not  always,  real  defects.^  The  same  is  true  in  general  of  great 
orators;  for  being  themselves  aware  of  their  own  distinguishing 
manner,  they  are  apt  to  give  it  an  undue  j)rominence,  as  was  the 
case  of  Cicero,  who,  knowing  that  he  was  particularly  happy  in  his 
cadences,  repeated  too  often  his  darling  esse  videatur.  And  in 
cases  where  an  orator's  peculiarities  are  not  defects  in  him,  they 
are  liable  to  become  defects  in  most  of  those  who  copy  those  dis- 
tinguishing qualities,  partly  because  they  do  not  consider  the  many 
points  of  difference  between  them  and  their  pattern,  and  partly  be- 
cause they  copy  such  peculiarities  in  justification  of  their  own  de- 
praved taste  and  tendency.  "  The  dull  and  languid,"  says  (iuin- 
tilian,2  "  if  they  but  express  themselves  in  a  long  period,  declare 
that  Cicero  would  have  spoken  in  like  manner."  Here  again  Rey- 
nolds'-^ advice  to  artists  is  applicable  to  speakers :  "  Instead  of  copy- 
ing the  touches  of  the  great  masters,  copy  only  their  conceptions ; 
instead  of  treading  in  their  footsteps,  endeavour  only  to  keep  the 
same  road.  Labour  to  invent  on  their  general  principles  and  way 
of  thinking.  Possess  yourself  with  their  spirit.  Consider  with 
yourself:  '  How  would  a  Michael  Angelo  or  a  liaftaelle  have  treated 
this  subject  ? ' "  Very  instructive  is  the  observation  of  Dr.  Young, 
which  we  have  quoted  in  our  general  Introduction :  "  He  that  imi- 
tates the  Iliad  is  not  imitating  Homer;  "  and  there  is  much  in  what 
Pope  says  of  ancient  models :  *'  To  copy  nature  is  to  copy  them." 
It  is  notwithstanding  needful  to  do  something  more  than  study  and 
copy  nature,  as  many  suppose  Homer  to  have  done  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  previous  models.  For  it  is  probable,  as  Yossius'  holds,  that 
Homer  availed  himself  of  the  productions  of  earlier  writers ;  and 
Aristotle^  teaches,  what  is  obvious  to  all,  that  the  father  of  poetry 
is  much  indebted  to  his  invention,  and  has  represented  better  men 
than  any  that  have  ever  lived.  To  imitate  tliis  great  epic  bar<l, 
therefore,  is  to  study  nature,  and  to  study  those  who  have  written 
on  the  same  subject  before  us,  and  to  work  up  in  the  imagination 
and  the  heart  the  materials  thence  collected.  l»ut  still  it  is  not  al- 
ways easy  to  determine  how  flir  we  may  borrow  without  acknowl- 
edgment. Of  Cowley  it  is  said  that  he  wore  the  garb  but  not  the 
clothes  of  the  ancients.  Our  originality  must  be  relative.  In  what 
manner  and  to  what  extent  we  may  even  imitate  others  is  a  diffi- 
cult question  to  answer.     Segneri  publicly  confesses  in  one  of  his 

1  Discourse  vi.  3  L.  x.,  c.  ii.,  sec.  17.  3  Discourse  ii. 

4  Di«  Poet  Or.TC,  L.  i.  *  Poclic,  c.  ii. 


NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE.  521 

sermons  (Quaresimale,  ser.  xxiv.)  that  ho  owes  more  to  Chrysostom 
than  to  any  other  father. 

Some  things  there  are  which  have  a  tendency  to  impair  individu- 
ality and  a  manly  originality.  Among  these  is  a  false  liberalism 
^  which  leads  one  easily  to  sm-render  articles  of  faith  and  industri- 
ously to  enucleate  heresies  in  order  to  find  in  their  kernels  great 
redeeming  truths ;  and  so  he  ultimately  becomes  a  very  unchari- 
table advocate  of  charity,  and  while  playing  the  part  of  the  Good 
Samaritan,  eclii^ses  his  hero  not  only  by  befriending  the  body  of  the 
dead-alive  Jew,  but  also  by  furnishing  a  donkey  and  an  inn  for  his  re- 
ligion. Such  a  man  was  the  late  Rev.  F.  W.  Robertson,  of  Brighton- 
Another  way  is  habitually  to  put  one's  self  in  the  place  of  errorists, 
and  to  stay  tJiere,  in  order  to  judge  of  their  creeds  and  doings.  Of 
this  kind  is  Prof  John  Ruskin,^  who  now  confesses  that  he  scarcely 
knows  how  far  he  thinks  with  other  people's  minds  and  how  far  he 
feels  with  their  hearts.  Akin  to  these  habits  is  that  of  dealing  in 
paradoxes  and  that  of  defending  self-contradictions. 

For  various  reasons  certain  preachers  very  seldom  quote  Scrip- 
ture. Niemeyer  would  have  Bible  expressions  banished  from  ser- 
mons, on  the  ground  that  they  appear  Hebraistic ;  others  never 
quote  Holy  Writ,  on  the  plea  that  it  is  not  natural  for  them  to  do 
so ;  others,  again,  who  confess  that  it  is  natural  for  them  to  quote  it, 
defend  themselves  against  the  temptation,  because,  it  seems,  they  feel 
that  such  quotations  are  in  bad  taste.  But  the  question  of  taste  is 
decided  by  the  amount  and  manner  of  quoting.  "  The  charm,"  says 
Gilfillan,2  "  Avhich  Scripture  quotation  adds  to  writing  let  those  tell 
who  have  read  Milton,  Bunyan,  Burke,  Foster,  Southey,  Croly,  Car- 
lyle,  Macaulay,  yea,  and  even  Byron,  all  of  whom  have  sown 
their  pages  with  this  '  orient  peai'l,'  and  brought  thus  an  impulse 
from  divine  inspiration  to  add  to  the  effect  of  their  own." 

Demosthenes,  as  we  are  told,^  imitated  the  speeches  he  found  in 
Thucydides'  history,  and  copied  them  with  his  hand  eight  times  ; 
Cicero  emulated  the  great  Attic  orator  in  something  more  than  his 
energy ;  for  Dr.  Ward^  has  proved  that  in  five  particulars,  at  least, 
he  has  followed  the  pattern  he  so  justly  admired.  In  the  kindred 
arts  of  painting  and  sculpture  imitation  has  been  carried  quite  as 
far.     Reynoldss  thinks  that  the  more  extensive  the  artist's  acquain- 

1  Christian  Art  and  Symbolism,  by  Rev.  R.  S.  Tyrwhitt,  Preface,  \).  x.  (Lon- 
don, 1872).  2  Bards  of  the  Bible,  p.  51. 

3  Denis  of  Hal.  and  Plutarch.  "l  Orat.  Lect.,  L.  iv. 

5  Second  and  sixth  Discourses;  cf.  Segneri,  Arte  di  Predicar.,  Trat.  vi., 
cap.  ii. ;  Preaching  and  Public  Speaking  by  A.  Wykehamist,  chap,  i.,  p.  14. 


522  NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE. 

tance  is  \vith  the  works  of  those  who  have  excelled,  the  more  ex- 
tensive will  be  his  i)0\vers  of  invention,  and  the  more  original 
will  be  his  conceptions.  He  goes  further,  and  maintains  that  even 
genius,  at  least  what  is  generally  so  called,  is  the  child  of  imitation, 
and  that  it  was  because  Kaftaelle  em})loyed  others  to  draw  for 
him  what  was  in 'Greece  and  distant  ])laces,  and  because  he  took  so 
many  models  that  he  became  himself  a  model  for  all  succeeding 
painters;  always  imitating  and  always  original. 

It  is  safe,  however,  for  the  preacher  to  imitate  less  closely  than 
Cicero  and  Kaflaelle  Avere  warranted  in  doing.  So  often  has  pla- 
giarism been  attributed  to  preachers  (sometimes  without  any  better 
grounds  than  the  choice  of  the  same  subjects  or  texts),  that  it  were 
wise  to  avoid  not  less  the  fault  itself  than  every  appearance  there- 
of. True  genius  extracts  knowledge  from  everything,  but  eats,  di- 
gests, and  assimilates  it  all  into  flesh  and  blood  and  bone.  In  such 
wise  it  makes  everything  its  own.  After  all,  both  the  mind  tliat  is 
consciously  poor  and  the  mind  that  is  proud  of  its  wealth  have 
equal  need  to  adopt  the  j^rayer  of  Agur  (Prov.  xxx.  8,  9). 

In  respect  of  the  true  Christian  preacher,  it  shoidd  be  considered 
that  he  can  imitate  the  inspired  style  with  more  safety  than  the 
secular  orator  can,  because  his  new  nature  is  constantly  bringing 
him  into  more  and  more  harmony  therewith.  In  some  sense  may 
it  be  said  that  in  him  the  spiritual  is  coming  to  be  the  natural,  so 
that  at  length  nothing  will  be  more  natural  to  him  than  holy 
thoughts  seeking  utterance  in  their  own  holy  diction. 

Altogether,  theivfore,  whatever  is  innocently  peculiar  and  char- 
acteristic in  him  will  not  and  should  not  be  totally  transfomied. 
As  we  are  Christians  before  we  are  preachers,  so  we  may  add 
(though  the  argument  from  priority  has  sometimes  been  abused)  we 
are  men  before  we  are  Christians.^  The  human,  therefore,  is  to  the 
two  others  what  the  earth  is  to  the  sea  and  the  atmosphere — it  is 
their  foundation ;  and  though  the  profiles  of  its  mountains  and  the 
indentations  of  its  coasts  show  an  innumerable  variety  of  shapes, 
yet  they  are  all  conij)aratively  permanent.  And  what  if  the  earth 
cannot  reflect  the  sim  in  such  diverse  and  changeful  hues  as  the  sky 
and  the  ocean  can  ?  Its  marked  features  join  to  serve  as  an  admi- 
rable foil  of  them  both.  Only  let  us  guard  against  that  j)erversion 
of  this  maxim  which  consists  in  being  content  with  the  foundation 
and  the  foil.  No  merely  human  qualities,  however  winning,  can 
compensate  for  the  want  of  high  sj)iritual  habits  of  feeling.  The 
old  pagan  rhetoricians  caught  a  glimpse  of  this  when  they  recom- 


1  Slier's  Keryktik,  p.  170. 


NATURALNESS  AND  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  STYLE.  523 

mended  ^Oa;  and  auctoritas}  or  the  expression  of  one's  own  charac- 
ter for  honesty  and  good-will.     If  we  are  to  move  the  hearts  and 
consciences  of  our  audience,  we  must  convey  to  them  the  impres- 
sion of  something  better  than  that  which  can  be  made  by  strong 
natural  qualities.     Before  they  will  believe  in  us,  they  must  be  con- 
vmced  that  we  are  sincere,  benevolent,  and  prayerful  Christians; 
they  much  desire  to  behold  individuality;  still  more  do  they  de- 
sire to  behold  individuality  transfigured.     TUey  would  gladly  see 
all  'their  brethren  of  all  nations  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem  ridmg 
"upon  horses  and  in  chariots,  and  in  litters  and  upon  mules,  and 
upon  swift  beasts,"  provided  only  they  see  likewise  the  festal  new- 
moon  shedding  its  silver  lustre  upon  the  scene.     They  delight  to 
contemplate  the  twelve  different  kinds  of  precious  stones  which 
garnish  the  foundations  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  the  jasper,  the  sap- 
phire, and  all  the  rest,  on  the  one  condition  that  they  shall  have  the 
assurlnce  that  the  "Lamb  is  the  light  thereof."     And  so  in  their 
minister  would  they  behold  not  only  the  man  but  also  the  palpable 
evidence,  the  living  demonstration  that  he  is  of  God,  an  ambassa- 
dor for  Christ,  fully  accredited  and  declaring  faithfully  the  means 
of  reconciliation  to  God,  and  the  conditions  of  the  divine  ultima- 
tum. 


2  Arist.,  Rhet.,  L.  i.,  2,  3-8;  Cicero,  De  Orat.,  ii.,  27,  115;  Quint.,  ii 


8,  12. 


BOOK  IV. 

ELOCUTIOX. 

CHAPTER   I. 

THE  RELATIVE  LMI'OllTANCE  OF  A  GOOD  DEEIVERV. 

Elocutiox  is  theoretically  a  part  of  rlietoric,  but  practically  it 
is  now  regarded  by  many  as  an  indcpend-ent  art  or  science,  demand- 
ing its  own  i^rofessors,  text-books,  and  classes.  This  is  all  very 
well.  But  in  order  to  an  enlightened  progress,  elocution  must  ever 
remember  that  it  is  still  a  part  of  rhetoric,  and  that  although  the 
two  may  be  prudently  sejjarated,  yet  they  are  never  immiscible. 
Words  are  deep-rooting,  and  they  who  occupy  themselves  chietly 
with  whatever  appears  above  ground,  with  the  leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruits  of  vocables,  run  the  hazard  of  forgetting  the  seeds  whence 
they  sprang,  and  what  kind  of  soil  and  culture  is  the  liiost  friendly 
to  their  growth  and  fecundity.  "But,"  it  may  be  said,  "is  not  the 
mere  .rhetor  in  danger  of  neglecting  delivery  ? "  Be  it  so ;  we 
are  not  careful  to  answer  in  this  matter ;  all  that  we  now  ask  is 
that  elocution  do  not  come  to  imagine  that  rhetoric  is  a  part  of 
itself,  and  so  the  handmaid  be  heir  to  the  mistress. 

The  few  materials  which  the  Scriptures  have  provided  for  the 
discussion  of  this  branch  of  our  subject  should,  if  we  mistake  not, 
admonish  both  }»reachers  and  hearers  that  it  is  jjossible  to  devote 
too  much  attention  to  the  voice  and  gestures  and  the  other  com- 
paratively small  matters  that  pertain  to  pulpit  delivery.  And  an 
impartial  examination  of  modern  church  life  must  convince  any  one 
that  whenever  and  wherever  pulpit  elocution,  or  church  music,  or 
Bfteclacular  worship  has  come  to  be  demanded  as  an  article  of  great 
value,  and  even  of  indispensable  necessity,  as  a  theme  for  aestheti- 
cal  criticism,  and  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  sabbatic  enjoy- 

524 


THE  RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  A  GOOD  DELIVERY.      505 

ment,  then  and  there  must  it  be  considered  as  both  an  effect  and  a 
cause  of  deep  and  general  declension  in  Christian  devotion  and 
morals. 

Great  is  the  absurdity  of  much  of  the  current  talk  of  church- 
goers about  the  voice,  attitude,  and  gestures  of  preachers,  accom- 
panied as  it  most  always  is  with  total  silence  concerning  the  essential 
qualities  of  sermons.  Suppose  boys  in  our  schools  or  students  in 
our  universities  were  in  the  habit  of  conversing,  not  about  the  sub- 
jects or  the  lessons  and  lectures,  but  about  the  quality  or  force  of 
their  instructor's  voice,  or  the  way  he  managed  his  eyes  or  hands, 
what  could  we  reasonably  expect  from  the  culture  and  learning  of 
the  next  generation  ?  Nothing  better  than  a  self-sufficient  and  con- 
tented ignorance.  What,  then,  can  we  justly  anticipate,  but  the 
speedy  death  and  burial  of  all  Christian  piety  in  congregations 
which  turn  away  with  disrelish  from  the  truth  and  knowledge  of 
God  only  to  feed  the  senses  with  piilpit  theatricals  and  melodious 
vanities.  "  Suppose,"  says  Rowland  Hill,  "  you  were  hearing  a  will 
read  where  you  expected  a  legacy  to  be  left  to  you ;  would  you 
employ  the  time  of  its  reading  in  criticising  the  manner  in  winch 
the  lawyer  told  you  ?  You  would  not ;  you  would  give  all  ear  to  hear 
whether  any  legacy  had  been  left  you,  and  how  much.  That  is  the 
way  I  advise  you  to  hear  the  Gospel.''  • 

The  value  of  delivery  has  likewise  been  exaggerated  by  pro- 
fessors of  elocution.  They  love  to  quote  the  traditions  that  have 
been  brought  down  to  us  by  Plutarch  as  to  the  very  severe  disci- 
pline to  which  Demosthenes  subjected  himself,  in  order  to  remedy 
his  stammering  and  indistinctness.  But  they  forget,  that  after 
all  his  self-training,  Demosthenes  never  acquired  such  a  delivery 
as  was  approved  by  well-educated  men.  For,  we  are  told, 
that  while  it  was  very  pleasing  to  the  common  people,  yet  the 
more  cultivated,  like  iEsion  and  Demetrius,  the  Phalerian,  con- 
sidered it  mean,  humiliating,  and  unmanly.  It  is  very  doubtful 
whether  this  great  orator  ever  attempted  more  than  the  removal 
of  obstinate  defects  of  speech,  or  at  any  time  entertained  a  high 
esteem  for  elocution  as  it  was  in  his  day  taught.  "  But  did  not 
Demosthenes  once  say  most  emphatically,  that  action  is  the  first, 
second,  and  third  requisite  in  oratory  ?  "  Cicero  does  certainly 
(De  Oratore,  lib,  iii.,  cap.  Ivi.)  teach  us  as  much ;  but  we  are  in- 
clined to  think  this  great  rhetor  was  misled  by  accepting  a  doubt- 
ful renderino-  of  a  passage  in  Plutarch's  Lives  of  the  Ten  Orators  (ed. 
Reiskii,  vol.  ix.,  p.  360),  which  may  be  construed  as  follows :  "  But 
he  was  especially  urged  forward,  by  the  player,  Andronicus,  who 
told  him  that  his  orations  were  indeed  very  well,  but  that  he  was 


526         THE  RELATIVi:  IMPORTANCE  OF  A  GOOD  DELIVERY. 

still  somewhat  deficient  in  action ;  and  then  he  repeated  certain 
passages  he  liad  just  delivered  in  the  assembly.  And  Demosthenes 
believing  "what  was  told  him,  put  himself  under  the  instruction  of 
Androuicus.  Whereupon  he  asked  him  what  was  the  first  tiling  in 
oratory.  He  replied,  "  Action."  "What  is  the  second  ?  "  Action." 
What  is  the  third  ?  *'  Action."  Xow,  with  all  due  submission,  we 
cannot  help  thinking  that  this  false  but  high-sounding  reply  was 
made  by  the  actor  himself,  of  whom  it  was  characteristic,  not  by 
the  orator  Demosthenes,  who  could  never  have  been  provoked  to 
give  such  a  response  except  in  irony.  If  we  are  to  accept  as  genu- 
ine his  speech  against  Lacritus  (p.  037),  we  must  admit  that  he  en- 
tertained no  very  high  opinion  even  of  rhetoric  as  taught  by 
Isocrates,  and  more  than  once  has  he  expressed  his  contempt  of 
delivery  when  separated  from  intelligence  and  virtue.  Read  his 
repeated  sneers  concerning  J^schines'  fine  and  well-trained  voice, 
liead  those  sentences  of  his  in  which  not  only  delivery  but  style, 
and  even  eloquence  itself,  are  pronounced  valueless  in  comparison 
of  loyalty  to  the  commonwealth. ^  Had  it  been  generally  known 
that  he  ha<l  taken  such  extraordinary  pains  to  perfect  himself  in  the 
art,  and  had  he  declared  that  delivery  (not  mere  action  or  gesticu- 
lation) was  the  great  secret  of  success  in  oratory,  how  could  ho 
have  thus  ventured  to  hold  up  iEschines'  delivery  to  derision  and 
contempt.  One  day,  when  his  voice  failed  him  in  the  midst  of  his 
oration,  and  he  was  therefore  hissed  by  the  people,  he  said  to  them : 
"  Ye  ought,  indeed,  to  judge  of  players  by  their  voice,  but  of  ora- 
tors by  their  mind."  Nor  did  Cicero  himself  deem  the  labourious 
training  ])roj)er  for  the  actor  necessary  for  the  orator.- 

Object  not  that  these  examples  are  exceptional,  for  we  are  hapi)ily 
not  without  universal  authorities  on  the  subject  of  pulpit  elocution, 
although  it  must  be  conceded  that  they  are  almost  wholly  of  a  nega- 
tive description.  Many  are  the  exam])lcs,  precepts,  and  admonitions 
of  Scripture  about  the  aftections  of  the  preacher  and  the  matter  of  his 
sermons,  but  we  find  not  many  in  favour  of  a  cultivated  style,  and 
very  few  in  behalf  of  a  finished  delivery.  The  silence  of  the  sa- 
cred writers  on  so  many  ])arts  of  this  subject  may  be  variously  in- 
terpreted without  undervaluing  the  art  or  discouraging  the  practice 
of  elocution ;  but  it  is  very  comforting  to  those  who,  while  they 

I  De  Corona,  p  C8,  cd.  Reiskii ;  cf.  "  Plutarcli's  Lives  "  ami  his  Lives  of  the 
'■  Ten  Orators." 

'-  D.'  Oral.,  L.  !.,  c.  xvi.,  hx.;  cf.  .Vuctor  a<l  Ili^roiin.  (L.  i.,  o.  ix.),  who  cannot 
rcsanl  delivery  as  Ihe  flrst  requisite  of  the  orator,  nor  admit  that  it  has  extraor- 
<liii:u  y  power. 


THE  RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  A  GOOD  DELIVERY.        527 

deem  themselves  called  to  preach  the  Gospel,  are  painfully  con- 
scious of  a  delivery  incorrigibly  perverse.  "  We  wish,"  says  Dr. 
Burgon,!  "  that  men  who  attribute  their  want  of  success  to  their 
imperfect  elocution  would  be  content  to  bear  in  mind  that  in  this 
respect  Moses  and  St.  Paul  were  as  they  are."  The  history  of  the 
pulpit  is  not  wanting  in  instances  of  those  who,  like  the  mumbling 
Bishop  Sherlock,  and  the  stammering  Kichard  Sibbes,  and  the  bad- 
voiced  Claude,  in  spite  of  very  great  infirmities  and  irregularities 
of  speech,  have  preached  with  edification  and  distinguished  success. 
"VVe  know  very  well  what  answer  might  be  made  to  this;  but  we 
are  not  here,  be  it  remembered,  attempting  to  disparage  the  just 
importance  of  vocal  discipline,  or  of  such  a  delivery  as  seizes  and 
holds  the  attention.  And  yet  there  is  danger  of  assigning  the  art 
a  place  relatively  too  high ;  and  great  injury  may  result  either  from 
the  most  thorough  instruction  in  a  system  that  is  false,  or  else  from 
an  immethodical  or  excessive  or  defective  discipline  in  a  system 
that  is  true.2     And  the  same  holds  good  of  rhetoric. 

1  Pastoral  Office,  p.  173. 

2  Archbishop  Whately  and  others  have  been  wrongly  prejudiced  against  all 
systems  of  elocution  as  such.  They  have,  however,  not  been  slow  to  put  forth 
their  own  theories  and  empirical  observations  on  the  subject,  thus,  after  all,  vir- 
tually conceding  that  herein  much  instruction  is  still  reasonably  and  loudly  de- 
manded. 


528       ELOCUTION  IN  ITS  SUBJECTIVE  RELATIONS. 


CHAPTER.  II. 

ELOCUTION  IN  ITS  SUBJECTIVE  RELATIONS. 

A  GOOD  delivery,  like  a  good  invention  or  a  good  style,  has  its 
source  in  a  true  inspiration.  When  the  Divine  Spirit  speaks  through 
the  soul,  there  is  an  elocution  such  as  no  art  can  attain,  for  he  is  the 
originator  of  all  perfect  art  that  now  addresses  us ;  it  is  he  "who  is 
wont  to  defy  and  master  in  his  chosen  speakers  all  the  oppositions 
of  the  slow  and  stammering  tongue,  the  feeble  voice,  and  the  awk- 
Avard  and  unmeaning  gesture.  The  great  secular  orator  is  both 
born  and  made ;  but  the  great  sacred  orator  is  more  than  this — he 
is  born  again,  and  sanctified  and  assisted  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  It 
was  the  divine  ajflatiis  that  caused  the  malicious  to  call  Wesley  an 
actor,  and  made  Whitefield  the  envy  of  Garrick. 

The  Paraclete  vouchsafes  not  only  uniiiediate  aid,  moral,  intel- 
lectual, and  physical,  but  likewise  and  more  especially  mediate. 
That  spiritual  help  is  the  most  substantial  and  the  most  trustwor- 
thy Avhich  is  the  fruit  of  that  which  the  speaker  received  while  en- 
gaged in  solitary  invention  and  composition.  The  chief  difficulties 
in  delivery  are  created  by  a  neglect  of  preparation,  which  Robert 
Hall  declared  to  be  the  first,  second,  and  third  requisite  of  preach- 
ing. But  it  is  inspiration,  be  it  remembered,  that  precedes  and  de- 
termines this  intellectual  preparation,  or  else  the  latter  fails  to  im- 
j)art  to  the  matter  of  the  sermon  that  form,  life,  and  momentum 
which  will  secure  an  effective  elocution.  Help  from  the  Divine 
Prompter  is  needed,  and  should  always  be  sought  for  the  time  of 
the  utterance;  but  who  can  so  confidently  ask  spiritual  assistance 
in  bringing  forth  the  sermon  as  he  who  all  along  implored  that  as- 
sistance during  its  gestation  in  his  thoughtful  soul  ? 

Do  we  then  set  aside  elocution  as  an  art  of  no  service  to  the 
young  minister  ?  Certainly  not.  So  far  from  it,  we  have  been  en- 
deavouring to  show  that  the  proper  foundation  of  this  art,  as  ap- 
plied to  preaching,  is  to  be  laid  in  a  Scriptural  pneumatology.  This 
is  tlie  sum  of  what  we  have  already  taught  in  Chapter  HI.,  Book  I. 
We  may  here  go  farther,  and  finally  inler  that  all  who  teach  elocu- 
tion to  divinity  students  ought  to  be  men  of  pi<}ty ;  otherwise  they 


ELOCUTION  IN  ITS  SUBJECTIVE   RELATIONS.  509 

will  bo  very  liable  to  debase  and  secularise  that  which  they  were 
appointed  to  discover,  correct,  and  develoj).  This  they  will  be  in 
danger  of  doing  by  one  or  more  of  tliese  several  Avays : 

1.  By  encouraging  insincerity  of  sj)eech.  When  an  unregenerate 
man  adopts  the  language  of  the  true  preacher,  he  can  speak  from 
the  soul  no  farther  and  no  otherwise  than  an  actor  is  able  to  do. 
He  must  needs  play  the  part  of  a  dissembler,  and  is  therefore  a  de- 
claimer,  and  is  almost  certain  to  make  his  j^uj^ils  such.  Honesty  is 
the  first  moral  requisite  of  a  good  delivery. 

2.  By  imjDarting  to  the  students  that  lukewarmness  which  ])vo- 
ceeds  from  a  want  of  personal  interest  in  the  subject-matter  deliv- 
ered. How  can  any  man  express  himself  with  a  proper  earnest- 
ness on  religious  themes  when  they  are  not  home-felt  and  not  re- 
garded as  matters  of  supreme  concern  ?  Let  such  a  man  attempt 
to  read  one  of  the  sermons  of  Richard  Baxter,  or  of  George  White- 
field,  and  how  will  he  of  necessity  quench  all  its  words  of  fire. 
Nor  can  any  amount  of  study  merely  intellectual  of  such  a  sermon 
enable  him  to  deliver  it  with  the  fervendy  of  one  who  feels  that  the 
sentiments  are  to  him  of  vital  and  eternal  importance.  To  have 
no  deep  personal  interest  in  religion  is,  therefore,  a  capital  defect  in 
a  teacher  of  pulpit  delivery.  This  point  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
different  success  of  TertuUus  and  Paul  when  they  both  pleaded  be- 
fore the  Roman  governor.  "  Tertullus,"  says  Dr.  John  Smith,i 
"  must  have  been  eminent  in  his  profession,  otherwise  he  would  not 
have  been  chosen  by  the  high  priests  and  elders  as  their  pleader  on 
an  occasion  which  they  deemed  of  such  importance  that  they  them- 
selves took  a  long  journey  in  order  to  be  j^resent  at  the  trial.  Yet 
this  famous  orator,  with  all  his  eloquence,  made  no  impression  upon 
Felix,  whereas  St.  Paul  moved  him,  charmed  him,  and  made  him 
tremble.  Why  ?  The  one,  a  mere  hireling,  spoke  what  he  did  not 
feel,  and  substituted  an  artificial  instead  of  natural  eloquence.  The 
other  felt,  deeply  felt  all  he  said,  and  therefore  made  others  feel 
also.  He  spoke  the  words  of  truth,  the  earnest,  xmafliected  language 
of  the  heart,  and  therefore  he  prevailed."  Hence,  as  William  Ames^ 
observes,  "just  in  proportion  as  affectation  is  discovered  does 
power  and  efficacy  diminish." 

3.  By  teaching  his  pupils  to  deliver  spiritual  things  in  a  natural 
way,  instead  of  teaching  them  to  deliver  spiritual  things  in  a  spir- 
itual way.  Not  a  few  of  these  men  consider  the  conversational 
manner  as  the  true  standard  of  the  natural,  and  the  natural  as  the 

1  Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Office,  Lect.  xix. 

2  Medulla  Theologica,  L.  i..  chap,  xxxv.,  sec.  66. 


530  ELOCUTION  IN  ITS  SUBJECTIVE  RELATION* 

true  standard  of  the  oratorical.     Hear  them  read,  in  their  conver- 
sational way,  the  18th  chapter  of  St.  John's  Gospel.     Now  we  de- 
sire to  know  whether  this  is  the  natural  which  becomes  the  pulpit. 
Kature  does  notahly  teach  us  many  serviceahle  things  respecting 
modulation,  emphasis,  and  cadence  in  the  delivery  of  ideas  merely 
human  and  secular;    nay,  even  many  neces.sary  things  concerning 
the  right  utterance  of  a  sermon.     While  therefore  we  should  be 
unwilling  to  ignore  the  teachings  which  we  receive  from  the  grave 
and  pathetic  language  of  common  life,  still  it  must  be  remembered 
that  no  man's  delivery  of  sermons  is  to  stand  or  fall  by  the  decis- 
ions of  those  who  have  certain  scanty  and  arbitrary  notions  of ''the 
natural  manner,"  to  which,  as  they  insist,  everything  must  conform, 
or  else  be  totally  condemned.     Archbishop  Whately,  in  his  zeal  for 
a  "  natural  manner,"  condemned  all  instruction  in  elocution  as  un- 
friendly to  the  preservation  of  such  manner;    but  he  appears  to 
have  had  in  view  the  many  and  minute  rules  and  marks  of  Sheridan 
and  Walker  for  managing  emphasis  and  modulation.     As  against 
such  authors  his  inculcations  are  just;  but  in  relation  to  the  whole 
subject  they  set  forth  only  one  side  of  the  truth.     Whoever,  I  take 
it,  would  teach  the  natural  manner  of  sj^eaking  in  public,  must 
begin  with  the  maxim  that  the  tone  {cantus  dicendi)  of  the  pulpit, 
the  senate,  and  the  bar  ought  to  be  different  not  only  in  degree,  but 
also  in  kind,  from  the  tone  of  elegant  conversation.     Cicero  dis- 
criminates between  the  tones  proper  to  each.     The  Catuli  were 
praised  for  tcdkinr/  in  a  voice  neither  languid  nor  songful  (De  Offi., 
L.  i.,  c.  xxxvii.) ;  but  Cnreus  Lentulus  is  said  to  have  owed  his  suc- 
cess as  an  orator  i)artly  to  this  same  songful  voice  (Brutus,  c.  Ixvi.). 
Not  less  to  elocution  than  to  exegesis  do  these  words  of  the  apostle 
Paul  apply :  "  But  the  natural  man  receiveth  not  the  things  of  the 
Spirit  of  God,  for  they  arc  foolishness  unto  him ;    neither  can  he 
know  them,  because  they  are  si»iritually  di.scerned."     Only  think 
how  incapable  an  unregenerate  man  is  of  fathoming  the  experimental 
depths  of  the  Prophets  and  the  Psalms,  or  of  any  discourse  that 
has  legitimately  grown  out  of  them,  and  that  has  derived  from  them 
its  life  and  fruitage.     There  are  passages  in  these  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture Mhich  none  but  the  most  advanced  Christians  can  unfold  and 
apply  with  anything  like  the  requisite  kind  and  degree  of  spiritual 
feeling. 

4.  By  inability  to  teach  others  the  necessity  of  suiting  vocal  ex- 
pression in  each  sermon  to  the  dominant  and  pervading  feeling  in 
which  it  was  composed,  and  which  gives  it  a  jtractical  unity ;  or 
where  the  necessity  is  not  underrated,  by  failing  to  acquire  a  holy 
skill  in  adapting  the  delivery  to  such  feeling.     Exceedingly  various 


ELOCUTION  IN  ITS  SUBJECTIVE  RELATIONS.  531 

are  the  spiritual  moods— almost  as  various,  indeed,  as  are  the  sub- 
jects of  sermons.  A  certam  animated  monotone,  a  varied  unity 
of  sentiment  and  of  tone  runs  through  many  religious  discourses. 
It  corresponds  to  that  "  level  speaking"  which  actors  admire,  and 
for  which  the  elder  Kean  was  distinguished.  Not  to  pitch  too 
high,  and  not  too  low,  but  to  take  the  key-note  of  the  subject  is 
the  easy  mstinct  of  a  Christian  sensibility.  Here  devout  feeling  is 
the  best  schoolmaster,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  most  secular  elocii- 
tionists,  in  their  ignorance  of  its  nature,  habitually  ridicule  and  si- 
lence it.  In  their  just  war  with  cant,  sing-song,  and  other  forms 
of  religious  affectation,  they  too  frequently  invade  the  territory  of 
their  best  friends,  and  carry  death  and  desolation  into  sacred  fields 
and  holy  temples.  Emotions  of  a  religious  nature  may  find  ex- 
pression in  the  broken  sounds  of  animated  talk,  or  in  the  stormtul  un- 
dulations of  heated  debate ;  but  Christian  affections  are  too  deep 
and  too  steady  to  be  thus  tossed  about  for  any  long  time.  The 
emotions  are  many-voiced  waves,  and  everywhere  audible,  which 
rise  and  run  and  fall  upon  the  vast  and  mighty  but  slow-paced  tide 
of  the  affections,  whose  deep  imdertone  is  seldom  heard  except  by 
ears  that  the  Wonderful  has  healed.^ 

5.  Not  only  does  the  unregenerate  teacher  of  elocution  fail  to 
produce  the  effects  which  flow  from  gracious  affections  and  habits 
of  Christian  feeling,  but  also  those  which  proceed  from  a  holy  semi- 
inspiration— from  Ihat  afflatus  which  affords  immediate  and  special 
aid  for  each  occasion  of  speaking.  This  is  that  refreshing  breeze 
from  the  presence  of  the  Lord  which  braces  with  superhuman  en- 
ercvy  every  moral  and  mtellectual  faculty,  which  lifts  up  the  head 
with  humble  confidence,  and  imparts  to  the  voice,  the  look,  and  the 
gesture  a  peculiar  life,  dignity,  and  attractiveness.  How  imperfect 
are  the  greatest  miracles  of  elocutionary  art  without  this !  They 
are  what  the  temple  of  Solomon  was  before  the  Shekinah  had  as 
yet  descended  to  its  throne-room  between  the  cherubim.  They 
are  without  their  complete  dedication  and  their  central  and  crown- 
ing glory.  David  more  than  once  employs  a  word  which  has  been 
translated  variously,  tongue,  soul,  glory. '^  Whichever  may  be  the 
best  rendering  here,  certain  it  is  that  when  the  tongue  gives  faith- 
ful expression  to  the  inspired  soul  it  is  the  authentic  glory  of  the 
human  tabernacle. 


1  As  music  is  the  universal  language  of  the  affections  and  emotions,  the  stu- 
dent who  is  skilled  in  this  art  will  study  advantageously  Dr.  Comstock's  "  Vocal 
Gymnastics;'  and  Professor  G.  J.  AVebb's  treatise  on  "  Puritij  of  Tone;'  appended 
to  Mr.  Russell's  "Vocal  Cultured  2  Psa.  xvi.  9;  xxx.  12. 


532  ELOCUTION  IN  ITS  SUBJECTIVE  RELATIONS. 

But  wbile  we  can  hardly  urge  these  considerations  Avith  too  much 
insistence,  -we  must,  on  the  other  hand,  keep  clear  of  an  excessive 
inwardness  in  preaching,  wherehy  we  mean  a  habit  of  setting  up 
our  own  emotions  as  the  dictators  of  the  matter,  the  manner,  and 
occasions  of  our  discoursings.  Hcrnhutt^  and  others,  misinterpret- 
ing, as  Ave  think,  Rom.  xii.  6,  advise  us,  whenever  we  do  not  find 
ourselves  in  a  frame  for  persuading,  to  confine  ourselves  to  exposi- 
tion; and  Pregizer2  would  sometimes  say  to  his  congregation, '•  I 
am  not  jiroperly  prepared  ;  let  us  go  over  and  hear  the  minister  in 
the  next  village."'  "When  a  preacher  like  Thauler  finds  himself  un- 
regenerate,  he  may  be  justified  in  imposing  a  silence  both  sudden 
and  long  on  his  unhallowed  tongue ;  and  although,  as  Vinet  says, 
we  would  be  always  eloquent,  yet  honesty  and  re^l  efficacy  alike 
demand  that  we  should  never  force  our  spiritual  mood,  but  should 
sometimes  content  ourselves  Avith  being  cold  and  feeble.  We  are 
not,  bless  God,  commissioned  to  preach  out  of  ourselves  alone. 
Some  preach  ai'gumentative  sermons  in  times  of  sj^iritual  desertion, 
but  reasonings  Avithout  spirituality  are  as  dangerous  to  our  hearers 
as  exposition  Avithout  ajij^lication.  Is  there  then  no  help  for  lis  ? 
None  whatever,  unless  in  ansAver  to  prayer,  assistance  shall  quickly 
descend,  or  xmless  some  other  preacher,  more  blessed,  shall  fill  the 
A'oid  Avith  a  gracious  address. 

1  Viuefs  Pastoral  Theol.,  p.  I'Ji.  -  ralmei's  Ilomiletik,  p.  699. 


PROPHETIC  EXPRESSION  AS  MODIFIED  BY  FEELING.         533 


CHAPTEE   III. 

PROPHETIC  EXPRESSION  AS  MODIFIED  BY  FEELIIsG. 

As  to  the  utterance  of  the  Scripture  preachers,  especially  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets,  we  have  but  little  positive  knowledge.  The 
prophet  Isaiah  was  on  one  occasion  commanded  to  '  cry  aloud  .  . 
and  to  lift  up  his  voice  like  a  trumpet'  (Iviii.  1);  but  it  would  be 
imreasonable  to  think  that  the  tone  which  became  reproof  for  hy- 
pocrisy was  employed  in  all  the  prophet's  varied  ministrations. 
Ao-ain,  when  Jehovah  said  to  Ezekiel  (xxxiii.  32),  "Lo,  thou  art 
unlo  them  as  a  very  lovely  song  of  one  that  hath  a  pleasant  voice  and 
can  play  well  on  an  instrument ;  for  they  hear  thy  words,  but  they  do 
them  not,"  we  are  not  forced  to  conclude  that  the  prophet  had  a 
pleasant  voice.  The  Lord  informs  him  that  the  divine  messages  he 
delivered  were  received  by  the  people  just  as  they  listened  to  the 
song  of  a  minstrel,  for  their  amusement,  and  not  for  their  amend- 
ment and  reformation.  The  false  prophets  and  prophetesses  of  the 
East  were  chirj^ci's  and  mutterers  (Isa.  viii.  19). 

It  is  from   partial  inductions  that  De  Wette,  Knobel,  Ewald, 
and  other  suchVriters  assert  that  the  vocal  expression  of  the  proph- 
ets was  fiery  and  spasmodic.     The  speaker,  according  to  them,  had 
the  look  and  manner  of  men  half  insane.     He  fell  into  violent  con- 
vulsions at  the  moment  of  being  surprised  by  some  new  idea.     He 
raved  and  vociferated.     But  we  have  in  Book  I.  proved  that  this 
real  or  dissembled  madness  characterised  the  false  prophet,  not  the 
true      And  we  would  do  well  if  we  here  discriminated  between 
the  psychological  state  of  the  prophets  while  they  were  receivmg 
their  messages  from  the  Divine  Spirit -and  their  psychological  state 
while  they  were  delivering  those  messages.     This  distmction  is  no 
mere  splitting  of  words,  but  valuable  on  many  accounts ;   and  were 
we  here  called  to  discuss  the  whole  subject  of  the  prophetic  inspi- 
ration, we  might   show  some  of  the  advantages  of  always  keeping 
it  in  view.   What  chiefly  concerns  us  now  is  the  fact  that  none  of  the 
Scripture  instances  of  the  extraordinary  effects  of  the  Spirit  on  the 
bodies  and  minds  of  holy  men  have  any  reference  to  delivery,     bee 


534        PROPHETIC  EXPRESSION  AS  MODIFIED  BY  FEELING. 

■Nvhat  is  said  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  12);  of  Isaiah  (vi.  5-8);  Ezckiel 
(i.  2S);  Daniel  (viii.  27;  x.  8-10,15-17);  Jolin  (Ilev.  i.  17).  Thus 
(lid  the  true  prophets  stand  in  direct  contrast  with  the  priestesses  of 
Apollo  and  other  soothsayers,  who  never  began  to  be  in  ecstasy  or 
intoxication  before  credulous  consulters  approached  them  with 
bribes  in  their  hands.  The  Pythian  prophetesses  and  siltyls  are  de- 
scribed by  ancient  writers  as  uttering  oracles  with  dishevelled  hair, 
rolling  eyes,  foaming  mouth,  and  furious  voice.  They  whirled 
around  through  the  temple,  scattering  the  tripods  which  stood  in 
their  way.  And  the  more  they  looked  and  acted  like  insane  per- 
sons the  more  fully  inspired  they  were  believed  to  be  ;  and  conse- 
quently, as  Plutarch  and.  others  inform  us,  they  took  stimulants  and 
narcotics  to  increase  their  furor  and  madness.  Wherefore  many  of 
tlic  Christian  fathers,  in  opposition  not  only  to  the  heathen  oracles 
and  prophets,  but  to  their  Christian  brethren,  the  Montanists,  main- 
tained that  the  true  prophets  spoke  with  conscious  intelligence  and 
in  a  calm  and  sober  manner.  With  the  prophetic  ecstasy  as  a 
purely  psychological  question,  Tertullian,  Hljipolytus,  Basil,  Chrys- 
ostom,  and  Jerome  had  little  or  no  business.  They  were  content 
to  show  that  the  heavenly  wind  blew  not  overwhelmingly. 

While  on  the  one  hand  their  delivery  was  marked  by  no  wild 
and  raving  vociferations,  Avas  it,  on  the  other,  equally  removed  from 
cant'  and  sing-song  V  The  aritlunus  or  number  of  the  Hebrew  elo- 
quence does  undoubtedly  intimate  to  us  that  they  must  have  had 
something  like  a  subcantus,  or  a  measured  tone,  more  perceptible 
in  the  vocal  renderings  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  and  slightly  so, 
perhaps,  in  that  of  the  Great  Teacher  himself  In  reading  some 
of  these  inspired  sermons  we  almost  unavoidably  fiH  into  it ;  and 
if  we  regard  the  words  more  than  the  sense,  we  easily  descend  into 
sing-song.  The  Puritans  and  the  Covenanters  appcr.r  to  have  con- 
tracted the  habit  of  canting  from  their  frequent  endeavours  to  ex- 
press their  exalted  ideas  of  the  Lord's  perfections  and  of  his  won- 
derful works.  Besides,  their  love  to  the  ^Messiah  and  to  their  neigh- 
bours was  too  devoted  to  find  any  fitting  utterance  in  the  talking 
topes  of  our  rationalistic  preachers.  This  habit  Avould  be  further 
strengthened  by  exactitude  and  formality  in  repeating  Holy  Writ, 
and  by  that  hoarseness  and  feebleness  of  throat  and  lungs  (often 
the  ettect  of  excessive  exertions  of  the  voice)  which,  as  Quintiliani 
says,  seeks  relief  in  an  offensive  and  unnatural  kind  of  singing — 
dcformi  cantico.     And  yet,  according  to   John   Mason,-  George 

1  L.  xi.,  c.  iii.,  s.  13. 

2  Essays  on  Poetical  and  Prose  Number  and  Elocution,  p.  17. 


PROPHETIC  EXPRESSION  AS  MODIFIED  BY  FEELING.        535 

Gregory/  and  George  Gilfillan,^  this  singing  or  canting  tone  often 
deeply  affected  the  hearers,  and  many  a  time  melted  them  all  into 
tears.  It  also  had  the  merit  of  being  well  heard  at  a  considerable 
distance.  "VVhitefield,  who  had  a  voice  of  singular  melody  and 
compass,  was  playfully  said  to  cant^  He  who  is  compelled  to 
preach  in  the  open  air  or  in  very  spacious  churches  must  adopt  at 
least  an  imperceptible  chanting  if  he  means  to  be  audible  from  afar. 
This  concealed  singing  is,  under  certain  limitations,  aj^proved  both 
by  Cicero  and  Quintilian.  The  latter  considers  it  one  of  those  va- 
rieties of  tone  which  proceed  from  an  impulse  of  nature,  and  which 
are  needed  for  the  proper  utterance  of  certain  kinds  of  thought  and 
feeling.  Hence  he  teaches  that  these  words  of  Cicero  (Pro  Archia, 
c.  viii.),  "  Rocks  and  deserts  res23ond  to  the  voice  of  the  poet,"  etc., 
should  be  delivered  in  a  cantus,  and  that  it  is  this  which  Cicero  at- 
tributed to  Demosthenes  and  ^schines.  As  each  of  these  Greek 
orators  reproaches  the  other  with  sing-song,  Quintilian  fairly  infers 
that  both  were  addicted  to  it.  The  cantus  obscurior  did  not  in 
their  speeches  take  the  form  of  an  affected  and  unvarying  modula- 
tion, but  of  occasional  higher  notes,  which  were  demanded  for  the 
fitting  delivery  of  the  more  impassioned  sentences.  And  Quintilian 
subjoins  words  which  we  commend  to  the  attention  of  those  elocu- 
tionists who  are  resolved  to  know  nothing  but  the  conversational 
manner :  "  It  was  not  assuredly  in  a  straightforward  tone  of  voice 
that  Demosthenes  swore  by  the  defenders  of  Marathon  and  Pla- 
tsea  and  Salamis,  nor  was  it  in  the  monotonous  strain  of  daily  talk 
that  ^schines  bewailed  the  fate  of  Thebes.''^ 

As  to  rate  of  oral  rendition  we  know  little,  but  may  well  believe 
that  the  prophets  and  orators  of  ancient  times  spoke  more  slowly 
than  their  writings  are  now  commonly  read.  Even  Cicero,  a  "  mas- 
ter of  the  music  of  speech,"  had,  at  least,  in  his  later  years,  a  delib- 
erate and  measured  delivery.  Seneca^  compares  it  to  pacing  or 
ambling :  "  Cicero  .  .  gradarius  fuU.''''  Luther,  alluding  to  this 
comparison,  says  that  "  to  speak  deliberately  and  slowly  best  be- 
comes the  preacher ;  for  thereby  he  may  the  more  effectually  and 
impressively  deliver  his  sermon." 

One  practical  deduction  from  these  facts  is  that  he  who  would 
be  heard  distinctly  and  agreeably  should,  as  already  hinted,  culti- 

1  On  the  Composition  and  Delivery  of  a  Sermon  (near  the  end). 

2  Martyrs  and  Heroes  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  p.  152. 

3  Walpole's  Letters,  vol.  ii.,  p.  154. 

4  Cicero,  Orat.,  c.  xviii. ;  Quint.,  L.  xi.,  c.  iii.,  §60,  and  §166-168. 

5  Epist.  xl.  6  Table  Talk,  ()408 ;  cf.  Forcyth's  Life  of  Cicero,  vol.  ii.,  327. 

35 


536        PROPHETIC  EXPRESSION  AS  MODIFIED  BY  FEELING. 

vate  the  musical  iiowers  of  his  voice,  whether  they  be  tenor  or  base, 
alto  or  baritone.  It  is  true  that  the  best  voice  is  that  which  draws 
no  attention  to  itself;  and  yet  whoever  would  be  heard  by  the 
most  distant  member  of  a  large  congregation  will  do  well  to  avail 
himself  of  the  peculiar  musical  qualities  of  his  voice.  These  may 
be  kept  so  subordinate  as  to  be  imperceptible  to  all  except  those 
who  listen  for  the  purpose  of  criticising  them.  That  modulated 
sounds  are  the  most  audible  has  frequently  been  shown  by  the  ex- 
ample of  the  housewife,  who,  when  she  calls  her  distant  husband 
or  child,  does  not  shout,  put  pitches  her  voice  to  a  musical  key,  and 
of  the  clergymen  in  the  cathedrals,  who,  in  order  to  be  heard  by 
all  the  worshippers,  intone  the  service.  It  was  the  melody  of 
Whitefield's  voice  that,  among  other  things,  so  Mell  qualified  him 
for  an  open-air  preacher :  Franklin  said  that  it  produced  in  him  the 
same  kind  of  j^leasure  he  felt  in  listening  to  music.  "While  he  was 
one  day  preaching  in  Philadelphia,  the  words,  "And  he  taught 
them,  saying,"  as  pronounced  by  him,  were  heard  at  Gloucester 
Point,  a  distance  by  water  of  two  miles.  Our  day  furnishes  other 
examples  hardly  less  striking  and  instructive. 

But  this  principle  ought  not  to  be,  as  it  commonly  is,  dissevered 
from  another  equally  important.  It  is  this :  that  the  audibleness 
of  the  voice  depends  not  only  on  its  melody,  but  like\\'ise  on  its 
spe6chfulness,  or  power  of  articulation.  Perfect  human  speech  is 
marked  by  a  free  and  conventional  enunciation  of  the  consonants, 
while  among  brutes  fixed  and  inarticulate  sounds  preponderate. 
Now  why  is  it  that  the  voice  of  man  may  be  heai^l  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance that  of  any  other  animal  ?  Xot  merely  because  of  its  power 
of  melody  in  the  upper  register,  but  by  reason  of  its  clear  and  for- 
cible articulation  of  the"  consonants.  And  this  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  those  instruments  of  music  which,  like  the  violin,  emit 
consonant  sounds  that  most  nearly  resemble  those  of  the  human 
voice,  are  heard  most  distinctly  and  at  the  greatest  distance.  Of 
the  consonants,  the  most  difiicult  to  pronoimce  are  the  "  atonies  " 
or  "  as])irations,"  which  are  all  enounced  within  the  compass  of  a 
Avhispcr.  It  is  neither  the  chest  tones  nor  the  liead  tones,  whether 
the  high  or  the  low,  that  are  the  hardest  to  deliver  (although  these 
should  be  intelligently  cultivated),  but  the  sounds  which  are  formed 
by  the  whisperings  of  the  lips,  the  teeth,  and  the  palate.  But  this 
difficulty  is  more  than  compensated  by  the  audibleness  with  which 
they  wing  the  music  of  human  language. 

For  the  rest,  a  careful  study  of  the  messages  of  the  prophets  will, 
on  the  one  hand,  keep  us  from  that  kind  of  collcxpiial  enii)]iasis 
which  makes  the  reader  or  quoter  of  the  Scriptures  appear  tlic  au- 


PROPHETIC  EXPRESSION  AS  MODIFIED  BY  FEELING.         537 

thor.of  them,i  and,  on  the  other,  from  that  ecclesiastical  monotone 
or  sing-song,  which  resembles  the  old  nomic  melody  in  which  the 
promulgators  of  the  Athenian  laws  were  compelled  to  speak.  No 
aphorisms,  no  exercises,  however  excellent,  can  excuse  us  from  a 
careful  study  of  the  passage  to  be  read  or  repeated.  Clergymen  are 
not  to  imitate  the  player,  and  yet  they  might  well  emulate  his  well- 
directed  diligence.  Edmund  Kean,  who  had  a  notably  feeble  voice, 
said  that  he  owed  his  success  to  silent  preparation ;  and  his  friend 
Talma  ascribed  his  own  great  power  as  an  actor,  not  to  reciting 
the  words  of  his  part,  but  to  studying  their  import.  "To  think  is 
hard,"  said  Goethe,  "  and  to  act  according  to  thought  impleasant." 
And  yet  assuredly  this  is  the  only  way  to  an  all-sided  knowledge 
of  elocution,  or  even  the  ability  to  deliver  a  short  address  easily, 
faithfully,  and  with  good  acceptance. 

1  The  Rev.  W.  Cazalet,  in  his  book  "  On  the  Voice,"  teaches  us  to  produce 
the  eftect  of  emphasis  by  pauses.  The  late  Dean  Alford,  in  his  Essays  and  Ad- 
dresses on  Church  Subjects  (p.  153),  favoured  an  ahuost  total  absence  of  em- 
phasis. 


538  THE  VARIOUS  MODERN  KINDS  OF  DELIVERY. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE  VARIOUS  MODERN"  KINDS  OF  DELIVERY. 

Does  any  one  ask  how  a  man  ought  to  give  ?  I  cannot  answer 
until  I  know  how  lie  ought  to  possess.  And  so  one's  mode  of 
preparation  goes  far  in  determining  his  mode  of  deUvery.  The 
verl)  to  hfive,  in  one  of  the  senses  tliat  come  down  to  us  from  the 
Latin  haheo,  signiiies  to  hold,  Avith  the  accessory  idea  of  power  ex- 
erted, as  hi  the  colloquial  phrase  have  afte?',  for  follow,  and  have 
at,  to  strike.  This  old  use  of  the  Latin  word  is  perhaps  best  ren- 
dered by  hold  forth.  Delivery,  therefore,  comprehends  the  related 
ideas  of  Jiaviug  and  givhuj.  Its  methods  may  be  divided  into  live 
kinds :  , 

First,  I))ip)'ovisation,  or  a  holding  forth  without  the  conscious- 
ness of  having  any  premeditated  store  of  titting  thoughts  or  words. 
Such  thinking  aloud  approaches  most.nearly  to  jireaching  under  a 
full  inspiration ;  in  other  words,  the  intellectual  states  and  exer- 
tions of  the  improvisator  and  of  the  prophet  who  is  plenarily  in- 
spired are  A-ery  much  the  same.  Lender  a  partial  inspiration,  as  we 
have  seen  in  Book  I.,  Chapter  III.,  preachers  have  sometimes  taken 
wing  and  sailed  superior  to  a  part  or  even  the  whole  of  the  matter 
Mhich  they  had  elaborately  prejjared  and  brought  into  the  pulpit. 
It  is  notably  the  case  that  the  very  best  things  in  sermons  are  sj^o- 
ken  impromptu;  and  yet  with  this  important  kind  of  delivery  sa- 
cred rhetoric  has  hitherto  had  little  more  to  do  than  astronomy  has 
witli  the  wind. 

\Ve  need  not  repeat  here  what  we  have  sai<l  in  the  first  book 
about  improvisation.  Again,  however,  must  Ave  reprove  those  who, 
in  their  presumptuous  reliance  on  the  Spirit,  are  continually  giving 
their  peojile  mere  rliajtsodios.  Too  often,  Ave  fear,  they  and  their 
admiring  hearers  resemble  the  Cimia\'m  sibyl,  avIio,  Avhen  the  inspi- 
ration left  her,  had  no  poAver  to  recall  anything  that  had  been 
spoken. 

The  next  method  Ave  consider  is  the  cxtemporan/.  By  this  we 
here  mean  the  manner  of  s])eaking  which  consists  in  a  preparation 
of  the  maltur,  but  without  iiiiK-h  previous  attention  to  the  language 


THE  VARIOUS  MODERN  KINDS  OF  DELIVERY.  539 

of  the  sermon,  and  going  into  the  pulpit  either  with  or  without  a 
memorandum.  Some  extemporaneous  j)reachers,  after  carefully 
writing  the  outlines  of  their  sermons,  commit  them  to  memory ; 
others  lay  a  few  catch-words  before  them.  Here,  however,  no  rule 
is  applicable  to  every  one.  Those  who  study  the  matter  the  most 
thoroughly  will  thereby  be  led  to  convey  it  in  the  best  language 
and  with  the  most  j^ersuasive  earnestness.  But  not  every  one  that 
has  seemingly  a  great  aptitude  for  extemporising  should  indulge  it 
without  restraint.  Chalmers  and  Whately,  the  former  from  too 
much  fluency  of  mind,  and  the  latter  from  too  much  fluency  of 
tongue,  wisely  restricted  themselves  to  written  discourses.  Whether 
a  young  man  shall  adopt  this  as  his  principal  mode  of  delivery  may, 
in  cases  not  a  few,  depend  less  on  his  own  fitness  for  it,  or  its  in- 
trinsic excellence,  or  its  superiority  over  other  modes,  than  on  the 
conditions  of  time  and  place.  Thus  when  James  Hervey,  John 
Newton,  and  Leigh  Richmond  saw  that  the  extemporaneous  delivery 
of  the  Methodists  had  come  to  be  popular  in  England,  they  pru- 
dently and  successfully  learned  to  extemporise  also.  Archbishop 
Seeker  had  the  good  sense  to  recommend  off-hand  preaching  to  his 
clergy,  urging  this,  among  other  motives,  that  as  the  folloAvers  of 
the  Methodist  preachers  were  apt  to  think  it  a  supernatural  gift, 
the  regular  clergymen  might  undeceive  them  by  imitating  in  this 
case  the  practice  of  St.  Paul  in  another,  which  he  describes  thus : 
"  What  I  do,  that  I  will  do ;  that  wherein  they  glory  they  may  be 
found  even  as  we.''^ 

The  third  method  we  notice  is  recitation,  or  repeating  from  mem- 
ory. Hereby  the  sermon  is  first  written,  and  then  either  the  com- 
position or  the  thoughts  thei-eof  learned  by  heart.  The  former  is 
sometimes  recommended  to  the  novice  as  an  intellectual  exercise, 
or  a  trial  of  gifts  and  acquirements,  and  is  pursued  by  many  Ital- 
ian, French,  and  German  preachers,  both  Protestant  and  Catholic. 
The  Italian  preachers  often  h^e  prompters  concealed  near  them. 
The  latter  consists  in  committing  to  memory  the  ideas  and  their 
order,  the  entire  substance  of  the  sermon,  to  the  almost  total  neg- 
lect of  its  language.  Tholuck  habitually  preaches  in  this  manner ; 
in  this  way  also  many  of  the  Scottish  ministers  pronounce  their 
sermons.  To  the  first  sort  belonged  the  delivery  of  Robert  Hall, 
who  had  a  singular  faculty  of  continuous  mental  composition  apart 


1  Dr.  Ware's.Hints,  appended  to  Dr.  Ripley's  Sac.  Rhet. ;  Dr.  Abel  Stevens' 
Preaching  Required  by  the  Times ;  Bautain's  Art  of  Extemporising ;  and  Dr. 
Park's  Three  Fundamental  Metliods  of  Preaching,  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  vol. 
xxix. 


540  THE  VARIOUS  MODERN  KINDS  OF  DELIVERY. 

from  the  aid  wlilcli  Avriting  supplies.  E.ssentially  of  the  second  kind 
is  the  exteinporiser,  Avho  while  speaking  recalls  the  substance  of 
his  sermon,  but  not  the  words  of  his  skeleton. 

Jleadiiuf  next  asks  our  attention.  Some  of  the  advantages  of 
this  mode  of  utterance  are  these :  It  enables  the  preacher  to  ac- 
quire the  oratorical  style,  without  Avhich  the  extemporiscr  cannot 
excel ;  it  checks  in  some  too  great  an  affluence  of  thought  or  lan- 
guage ;  in  others  it  remedies  the  want  of  a  ready  and  copious  flow 
of  fitting  words;  it  many  times  protects  both  speaker  and  hearer 
against  the  effects  of  hasty  and  unguarded  words  in  searching  and 
admonitory  sermons.  It  also  secures  us  from  the  obscurity  and 
misunderstanding  caused  by  those  long  and  complex  sentences 
which  the  extemporiser  is  often  tempted,  if  not  compelled,  to  con- 
struct. It  insures  us  even  against  the  teasing  and  distracting  fear 
of  blunders  and  break-downs.  And  above  all,  it  invests  the  preacher 
with  the  confidence  and  persuasiveness  of  one  who  is  delivering 
matters  of  intelligent  and  well-grounded  belief,  thoughts  which  he 
has  carefully  selected,  accurately  weighed,  and  stamped  with  the 
authentic  marks  of  his  full  and  permanent  approval.'  Of  his  best 
thoughts  the  preacher  in  his  most  enthusiastic  moments  is  often 
prompted  to  say,  with  Job,  '•  O  that  my  words  were  now  written  !  " 

TJie  highest  excellence  in  reading  cannot  be  reached  without 
such  a  familiarity  with  the  ideas  and  words  of  a  sermon  as  enables 
the  preacher  to  keep  its  object  and  its  entire  field  of  thought  con- 
tinually before  his  mind,  while  a  glance  at  the  beginning  of  a  sen- 
tence, or  even  of  a  paragraph,  will  sometimes  suggest  enough  to 
carry  him  to  their  period.  Then,  if  he  have  what  Garrick  once 
said  Mr.  Romaine  had — "  not  only  the  art  but  the  heart  of  preach- 
ing"— he  will,  when  the  subject  or  the  occasion  demand,  throw  his 
whole  soul  into  the  business;  the  word  of  God  will  be  in  his  heart 
as  a  burning  fire  shut  up  in  his  bones ;  and  yet  his  fervency  will 
have  as  true  a  sacredness  as  if  his  li^s  had  been  consecrated  by  a 
live  coal  from  the  altar  and  applied  by  the  hand  of  a  serai)h. 

Such  reading  will  not  compel  him  to  keep  his  eyes  fixed  on  his 
manuscript,  nor  require  him  to  read  every  word  and  phrase  exactly 
as  he  wrote  them:  Miser  cnim  et  pauper  orator  est,  «pii  nullum 
verbum  requo  animo  perdere  potest.^  But  we  have  already  begun 
to  consider  what  Dr.  Kidder^  has  termed  a  co)7}posite  mode  of  de- 
llccrj/,  which  aims  to  conjoin  two  or  more  of  the  other  approved 
methods  in  such  wise  as  to  secure  the  peculiar  excellences  of  each 

1  For  a  more  full  discussion  of  this  subject  see  the  next  chapter. 

2  Quint.,  Lib.  viii.  3  Honiiletics,  p.  314. 


THE  VARIOUS  MODERN  KINDS  OF  DELIVERY.  54I 

in  a  single  sermon.  Two  kinds  have  always  been  united  by  many 
of  the  best  readers ;  they  have  taken  the  liberty  to  improvise  here 
and  there.  Others  deliver  parts  of  their  serm«ns  from  memory  ; 
others,  again,  extemporise  parts  of  them.  On  the  other  hand,  not 
a  few  estemjDorisers  and  reciters  read  sketches  or  abstracts  of  their 
discourses  while  they  are  delivering  them.  Their  notes  are  little 
other  than  a  quiver,  on  which  they  cast  their  eye  now  and  then  to 
see  what  arrow  is  to  be  next  fetched  from  thence. ^ 

Can  any  man  do  his  very  best  in  the  use  of  the  composite  meth- 
od ?  Some  pastors,  after  fair  trials  of  one  simple  mode,  are  fully 
persuaded  that  they  can  in  this  fifth  Avay  make  their  ministrations 
the  most  useful  to  their  flocks.  Not  otherwise  are  they  able  to 
give  free  and  full  utterance  to  the  multiform  contents  of  their  minds 
— more  especially  to  the  matter  which  lies  on  the  heavenward  side 
of  them.  True,  their  transitions  have  thereby  come  to  be  some- 
what rapid,  but  not  more  so  than  those  of  Hosea  and  Micah ;  they 
indulge  in  digressions  more  frequently  than  they  once  did.  So 
much  the  better ;  for  they  have  had  many  subsequent  proofs  that 
"  gusts  of  the  Spirit "  drove  them  out  of  their  pre-ai'ranged  course 
and  caused  them  to  lose  their  reckoning,  in  order  that  they  might 
be  taken  under  the  convoy  of  Him  whose  "  way  is  in  the  sea,  and 
his  path  in  the  great  waters,  and  his  footsteps  not  known." 

Which  of  these  five  modes  the  preacher  shall  adopt  he  must  de- 
cide for  himself  He  may  have  to  try  several  of  them  before  mak- 
ing his  final  choice,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  he  may  learn  to 
make  use  of  all  without  giving  the  preference  to  either. 

In  mastering  that  method  of  preaching  which  appears  to  him  the 
most  diflicult  yet  the  most  serviceable  of  all,  let  him  not  be  dis- 
couraged by  his  early  failures  and  disappointments.  As  Peter 
Martyr  observes,  "  God  gives  these  gifts  little  by  little,  in  order  that 
we  may  apply  our  diligence  and  endeavours."  "  Begin  by  saying 
four  words,"  as  Francis  de  Sales  advises,  "then  go  on  to  eight,  and 
then  to  twelve,  and  in  the  end  you  will  be  able  to  continue  for  half 
an  hour." 

Your  proficiency  in  any  of  these  modes  will  very  much  depend 
on  the  orderliness  of  your  mind  while  storing  itself  with  homileti- 
cal  knowledge.  Of  Bacon  we  are  told  that  he  could  keep  all  sub- 
jects within  his  view  almost  at  once,  in  their  relative  proportions, 
as  in  a  map.  If  you  would  quickly  and  at  any  time  bring  out  of 
your  treasure  the  things  you  want,  you  will  have  to  pack .  them 
away  in  an  accessible  method — a  phrase  suggestive  of  much  that 

1  Cotton  Mather's  Manuductio,  sec.  17. 


542  THE  VARIOUS  MODERN  KINDS  OF  DELIVERY. 

vre  cannot  here  mention.  Generally  may  it  be  expected  that  the 
excellence  of  the  delivery  will  be  as  "was  the  excellence  of  the  prep- 
aration. TLis  is  even  true  of  improvisation  itself;  for  one's  suc- 
cess therein  is  measured  by  the  amount  and  kind  of  one's  general 
and  remote  preparation.  Neglect  preparation,  and  your  sermons, 
be  your  elocution  ever  so  attractive,  will  at  length,  like  the  nymph 
Echo,  pine  away  to  a  mere  sound,  or  become  like  the  sweet-songed 
nightingale,  which  afforded  so  little  meat  to  the  hungry  Spartan, 
that,  in  his  disappointment,  he  origluated  the  proverb :  Vox  es  et 
X>r cater ca  n'lluL 


EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED.  543 


CHAPTER  V. 

EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  C0J5SIDERED. 

Some  writers  have  ventured  the  opinion  that  the  delivery  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets  was  a  kind  of  singing,  which  was  not  seldom  ac- 
companied with  minstrelsy.  The  Gentile  pythonesses  and  sooth- 
sayers were,  indeed,  incited  to  oracular  words  by  Phyrgian  songs 
and  by  drums  and  cymbals  ;i  but  these  resembled  the  true  prophets 
far  less  nearly  than  did  the  Homeric  prophets,  who,  whatever  may 
have  been  the  rhythm  or  cantillation  in  their  vocal  expression,  were 
not  moved  to  ecstatic  utterances  by  instrumental  music.  •  •  Ewald-^ 
supposes  that  in  earlier  times,  during  the  public  utterance  of  his 
message,  either  the  prophet  or  an  attendant  played  a  tune  at  each 
pause  and  after  each  strophe;  just  as  the  Eastern  singer  of  metrical 
romances,  after  chanting  each  verse,  plays  a  few  notes  on  a  vioL 
Others^  have  conjectured  that  to  this  end  music  must  have  been 
taught  in  the  schools  of  the  prophets.  Now  there  is  only  one  thing 
to  prevent  us  from  finding  out  whether  the  prophets  delivered  their 
sermons  after  the  maimer  of  public  singers  and  improvisators— it 
is  this :  the  total  silence  of  Scripture  on  the  subject.  That  Ha- 
bakkuk  did  not  himself  sing  his  prayer  or  psalm  is  implied  in  its 
destmation :  "  To  the  chief  singer  on  my  stringed  instruments.-' 
Other  prophets  also  wrote  psalms ;  but  did  they  sing  them  ?  ^  Pos- 
sibly. We  concur,  however,  with  Quintilian  as  to  the  admirable 
relation  of  music  to  eloquence,  and  commend  the  example  of  Basil 
the  Great  and  Gregory  Nazianzen,  who,  while  mastering  the  art  of 
oratory,  added  music  as  a  tributary  exercise,  because  it  attuned 
their  souls  to  tender  and  elevated  sentiments.  If,  then,  the  proph- 
ets did  not  sing  their  sermons,  the  next  question  is,  Did  they  ex- 
temporise them  ? 


1  Cicero,  De  Div.,  i.,  5,  and  Jamblicus  De  Mysteriis,  viii.  9. 

2  Propheten  des  Alten  Bundes,  vol.  i.,  p.  50 ;  cf.  Lane's  Modern  Egyptians, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  128. 

3  A.  Knobel,  Prophetismus  der  Hebraer,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  39-52 ;    Keil  and  Ber- 
theau,  Com.  0.  T.,  vol.  i.,  p.  369.  in  note. 


544  EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

The  Hebrew  prophets  appear  to  have  generally  written  their  ser- 
mons (whenever  they  wrote  at  all),  after  they  were  delivered. 
Moses,  indeed,  is  said  to  have  read  the  book  of  the  covenant  in  the 
audience  of  the  people,  but  he  had  probably  delivered  it  from 
memory  on  previous  occasions  (Exod.  xxiv.  3,  7).  And  Baruch 
and  Jehudi  read,  by  divine  command,  before  the  princes  and  Jehoi- 
akim  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah,  who  was  prevented  by  his  im- 
prisonment from  delivering  them  personally,  wliile  they  were  as 
yet  unwritten.  It  would  seem  that  this  prophet  had  been  making 
divine  communications  during  some  three  and  twenty  years  before 
he  was  commanded  to  commit  them  to, writing  (Jer.  xxxvi.). 
Whether  the  30th  and  31st  chapters  were  written  before  oral  ren- 
dering it  is  impossible  to  determine.  The  50th  and  51st  chapters 
were  read  to  the  people  by  Seraiah  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
in  Babylon.  The  prophecy  of  Ilabakkuk  is  supposed  to  have  been 
written  on  tablets  (ii.  2) — such  perhaps  as  received  the  proclama- 
tions which  messengers  Avould '  carry  to  foreign  nations.  The  last 
clause  rnay  be  rendered,  that  he  mcuj  2-)rophesy  that  readeth  it.  That 
the  reading  of  a  royal  message  was  the  proper  manner  of  making 
proclamation  is  pretty  evident  from  2  Chron.  xxx.  G-;  xxxvi.  22-, 
and  the  book  of  Esther,  and  elsewhere. 

The  Messiah  at  the  beginning  of  his  ministry  read  out  of  Isaiah 
his  own  commission  as  a  i^roclaimer.  And  there  are  passages  in 
the  N.  T.  which  make  the  reading  of  the  law  and  the  prophets  sy- 
nonymous with  preaching  (Acts  xv.  21-;  2  Cor.  iii.  15;  Ilom.  ii.  21 ; 
Gal.  iii.  8).  The  written  word  was  able  to  make  Timothy  savingly 
wise  (2  Tim.  iii.  15).  The  five  brothers  of  the  lost  rich  man  could 
be  as  effectually  jiersuadod  by  the  sacred  books  read  or  heard  read 
as  by  the  personal  warnings  of  a  risen  Lazarus  (Luke  xvi.  27-31). 
Yes,  and  those  sacred  books  may  have  been  more  courageous  and 
faithful  than  our  risen  Lazarus  may  have  been  permitted  to  be ; 
and,  by  the  way,  Demetrius  Phalereus  persuaded  King  Ptolemy  to 
get  and  .study  such  books  as  treated  of  government  and  leadership; 
for  the  reason  that  rAosc  things  are  icrit^en  in  LooJcs  tchieh  the  friends 
of  kings  dare  not  advise  (Plutarch,  Apophth.  Reg.  ac  Imp.,  p.  189, 
Reiskii  ed.).  Are  there  not  some  rich  men  of  our  day  who  will 
have  to  be  persuaded,  if  at  all,  by  reading  the  8cri])tures  or  other 
good  books  ?  for  from  the  preachers  of  their  choice  they  are  never 
likely  to  hear  the  searching  and  alarming  things  they  ought  to 
learn. 

But  the  prophets  must  liave  .'^poken  impromptu  whenever  they 
were  moved  to  make  divine  communications  as  soon  as  they  were 
received,  or  at  least  without  any  long  delay  (1   Kings  xi.  29;  2 


EXTEMPORISING  IIISTOHICALLY  CONSIDERED.  545 

Chron.  xx.  15 ;  Jer.  xxi.  4-  ;  xxviii.  5-;  Ezek.  xiv.  3-;  xx.  3-;  Amos 
vii.  14-).  In  cases  like  these  there  was  no  tune  for  previous  writing. 
In  other  cases  there  was  leisure  for  writing,  but  there  is  little  posi- 
tive proof  that  the  prophets  either  wrote  or  med'itated  beforehand 
their  communications  (2  Sam.,  c.  vii.  and  xii;  1  Kings  xiv.  5-;  xx. 
35-;  xxi.  17;  Isa.vii.3-;  xxxvii.  21-;  Jer.xlu.T-).  Plenary  inspira- 
tion almost  always  precludes  the  idea  of  invention  and  of  composi- 
tion previously  studied  and  elaborated.     The  prophets  that  arose 
after  the  age  of  Malachi  probably  predicted  orally,  and  foretold 
nothmg  that  was  not  fulfilled  in  the  lifetime  of  their  hearers.     The 
later  scribes  were  not  always  the  successors  of  the  prophets.     They 
were  sometimes  the  writing  and  teaching  priests.     Their  legitimate 
work  was  to  transcribe  and  expound  the  inspired  Scriptures,     And 
in  order  that  their  teachings  might  not  be  foisted  into  the  sacred 
page,  they  were  required  to  deliver  them  by  word  of  mouth  alone.i 
Some  of  the  advocates  of  extemporising  think  they  have  settled 
the  question  beyond  all  further  discussion  when  they  have  said, 
"  Repeating  from  the  open  manuscript  or  from  the  memory  is  not 
the  Scriptural  way  of  delivering  sermons.     Neither  Jesus  nor  Isai- 
ah Peter  nor  Paul  preached  in  this  manner."     Now  such  advocates 
are  deserving  of  approval  for  seeking  light  from  Scripture  on  this 
subject;  but  they  would  have  deserved  our  warmer  approbation 
if  they  had  considered  that  plenary  inspiration  in  the  Scripture  ex- 
amples superseded  the  utiUty  and  even  possibility  of  premeditating 
either  their  thoughts  or  their  words.     Had  they  written  their  com- 
munications beforehand,  English  and  German  Rationalists  would 
have  had  o-ood  grounds  for  assertmg  what  they  now  assert  without 
any  good  grounds,  that  the  hol'y  prophets  themselves  invented  and 
elaborated  parts  of  their  sermons.     They  therefore  extemporised 
either  from  necessity  or  from  considerations  drawn  from  the  very 
nature  and  effects  of  plenary  inspiration.     But  as  we  are  very  dif- 
ferently situated,  it  is  often  our  necessity  and  our  duty  to  premedi- 
tate either  our  thoughts  or  our  words,  or  both.     Yes,  and  we  must 
choose  for  ourselves  our  messages  and  our  time  of  delivering  them. 
The  chief  difficulty  in  the  work  of  extemporising  is  the  timely  rec- 
ollection of  well-considered  thoughts  and  words.     But  the  fully- 
inspired  prophets  were  promptly  supplied  with  both,  without  any 
ordinary  effort  of  memory.     Only  grant  us  this  afflatus  of  the  Cre- 
ator Spirit,  and  we,  too,  can  extemporise,  or  rather  can  surpass  the 
best  efforts  of  the  best  extemporiser  that  ever  lived.     No.     Before 
men  bring  forward  Scripture  examples  to  support  the  exclusive 


1  Jost's  Judenthum,  vol.  i.,  pp.  93,  367. 


546  EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED.        * 

practice  of  extemporary  preachinc;,  they  do  well  to  prove  that  post- 
apostolie  ])rcachers  should  seek  and  expect  plenary  inspiration,  or 
at  least  that  we  should  imitate  Scripture  examples  in  those  things 
wherein  the  Divine  Spirit  does  neither  permit  nor  enable  us  to  imi- 
tate them.  '  We  may,  indeed,  emulate  the  devotedness,  vivacity, 
freedom,  and  many  other  imitahle  qualities  of  the  Scripture  preach- 
ers, l)Otli  in  our  written  and  extemporaneous  sermons.  But  to  re- 
quire us  to  speak  just  and  only  as  they  did,  what  is  it  but  to  re- 
quire us  to  extemporise  our  thoughts  as  well  as  our  words,  and 
always  to  speak  without  any  imperfection,  either  moral  or  intellect- 
ual ?  Far  be  it  from  us  to  condemn  extemporising  in  its  time, 
place,  and  due  subordination  to  study  and  invention  and  writing. 
This,  however,  is  a  very  diiFerent  thing  from  the  lame  logic  of  the 
advocates  in  question,  whose  argument  amounts  to  this :  The  fully 
inspired  speaker  never,  in  our  modern  sense,  extemporised  at  all ; 
consequently  we  in  the  modern  sense  ought  always  to  extemporise. 
"  But,"  some  one  will  say,  "  does  not  extemporising  resemble 
more  nearly  the  inspired  mode  of  speaking  than  reading  does  ?  " 
Our  answer  is,  yes  and  no — yes,  if  the  mere  and  sheer  physical  act 
of  vocal  communication  is  meant ;  but  no,  if  the  psychological  state 
of  the  reader  is  considered.  Regarded  from  the  throat  outwardly, 
the  extemporiser  is  more  like  the  inspired  speaker  than  the  reader 
is.  Ills  head  and  his  eyes,  as  well  as  his  vocal  organs  and  arms 
and  hands,  are  more  fully  disengaged  and  more  ready  for  certain 
elocutional  services ;  but  whether  they  do  or  do  not  act  their  part's 
as  naturally  and  efficiently  depends  on  the  speaker's  j^ower  to  com- 
pose mentally  or  to  remember  what  he  has  thus  composed ;  and 
these,  again,  depend  on  natural  and  "spiritual  endowments,  practice, 
health,  the  assurance  that  he  is  handling  the  proper  theme,  the 
quietude  and  attention  of  the  audience,  and  other  such  conditions. 
But  if,  on  the  contrary,  we  look  into  the  mind  of  him  who  is  read- 
ing, we  discover  that,  other  things  being  equal,  its  mood  in  one  im- 
portant respect  bears  a  closer  resemblance  to  that  of  the  inspired 
speaker.  It  is  this :  no  uneasiness  has  it  as  to  the  matter  and  com- 
position. It  is  therefore  not  only  more  peaceful  in  itself  and  more 
quieting  to  all  sympathising  hearers,  but  has  also  secured  the  lib- 
erty to  devote  all  its  energies  to  the  work  of  oral  rendition.  Hence 
the  reader  more  nearly  resembles  the  ins])ired  jireacher  in  respect 
of  all  those  elocutional  excellences  which  flow  from  a  mind  that  is 
self-possessed  and  independent  of  casual  states  and  surroundings ; 
so  that  the  peculiar  advantages  which  the  extemporiser  enjoys  arc 
perhaps  outweighed  by  the  accuracy,  ease,  and  jjowers  of  expres- 
sion which  distinguish  an  inspired  utterance. 


EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED.  547 

Against  the  reading  of  sermons  has  arisen  the  notion  that  the 
oral  message  is  more  favoured  of  God  and  more  beneficial  to  men 
than  the  read;  whereas  the  oral  word  has,  ever  since  the  days  of 
Moses,  been  always  returning  to  and  reposing  on  the  written  and 
the  read.  The  prophets  and  ajDostles  often  evolved  as  from  a  germ 
.their  own  inspired  m''  sages  out  of  some  portion  of  the  existing 
Scriptures.  Paul,  F  >i'nabas,  and  other  apostles,  in  reasoning  out 
of  the  Scriptures  '  .th  their  countrymen  in  synagogues,  must  have 
read  their  proc'  aloud,  and  that  abundantly.  The  apostles  and 
evangelists  appear  to  have  regarded  their  writings  not  as  separate 
from  but  as  a  part  of  their  preaching,  for  their  narratives  of  Christ's 
career  were  called  "  gospels,"  and  Paul,  in  writing  to  Timothy, 
found  comfort,  as  a  prisoner  in  bonds,  in  the  reflection  that  the 
"  word  of  God  was  not  boimd."  Missionaries  not  a  few,  and  they  not 
ignorant  of  the  original  New  Testament,  have  believed  that  in  trans- 
lating and  circulating  the  Bible  they  were  really  and  faithfully 
obeying  the  apostolic  commission ;  and  accordingly  many  in  hea- 
then lands  have  been  converted  by  no  other  means  than  the  printed 
word.  Chrysostom  (in  his  homily  on  2  Thes.  iii.)  makes  jDublic 
Bible  reading  an  act  of  royal  jDroclamation.  The  epistles  of  Paul 
were  some  of  them  read  to  the  primitive  churches,  and  would  it  be 
unreasonable  to  believe  that  John  in  his  old  age  may  have  some- 
times read  his  own  gospel  before  his  audiences  ?  At  any  rate,  from 
a  distance  so  remote  as  to  fade  off  into  the  primitive  time,  preach- 
ers of  the  Gospel  have  considered  the  public  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures as  an  indispensable  part  of  their  ministry.  And  so  in  nearly 
all  the  earliest  homilies  we  find  large  portions  of  the  written  word 
quoted  for  interpretation — portions  which  must  have  been  read 
aloud  to  the  people  while  preaching.  In  no  age,  therefore,  has  it 
been  customary  or  thought  expedient  to  disrupt  all  reading  from 
the  idea  and  the  act  »of  preaching.  Hitherto  the  oral  word  has  in- 
deed been  more  widely  efficacious ;  but  that*it  is  essentially  so  we 
cannot  conclude  until  the  word  written  and  read  has  been  as  ear- 
nestly and  as  extensively  employed.  Any  way,  the  written  word, 
as  Luke  hints  to  Theophilus  (Luke  i.  4),  is  necessary  to  accuracy 
and  fulness  of  Christian  instruction. 

The  completion  of  the  sacred  canon  and  the  consequent  with- 
drawal of  plenary  inspiration  markecl  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
homiletics.  Thenceforth,  as  we  have  already  shown,  the  preacher 
was  to  be  compensated  for  the  deficiencies  of  a  partial  inspiration 
by  the  possession  and  comparative  study  of  all  the  genuine  books 
of  writers  who  were  fully  inspired.  How  far  delivery  was  at  first 
modified  by  this  important  twofold  change  we  do  not  know.     It 


548  EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

has  been  conjectured  by  Thiersch  that  "  the  sermon  was  an  unpre- 
meditated effusion,  and  the  less  premeditated  the  nearer  the  preach- 
er lived  to  the  time  of  the  original  simplicity  of  the  Gospel,  while 
the  memory  of  the  free  manifestation  of  'spiritual  gifts'  had  not 
yet  died  entirely  away."  If  we  may  judge  from  some  of  the  early 
homilies,  it  would  seem  that  then,  as  now,  certain  preachers  neg- . 
lected  study,  and  reposed  a  presumptuous  trust  in  the  assistance  of 
the  Spirit  while  tliey  were  in  the  act  of  speaking.  Yes,  some, 
moreover,  then  as  now,  thought  and  acted,  wrote  and  spoke  as  if 
during  the  time  of  writing  sermons  no  spiritual  assistance  was  to 
be  expected,  and  as  if  the  divine  afflatus  could  only  be  enjoyed 
while  the  preacher  was  extemporising,  or  rather  improvising.  But 
the  Holy  Spirit  did  not  show  preference  for  the  oral  address  by 
granting  it  a  fuller  inspiration,  or  because  it  had  ^>e/  se  any  higher 
moral  qualities  than  the  written.  For  the  inspired  preachers  to 
have  meditated  beforehand  their  sermons  would  have  militated 
against  the  divine  arrangement,  agamst  our  faith  in  the  divine  ori- 
gin of  their  communications,  and  against  the  proprieties  and  exi- 
gencies of  i:)ersons,  times,  places,  and  occasions  which  rendered  it 
necessary  that  they  should  speak  extemporaneously  if  they  spoke 
at  all.  But  ever  since  then  those  proprieties  and  exigencies  have 
often  reversed  the  medal,  and  bidden  us  examine  the  superscrip- 
tiort.  In  cases  not  a  few  it  is  only  by  premeditation,  writing,  and 
reading  that  there  can  be  any  approach  to  that  readiness,  accuracy, 
and  superiority  to  adverse  contingencies  which  were  once  secured 
by  plenary  inspiration. 

Here,  therefore,  the  history  of  preaching  and  a  generalisation  of 
contemporary  instances  alike  rebuke  our  onesidedness.  Neither 
extemporising  nor  writing,  nor  reading,  can  be  adopted  by  all 
preachers,  in  treating  all  subjects,  for  all  purposes,  before  all  con- 
gregations, and  upon  all  occasions..  Some  may  sometimes  and  others 
may  at  all  times  combine  tlie  three  methods  of  communication. 

Without  exaggerating  the  importance  of  an  intellectual  ministry, 
it  must,  on  the  other  hand,  be  considered  that  those  churches  and 
communities,  which  refuse  to  hear  a  ])reachcr  Avho,  eitlier  occasion- 
ally or  always  reads  his  sermons,  will  many  times  deprive  them- 
selves of  pastors  who  are  able  to  "  feed  them  with  knowledge  and 
understanding."  Who  will  doubt  that  the  majority  of  diligent  stu- 
dents, of  deep  thinkers,  and  of  those  patient  investigators  Avho  are 
wont  to  examine  all  sides  of  life-and-death  questions  arc  at  best 
slow  and  cautious  speakers,  and  even  stammering  or  silent  some- 
times. There  are  in  the  ministry  men  having  Sir  Mattliew  Hale's 
infirmity,  '"  wlio  was  but  of  slow  speech  and  sometimes  so  hesitating 


EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED.  549 

that  a  stranger  would  have  thought  him  a  man  of  low  parts,  that 
knew  not  readily  what  to  say,  though  ready  at  other  times."  And 
yet  this  same  chief  justice  wrote  some  of  the  best  sermons  that  are 
to  be  found  in  English  literature.  How  few  pulpit  discourses  of 
his  age  will  abide  a  comparison  with  his  sermon,  "  Of  the  Know- 
ledge of  Christ  Crucified."  He  had,  moreover,  in  spite  of  these  oc- 
casional derelictions  of  his  tongue,  that  manifold  knowledge  which, 
according  to  Cicero  in  his  De  Oratore,  is  the  chief  thing  to  make 
an  excellent  orator.^  Now  had  this  great  and  good  man  (few  bet- 
ter or  more  gifted  have  ever  lived)  been  cast  on  our  times,  and  been 
persuaded  that  it  was  his  duty  to  give  himself  wholly  to  the  minis- 
try of  the  Gospel,  there  are  churches,  and  ministers,  who  would 
have  refused  to  give  him  ordination. 

Or,  a  young  man  may  have  almost  every  other  quality  of  a  per- 
fect orator  except  that  distinctness  of  voice  which  gives  each  syl- 
lable and  word  its  just  and  full  soimd  ;  and  that  combined  modera- 
tion and  evenness  of  voice  which  is  most  pleasmg  to  the  ear  and  is 
best  fitted  to  secure  the  close  attention  of  the  common  hearer.  Not 
a  few  of  this  class  can  neither  require  nor  retain  these  excellences 
without  habitually  reading  their  sermons,  while  some  of  this  class 
who  have  learned  to  extemporise  are  at  times  forced  to  resort  to 
reading  in  order  to  keep  their  natural  defects  from  growing  to  be 
intolerable. 

More  than  a  few  write  and  read  their  sermons,  not  from  lack  of 
zeal  nor  from  the  want  of  ability  to  extemporise,  but  from  high 
moral  considerations.  They  find  that  while  they  are  extemporis- 
ing they  are  too  intent  upon  the  matter  and  language  to  keep 
a  constant  watch  over  the  spirit  and  tones  of  their  preaching. 
The  late  Abp.  Whately^  distrusted  extemporaneous  speaking  as  an 
instrument  of  pulpit  oratory,  although  he  felt  his  own  capacity  of 
producing  a  great  effect  thereby."  The  temperament  may  either 
be  too  sanguine  or  too  nervous  for  a  calm  and  otherwise  satisfactory 
off-hand  delivery.  "  There  are  preachers,"  says  Edward  Paxton 
Hood,3  who  read  their  sermons  from  a  godly  fear.  The  paper  be- 
fore their,  eyes,  the  exact  w^ord,  leads  to  a  subdued  manner  of  dis- 
course which  is  also  one  of  the  most  effective  and  powerful ;  the 
paper  pulls  the  too  impulsive  speaker  back,  reins  him  in  wisely, 
where  otherwise  he  might  trip  and  stumble,  or  where  he  might  rush 
into  too  bold  and  irreverent  a  style  of  speech."     Others*  conscien- 

1  Richard  Baxter's  Appendix  to  the  Life  of  Hale.  2  Life,  vol.  i.,  p.  54. 

Z  "  Lamps,  Pitchers,   and  Trumpets,"  n.  course  of  Lectures   delivered  "before 
Spurgeon's  theological  school,  pp.  525,  526. 
•1  R.  W.  Evans'  Bishopric  of  Souls,  p.  156. 


550  ■    EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

tiously  avoid  extemiioraneous  preaching  lest  they  he  temi^ted,  at 
the  spur  of  the  moment,  to  say  le^s  than  they  ought,  or  else  to  ex- 
press themselves  in  language  confused,  ambiguous,  and  even  contra- 
dictory. 

The  question  is  often  asked,  "  Why  cannot  ministers  of  the  gospel 
speak  extempora;neously  as  easily  and  as  well  as  lawyers  and  states- 
men do  ?  "  To  this  it  has  been  forcibly  answered  that  the  house  of 
God  is  not  a  court  of  law,  nor  a  legislative  hall,  and  that  a  sermon 
is  neither  a  defence  of  a  prisoner  nor  a  reply  to  asjieech.  Besides, 
it  is  to  be  remembered  that  few  but  orators  make  speeches  in  par- 
liament, and  they  only  when  they  2>lease ;  that  few  but  lawyers  of 
uncommon  ability  make  prolonged  addresses,  and  they  only  occa- 
sionally ;  but  eyery  minister  of  the  gosj^el  has  to  preach  tioice  every 
Sundcvj.  Is  it  reasonable  to  expect  that  every  pastor  shall  be  an 
orator  ?i  Nor  should  it  escape  us  that  lawyers,  congressmen,  and 
members  of  j^arliament  write  their  most  important  addresses  and 
orations ;  some  distinguished  ones  even  read  them  to  their  hearers. 
And  the  same  thing  may  be  said  of  some  of  the  most  famous  men 
of  long  ago. 

The  orators  of  Greece  and  Rome,  indeed,  usually  spoke  from 
memory ;  and  yet  Isocrates  undisguisedly  wrote  an  oration  and  sent 
it  to  be  read  by  another  to  Philip  of  Macedon.^  He  and  Demos- 
thenes composed  speeches  for  others.  Tlie  latter  seems  habitually 
to  have  written  his  orations  beforehand,  and  was  not  unwilling  that 
it  should  be  publicly  known  that  he  spoke  only  after  preparation 
made  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  (see  speech  against  Midas,  p.  576 ; 
cf  Plutarch's  Lives).  iEsion,  a  fellow-scholar  of  his,  was  of  opin- 
ion that  his  speeches  were  less  effective  when  heard  than  when  read. 
In  the  course  of  his  great  speeches  he  often  paused  and  bade  the 
scribe  read  some  decree,  letter,  oracle,  or  poem.  Had  the  Greeks 
been  so  averse  to  reading  as  some  modern  critics  fancy  they  were, 
Demosthenes  would  not  have  compelled  his  audiences  to  hear  so 
many  things  read.  The  matter  read  during  the  oration  on  the 
Crown  amounts  to  about  one-eighth  of  the  whole,  to  say  nothing 
of  five  additional  documents  (now  lost)  which  were  also  read. 
Once  a  sophist,  being  about  to  read  a  jDanegyric  on  Hercules,  An- 
talcidas,  the  Spartan,  said,  "  Why,  who  has  blamed  Hercules  ? " 
(Plutarch,  Laconian  Apophthegms,  Reiske,  vol.  vi.,  p.  217).  This 
Sjiartan  cotirtier  diil  not,  it  seems,  complain  that,  the  eulogy  was  to 
bereacZy  anditis  certain  that  Cicero  read  from  manuscript  to  the 
- 

1  Altered  from  Dr.  Biirgon's  Pastoral  Office,  p.  195. 

2  Oratio  ad  Philip,  exordium. 


EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED.  551 

Roman  Senate  the  first  speech  he  made  after  his  return  from  exile 
(Post  Reditum  in  Senatu).  This  we  learn  from  his  own  words  in 
the  oration  for  Plancius  (s.  30),  where  he  says  of  it,  "  which,  on  ac- 
comit  of  the  importance  of  the  matter  (propter  rei  magnitudinem), 
was  pronounced  from  a  written  paper."  The  younger  Pliny  (Epist. 
xvii.,  L.  vii.)  apologises  to  a  friend  for  having  read  his  speeches  by 
saying  that  the  reading  of  orations  was  practised  both  by  the  Ro- 
mans and  the  Greeks — that  he  saw  as  much  propriety  in  reading 
an  oration  as  in  publishing  it.  "  But,"  says  the  objector,  "  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  give  satisfaction  to  an  audience  by  the  mere  reading  of  an 
oration."  This  objection,  rejoins  Pliny,  may  hold  against  the  read- 
ing of  some,  but  not  against  reading  in  general.  Augustus,  it  is 
said,^  did  not  want  the  talent  of  speaking  extempore,  but  lest  his 
memory  should  fail  him,  as  well  as  prevent  the  loss  of  time  in  com- 
mitting his  speeches,  it  was  his  general  practice  to  read  them.  Ti- 
berius,2  although  he  usually  spoke  best  off-hand,  read  an  oration 
at  the  funeral  of  this  same  Augustus.  And  Constantino^  spent 
much  of  his  time  in  writing  discourses  which  he  delivered  before 
his  subjects ;  but  he  was,  it  would  seem,  so  familiar  with  his  manu- 
script that  when  new  and  imj)ortant  thoughts  occurred  to  him  in 
reading,  then  "  he  immediately  stood  erect "  and  uttered  them  ex- 
tempore. Even  in  the  classical  period  of  Rome  the  conspicuous 
use  of  notes  was  not  forbidden  to  the  orator,  for  Quintilian'*  rec- 
ommends speaking  extempore  and  from  memory,  but  approves,  nev- 
ertheless, "  short  notes  and  small  memorandum  books  which  may 
be  held  in  the  hand,  and  on  which  the  orator  may  occasionally 
glance." 

The  Christian  fathers  and  their  audiences  were  chiefly  influenced 
by  the  precepts  and  examples  of  the  secular  orators.  So  largely, 
indeed,  did  they  allow  their  taste  to  be  formed  by  the  ethnic  rhet- 
oricians that  they  incurred  the  reproofs  of  some  of  the  more  con- 
scientious, We  need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  to  find  in  many 
of  the  sermons  of  Basil,  Chrysostom,  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  oth- 
ers evidences  enough  that  they  were  studied  and  composed  be- 
forehand, not  after  their  delivery.  As  they  followed,  in  this  mat- 
ter, the  counsels  of  the  classical  rhetoricians,  so  we  may  fairly  infer 
that  they  did  not  do  otherwise  as  to  the  rest ;  that  they  not  only 
elaborated  these  discourses,  but  elaborated  them  beforehand,  and 


1  Suetonius,  Life  of  Augustus,  c.  Ixxxiv. 

2  Dio  Cassius,  Hist.  Rom.,L.  Ivi.,  c.  xxs'v.-xliii. ;  Life  of  T.,  by     Suetonius, 
cap.  Ixx. 

3  Life  by  Eusebius,  L.  iv.,  chap.  xxix.  4  L.  x.,  c.  vii.,  sees.  131,  132. 

30 


552  EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

either  committed  them  to  memory,  or,  in  cases  where  they  had  not 
time  to  do  so,  and  the  occasion  demanded  a  discriminating  use  of 
laniruafre,  road  them  to  their  hearers.i 

That  some  of  their  sermons  were  in  part,  and  some  wholly  im- 
provised is  also  capable  of  the  clearest  proof  It  can  be  sho^v^l 
from  Chrysostom,  Augustine,  and  some  of  the  other  fathers,  that 
in  unexpected  exigencies  and  cases  of  necessity  they  prayed  for 
and  relied  upon  the  special  assistance  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  But  so 
extraordinary  were  cases  like  these,  that  not  a  few  of  them  were 
remembered  and  have  been  transmitted  to  us.  Had  improvising 
been  the  prevailing  mode  of  delivery,  how  shall  we  account  for  the 
fact  that  instances  of  thmking  aloud  or  speaking  from  immediate 
impulses  (for  this  is  what  they  meant  by  speaking  extempore)  were 
deemed  worthy  of  particular  notice  and  lasting  remembrance  ? 
And  why  was  it  that  the  period  of  Origen's  life  during  which  he 
extemporised  exclusively  was  so  carefully  marked  by  two  of  his 
biographers  ?  "  Oh,  but,"  it  has  more  than  once  been  said,  "  you 
forget  that  Eusebius-  testifies  only  to  this,  that  Origon  was  more 
than  sixty  years  of  age  when  he  had,  from  long  practice,  acquired 
such  facility  in  speaking  that  he  now  for  the  first  time  allowed 
ready  Avriters  to  take  down  his  discourses/'  Conceding,  as  we 
must,  that  these  words  do  not  of  themselves  settle  the  question, 
we  may  nevertheless  aflirm  that  they  are  of  great  weight  when 
they  are  pondered  along  with  those  of  Pamphilius,^  a  learned  con- 
temporary and  literary  companion  of  Eusebius,  who  says  explicitly 
that  Origen  did  at  this  period  extemporise — habebat  extenqyore. 
Gregory  the  Great  read  some  of  his  own  homilies.  As  the  people 
often  heard  the  Scriptures  read  in  the  church,  and  occasionally  lis- 
tened to  secular  orators  who  read  their  speeches,  they  would  not 
be  likely  to  start  back  from  the  voice  of  the  reading  preacher  as  if 
some  strange  thing  had  happened  to  them.  And  consequently,  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Jerome  the  homilies  of  Ej^hrrem  Syrius  were 
often  read  as  lessons  after  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures ;  and  Greg- 
ory the  Great  had  some  of  his  own  homilies  read  aloud  by  short- 
hand writers.  The  just  -conclusion,  therefore,  appears  to  be  that 
of  Neander  :*   "  The  sernions  were  sometimes,  though  rarely,  read 


1  What  Chrysosfom^a^  s  al^out  those  who  falsely  .iccused  preachers  of  pla- 
giarism and  frequent  repetition  seems  to  imply  the  practice  of  composing  ser- 
mons beforehand. — Be  Haccrdotio,  L.  v.,  c.  i.;  cf.  Ullman's  Nazianzen,  p.  190. 

2  Hist.  Eccles.,  L.  vi.,  c.  xxxvi. 

3  Apology:  This  only  survives  in  a  Latin  translation.  Cf.  Bingham's  Eccles. 
Antiq.,  B.  xiv.,  chap,  iv.,  sec.  11.  4  Church  Uistory,  vol.  ii.,  p.  317. 


EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED.  553 

off  entirely  from  notes,  or  committed  to  memory ;  sometimes  they 
Avere  freely  delivered,  after  a  plan  prepared  beforehand ;  and  some- 
times they  were  altogether  extemporary."  Augustine,^  though  he 
often  extemporised,  recommended  the  practice  of  recitation  to 
those  who  could  not  write  their  own  sermons — a  practice  which, 
after  the  tenth  century,  was  almost  imiversally  adopted.  Atticus, 
Bishop  of  Constantinople  (A.  D.  408),  preached  extemporaneously, 
but  while  i:)resbyter  he  often  composed  his  sermons  and  committed 
them  to  memory.2 

Calvin,  it  would  seem,  wrote  many  of  his  sermons,  but  respecting 
his  usual  mode  of  delivery  we  know  nothing  except  this,  that,  as 
we  have  in  the  first  book  shown,  he  was  not  such  a  servant  of  words 
as  to  be  without  that  liberty  of  speech  which  the  Spirit  inspired. 
Luther  preached  out  of  the  book,  not  of  necessity,  as  if  he  could  not 
do  otherwise,  but  for  the  sake  of  setting  an  example  to  othere.'^ 
Most  of  the  distinguished  preachers  of  France,  as  Bourdaloue,  Bos- 
suet,  and  Saurin,  wrote  their  sermons  and .  delivered  them  from 
memory.  Massillon,  however,  having  on  one  occasion  forgotten 
what  he  was  to  deliver,  was  so  intimidated  by  the  occurrence  that 
he  ever  after  read  his  sermons;  and  Bourdaloue,  lest  bis  memory 
should  fail,  preached  with  his  eyes  closed  (except  when  he  glanced 
at  his  manuscript),  his  hands  united  and  reposing  on  the  pulpit,  and 
his  body  motionless.  Taylor,  South,  and  Barrow  wrote  and  read 
their  sermons.*     The  great  Puritan  preachers  could  for  the  most 

1  De  Doct.  Christ.,  L.  iv.,  c.  xxis.  2  Socrates,  Eccles.  Hist.,  L.  vii.,  c.  ii. 

3  Table  Talk,  c.  vii.  The  more  recent  followers  of  Luther  have  delivered  their 
sermons  from  memory.  Thus  did  Herder  and  Reinhard.  In  his  early  years 
Schleiermacher  wrote  his  sermons,  and  where  much  was  expected  from  him,  as 
in  his  discourses  before  magistrates,  he  read  them;  but  in  later  life  he  extempo- 
rised with  great  ease  and  dignity.  Schott  and  Palmer  are  averse  to  the  reading 
of  sermons.  The  former  says  that  the  principle  he  maintains  is  not  overthrown 
by  the  single  exceptions  of  skilful  and  celebrated  preachers  who,  on  account  of 
peculiar  circumstances  and  the  important  contents  of  their  sermons,  have  been 
obliged  to  read,  and  who,  from  the  general  love  and  respect  they  enjoyed,  and 
their  manner,  have  read  their  sermons  not  without  great  and  blessed  success. 
Palmer,  in  the  fifth  edition  of  his  Evangelische  HomileiiJc,  has  greatly  moderated 
his  strictures  on  those  who  read  their  sermons  (cf.  pp.  602-3,  first  ed.,  and  p, 
519,  fifth  ed.). 

4  Archbishop  Whitgift,  whose  practice  was  the  same,  used  to  say  that  if  he 
trusted  to  his  memory  only  his  preaching  would  in  time  become  prattling.  His 
biographer  says  of  extemporisers,  that  "whether  sense  or  nonsense,  all  is  one 
running  like  a  horse  with  an  empty  cart  over  hedge  and  ditch,  till  the  hour-glass 
stops  them."  Not  a  hundred  years  ago  a  curate  was  hunted  from  a  London 
pulpit  because  it  was  his  custom  to  raise  his  eyes  from  his  manuscript. — JSeaWs 
Mediaeval  Freaching,  p.  10. 


554  EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

part  adopt  the  language  of  Baxter :  '•  I  use  notes  as  much  as  any 
man  wlien  I  take  pains,  and  as  little  as  any  man  -svhen  I  am  lazy,  or 
busy,  and  have  no  time  to  prepare."  Manton  and  Calamy  Avere 
readers.  Wesley  and  Whitefield  were  in  the  habit  of  preaching 
extemporaneously,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  they  repeated 
their  sermons,  some  of  them  fifty  times ;  and  yet  they  wrote  very 
many  of  their  sermons,  and  either  committed  them  verbally  or  in 
substance.  Davies  never  departed  from  the  words  of  his  manu- 
script; in  his  earlier  years  he  preached  lyiemoriter  ;  in  his  later  he 
always  read.  D  wight  preached  at  first  from  short  notes,  but  after- 
wards wrote  his  sermons  and  read  them  as  they  were  written. 
Principal  Campbell,  the  author  of  the  Rhetoric,  after  extemporising 
many  years,  finally  adoj^ted  and  recommended  the  practice  of  writ- 
ing and  reading.  Dr.  J.  M.  Mason  preached  niemoriter  and  c.ciem- 
pore  in  the  beginning  of  his  ministry ;  but  towards  the  close  of  his 
life  the  failure  of  his  memory  compelled  him  to  read  his  sermons. 
This  he  did,  we  are  told,  not  without  a  severe  mental  struggle,  as 
he  had  all  the  old  Scottish  prejudice  against  what  he  called  "read- 
ers of  the  Gospel,"  and  had  said  some  severe  things  about  them. 
Among  the  readers  of  sermons  stand  Edwards  and  Chalmers,  Gor- 
don and  Harris,  James  Hamilton,  D'Aubigne  of  Geneva,  Van  Der 
Pj^lm  of  Leyden,  AYilliam  Anderson  and  George  Gilfillan,  Scottish 
preachers  both.  Payson  wrote  and  read  his  sermons  for  the  sec- 
ond service  of  Sunday,  but  extemporised  on  Sunday  mornings  and 
Thursday  evenings.  He  seems  to  have  adopted  the  invaluable  pre- 
cept of  Quintilian  :i  "  I  know  not  whether  both  exercises,  when 
we  perform  them  with  care  and  assiduity,  are  not  reciprocally  ben- 
eficial, as  it  appears  by  writing  we  speak  with  greater  accuracy,  and 
by  speaking  we  write  with  greater  ease." 

"We  are  often  told  that  the  reading  of  sermons  is  unfriendly  to 
revivals.  But  Payson,  Davies,  and  Edwards  were  revivalists,  of 
whom  the  last  named  and  most  successful  always  read  from  his 
MS.,  without  a  single  gesture.  The  Presbyterian  church  at  Hano- 
ver, Va.,  originated  iii  the  divine  blessing  on  the  reading  of  White- 
field's  sermons  by  laymen.  Luther,  Latimer,  Baxter,  and  Chal- 
mers^  were  at  once  readers  and  revivalists. 

The  improvisators  of  the  Gospel  who  preach  without  any  pre- 
meditation whatever  belong  to  a  difterent  class.  Those  among  the 
ancient  orators  who  had  this  power  were  said  to  be  inspired  with  a 

1  Inst.  Drat.,  L.  x.,  c.  vii.,  s.  29. 

2  Dr.  Chalmers  did  on  some  occasions  speak  from  memory,  but  that  he  ever 
in  any  sense  preached  extemporaneously  waits  to  be  proved. 


EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED.  555 

deity.  Plato  accounts  oracle-singers  inspired,  and  not  only  proph- 
ets who  interpreted  their  words  but  also  statesmen  when  in  their 
speeches  they  direct  aright  many  and  great  affairs,  without  knowing 
beforehand  anything  of  what  they  are  saying.  And  LonginusS  thinks 
that  when  Demosthenes  uttered  his  celebrated  oath  he  was  in- 
spired by  Apollo.  Philostratus^  asserts  that  ^schines  was  the 
first  to  speak  thus  divinely,  i.e.,  extemporise  fluently,  without  prepar- 
ation ;  while  Cicero^  tells  us  that  Gorgias  of  Leontium  was  the  first 
who  put  himself  forward  in  an  assembly  to  speak  on  any  subject 
his  hearers  might  suggest,  but  he  pronounces  it  a  bold  proceeding. 
Origen,  according  to  Suidas  and  Epiphanius,  once  preached  at  Je- 
rusalem from  the  first  text  that  met  his  eyes.  This  happened  to  be 
Psa.  1.  16 ;  and  be  improvised  so  pathetically  upon  it  that  his 
audience  was  melted  into  tears.  Bingham^  proves  that  Chrysostom 
and  Augustine  sometimes  preached  without  previous  study  of  their 
texts.  The  distinguished  Catholic  preachers,  Cardinal  Bellarmin 
and  Abbe  MacCarthy  sometimes  improvised  and  habitually  extem- 
porised.G  It  is  very  evident  that  improvisation  will  in  general  be  the 
most  easy  to  those  who  have  long  been  in  the  habit  of  extemporis- 
ing, and  to  those  who  have  learned  to  write  their  discourses  with 
great  rapidity. 

But  we  were  discussing  the  comparative  merits  of  reading 
sermons.  The  more  thoroughly  we  investigate  our  subject  the 
more  will  we  incline  to  the  opinion  of  Goethe  that  the  limits  be- 
tween reading  and  speaking  are  very  narrow.  Urge  not,  therefore, 
against  the  reading  of  sermons,  the  objection  that  it  is  calculated  to 
foster  msincerity  and  false  pretension.  "  What  can  be  more  ludi- 
crous," exclaims  the  witty  Sidney  Smith,  "  than  an  orator  delivermg 
stale  indignation  and  fervor  of  a  week  old."  If  the  orator  could  lay 
aside,  with  his  pen,  his  indignation  or  any  other  passion  that  be- 
longed to  his  theme,  and  then,  after  the  interval  of  a  week,  deliver 
his  discourse  without  any  of  the  passions  or  feelings  he  experienced 
while  composing,  this  would  be  a  proper  occasion  for  lamentation 
rather  than  laughter.  But  generally  the  earnest  man  does  not  thus 
lose  interest  in  his  subject :  so  far  from  it,  his  mind  goes  on  warm- 
ing with  the  lapse  of  time  ;  the  longer  he  muses  the  more  fiercely 
does  the  fire  burn.    Writing  laid  fuel  on  the  coals  which  invention  had 


1  Meno.,  c.  xli.  2  De  Sublim.,  c.  xvi. 

3  De  Vitis  Sophistarum,  L.  xviii.,  c.  iii. 

4  De  Orat.,  L.  i.,  c.  xxii. ;  and  De  Fin.,  L.  ii.,  1  ;  Quint.,  L.  x.,  c.  vi.,  s.  20. 

5  Antiquities,  xiv.,  c.  iv.,  s.  11. 

6  Lezioni  di  Sacra  Eloquenza,  par  D.  AV.  Audisio,  tome  i.,  Lez.  27. 


556  EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

collected,  and  each  day's  recurrence  to  the  subject  has  served  to  fan 
the  flames,  until  the  hour  of  delivery  finds  his  heart  a  '  furnace  ex- 
ceeding hot,  heated,  it  may  be,  seven  times  more  than  it  was  wont 
to  be  heated.'  And  while  discoursing,  he  knows  that  the  feelings 
of  his  auditors  will  be  all  the  more  deeply  stirred  Avhen  he  tells 
them  tliat  he  has  thought  of  the  subject  frequently  and  long ;  nay, 
honestly  reminds  them,  perhaps,  that  this  is  not  the  first  time  he 
has  drawn  their  attention  thereto,  and  can  sincerely  adopt  the  lan- 
guage of  the  apostle  :  "  I  have  told  you  often,  and  now  tell  you 
even  weeping.'"  Alas  for  the  poor  preacher  who  imagines  he  must 
read  his  sermon  with  no  higher  degree  of  fervor  than  that  with 
which  he  composed  it. 

Extemporising  is  equally  exposed  to  the  same  unfriendly  influ- 
ences as  those  complained  of  above.  One  professor  says  to  the 
young  extemporiser,  "  Do  not  stop.  Talk  at  random  even — any- 
thing rather  than  stop."  We  would  rather  say,  If  you  have  broken 
down  do  not  try  to  conceal  the  fact ;  on  such  occasions  nothing 
pleases  a  congregation  so  greatly  as  honesty  and  plain-dealing.  We 
much  like  the  conduct  of  Mr.  Binney  of  London,  who,  when  his 
memory  fails  him  pauses  and  tells  the  audience  so,  and  then  imme- 
diately recovering  the  clue  goes  forward  to  his  conclusion.  Once, 
Avhen  Father  Taylor  of  Boston  M'as  preaching  to  his  audience  of 
seamen,  he  lost  himself  in  a  thicket  of  accumulated  clauses :  he 
extricated  himself  by  the  exclamation :  "  I  have  lost  track  of  the 
nominative  case,  but,  my  brethren,  one  thing  I  know,  1  cua  bound 
for  the  Idtujdoni  of  hewienP  A  preacher  seldom  loses  any  esteem 
by  such  frankness,  and  if  he  lost  all  esteem  by  it,  he  had  better  be 
frank  nevertheless. 

We  are  often  told  that  the  grand  objection  against  the  practice 
of  reading  sermons  is  that  we  thereby  destroy  that  naturalness 
and  informality  of  delivery  which  arc  secured  by  improvising  and 
extemporising.  But  little  as  we  may  have  observed  the  fact,  it  is 
nevertheless  true  that  both  improvising  and  extemporising  are  ex- 
ceedingly apt  to  foster  habits  of  formal  and  imnatural  delivery, 
while  the  speaker,  moreover,  is  so  absorbed  in  the  matter  and  lan- 
guage of  his  sermon  that  he  is  the  last  man  to  detect  the  faults  of 
his  own  elocution.  Rev.  George  Gregory,^  having  tried  various 
methods  of  delivering  sermons,  did  not  hesitate  to  give  his  prefer- 
ence to  reading :  "  Though,"  says  lie,  "  in  speaking  extonpore  the 
emphasis  Avill  in  general  be  right,  this  is  more  than  coimterbalanced 
by  defects  of  modulation,  and  by  the  want  of  that  harmonious  and 


1  Composition  and  Delivery  of  Sermons. 


EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED.  557 

full  conclusion  of  the  periods  which  may  be  eflfected  when  we  are 
previously  acquainted  with  the  extent  of  the  sentence."  Charles 
De  la  Rue  is  described  by  Gisbert^  as  having  an  astonishing  facility 
of  conception  and  expression,  and  as  being  a  model  of  sublime,  ten- 
der, and  pathetic  eloquence ;  and  yet  he  always  read  his  sermons, 
contending  that  he  not  only  thus  saved  the  time  he  would  have 
spent  in  committing  to  memory,  but  that,  being  at  ease  "jvith  his 
notes  before  him,  he  could  deliver  his  sermon  with  greater  anima- 
tion. 

"  But,"  it  is  said,  "  a  discourse  which  from  its  fineness  and  pre- 
cision of  ideas  is  too  difficult  for  a  preacher  to  deliver  without  MS. 
is  too  difficult  for  a  hearer  to  follow ;  and  if  a  book  be  imperative 
for  teaching,  it  is  also  imperative  for  learning."  This  objector  ig- 
nores a  principle  which  the  history  of  Didactics  has  established, 
namely,  that  he  is  not  the  best  teacher  who  can  best  memorize  the 
matter  of  his  instruction,  but  he  who  can  best  formulate,  method- 
ise, illustrate,  and  express  it  in  written  words.  Besides,  he  forgets 
that  there  is  veiy  little  of  most  good  sermons  that  hearers  need  to 
learn  by  heart.  If  there  is  any  book  that  most  deserves  commit- 
ting to  memory  it  is  the  Bible;  and  yet,  if  this  objector  be  right, 
his  audience  would  be  right  if  they  refused  to  hear  him  read  the 
Scriptures,  and  said  to  him,  "  If  the  lessons  for  the  day  are  too  diffi- 
cult for  you  to  repeat  to  us  from  memory,  then  they  are  too  difficult 
for  us  to  consider  and  practice." 

Much  is  said,  and  truly,  of  the  importance  of  acquiring  a  facility 
in  extemporary  speaking.  We  we  not  opposed  to  the  early  forma- 
tion of  a  habit  of  extempore  preaching.  Far  from  that;  but  we 
are  opposed  to  those  who  teach  the  young  preacher  to  extemporise 
prematurely  and  exclusively.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  most 
zealous  advocates  of  the  false  principle  that  nothing  but  extempor- 
ising is  preaching  have  been  men  who  prepared  themselves  to 
adoj^t  this  mode  of  delivery  by  long  practice  in  writing  and  read- 
ing or  reciting.  They  appealed  to  their  own  success,  whereas  they 
should  rather  have  encouraged  young  men  to  pursue  that  long  and 
thorough  course  of  preparation  whereby  they  achieved  their  suc- 
cess. Would  you  then  commend  to  our  imitation  the  example  of 
Origen,  Louis  Wolsogen,  Schleiermacher,  Thomas  Scott,  Wayland, 
and  many  others  who  did  not  begin  to  speak  extemporaneously 
before  they  reached  the  period  of  middle  life  ?  Not  to  all ;  but  to 
some,  and  especially  to  those  who  are  naturally  either  too  slow  of 
speech,  or  too  fluent.     From  Quintilian'so  opinion,  that  the  power  • 

1  Christian  Eloquence.  2  Inst.,  L.  x.,  c.  vii.,  s.  1. 


558  EXTEMPORISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

of  extempore  speaking  is  the  crowning  fruit  of  stiuly  and  the  great- 
est recomiiense  of  long  labour,  some  have  inferred  that  he  did  not 
favour  any  but  late  attemjits  of  this  kind ;  but  he  is  Avriting  about 
the  rewards  of  a  thorough  training  in  rhetoric,  not  of  long  practice 
in  speaking.  Both  he  and  Ciceroi  set  much  store  by  writing  as  a 
preparation  for  this  mode  of  delivery.  Let  the  student  therefore 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  rhetoric,  and  form  a  habit  of  writing  ora- 
torically  before  he  gives  himself  fixedly  to  this  practice ;  otherwise 
he  will  be  in  danger  of  forming  bad  habits  without  knowing  that 
they  are  bad,  and  of  remaining  forever  ignorant  of  the  best  way 
for  him  to  compose  and  speak.  Of  how  many  may  we  adopt  the 
language  of  Cicero  .^  "  What  they  have  heard  deceives  them,  that 
men  by  speaking  make  themselves  speakers ;  for  equally  true  is  the 
saying,  that  men  by  si^eaking  badly  very  easily  become  bad  speak- 
ers." There  is  much  force  in  Dr.  J.  W.  Alexanders  remark,^  that 
"  a  young  man  learns  to  extemporise  just  as  puppies  are  taught  to 
swim — by  chucking  them  in."  But  we  must  add,  by  way  of  cau- 
tion, that  it  is  not  safe  to  throw  puppies  into  the  water  before  their 
eyes  are  open. 

Hereto  we  ought  to  add  a  few  cautionary  words  for  those  who 
are  laudably  aiming  to  combine  the  respective  advantages  of  good 
reading  and  good  extemporising.  For,  strange  to  think,  some  writ- 
ers regard  the  attempt  as  impracticable,  and  even  dishonest.  Thus 
Christian  Palmer,  in  the  earlier  editions^  of  his  work,  brands  with 
deception  any  endeavour  to  make  reading  appear  like  extemporis- 
ing. Though  he  omits  this  and  other  oftensive  j^assages  in  his  fifth 
edition,^  where  growing  infirmities,  perhaps,  or  twenty-five  years  of 
further  observation,  incline  him  only  to  pronounce  as  a  misfortune 
(ungliick)  the  want  of  ability  to  preach  memoriter  ;  yet  as  the  pas- 
sage is  still  quoted  with  approbation,  we  must  notice  the  foundling 
for  the  sake  of  those  who  have  adopted  it.  These  fosterers,  like 
many  others,  overlook  the  fact  before  stated,  that  in  general  writ- 
ing and  reading  do  not  tend  to  repress  feeling.  It  is  only  to  ser- 
mons written  in  the  style  of  essays  or  disquisitions  that  Palmer's 
disowned  precept  about  the  necessity  of  always  reading  in  a  tran- 
quil manner  can  with  justice  apply.  The  young  preacher  wlio  will 
learn  to  compose  in  the  oratorical  or  spoken  style,  and  especially  in 
that  form  of  it  which  is  natural  to  him,  can  without  any  unfair  or 

1  Id.,  L.  X.,  c.  vii.,  sec.  29;  Cicero,  De  Orat.,  L.  i.,  c.  xxxiii.,  sec.  150. 

2  TJt  supra.         3  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  p.  141. 
4  Homilclik,  first  ed.,  p.  603. 

6  Fifth  ed.,  p.  519;  cf.  Stier,  Keryktik.  pp.  19,'),  196. 


EXTEMPOKISING  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED.  669 

mysterious  artifice  cause  reading  to  approach  asymptotically  near 
free  speaking.'    No  three  styles  are  seemingly  more  dissimilar  than 
those  of  Lu?hcr,  Baxter,  and  Chalmers;   and  yet  they  coincide  in 
this,  that  they  are  all  oratorical.     And  accordmgly,  "hen  an  ad- 
mirk-  of  Chalmers  was  taunted  for  going  to  hear  a  preacher  who 
read  from  a  book,  she  replied,  "Ay,  ay,  the  Doctor  ""fjj^"';' °' '* 
is  felt  reading  though."     Had  he  written  his  ^e™""'  ■"  *    ^'^'^f 
a  dissertation,  his  reading  would  have  been  anything  ^t  M  ,  and  h  s 
vehemence  very  unnatural.    We  are  told  that  Chalmers,  like  Whate- 
[y,  found  readmg  the  only  corrective  for  faults  incident  to  excessive 
anlour.    It  enabled  him  to  preach  in  conformity  with  this  whole- 
some maxim  of  the  "  Methodist  Demosthenes,"  Samuel  Bradburn 
"Be  neither  an  air  balloon  nor  a  steam  engine  but  as  the  moon 
walking  in  brightness,  and  as  the  sun  in  all  his  glory. 

1  Wliately's  Rliet.,  Pt.  iv.,  chap,  iii.,  ^1- 


5G0  OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS. 

Acted  jiarablcs,  like  spoken  ones,  are  not  intended  as  mere  illus- 
trations (for  they  themselves  often  need  explanation),  but  are  de- 
signed also  to  excite  curiosity  and  exhibit  objects  to  the  imagina- 
tion, and  thus  leave  on  the  mind  and  heart  an  ineffaceable  impres- 
sion. 

The  custom  of  speaking  by  visible  representations  is  older  than 
the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt,  and  seems  as  natural  to  all  men  as  vo- 
cal language  itself.  Sending  land  and  water  to  the  ancient  Per- 
sians was  considered  as  a  formal  acknowledgment  of  their  suprem- 
acy. Thrasibulus,  the  Milesian,  advised  Periander,  the  Tyrant,  to 
destroy  the  chief  citizens  of  Corinth  by  the  symbolical  act  of 
breaking  off  the  highest  ears  of  wheat.  Tarquin  conveyed  like 
counsel  to  his  son  as  to  the  princii^al  men  of  Gabii,  by  leading  the 
Gabinian  messenger  into  his  garden  and  striking  oiF  with  his  staflf 
the  heads  of  the  tallest  poppies.  Cato,  wishing  to  give  the  Roman 
Senate  a  vivid  idea  of  the  nearness  of  Carthage,  held  up  a  fresh  fig 
plucked  in  that  city  only  three  days  before.  The  Roman  ambas- 
sadors declared  war  in  the  Senate  of  Carthage  by  throwing  open 
the  lap  of  their  robes.  When  Trajan  was  in  Egypt  he  consulted 
the  oracle  at  Hcliopolis,  whether  he  should  successfully  finish  the 
Parthian  war  and  return  to  Rome.  He  received  for  an  answer  a 
vine-twig  wrapped  up  in  a  napkm,  and  divided  into  many  parts. 
This  was  thought  to  be  verified  by  the  carrying  of  Trajan's  bones 
to  Rome.  Pilate  washed  his  hands  before  the  multitude  in  order 
to  declare,  according  to  a  Levitical  ceremony,  that  he  was  innocent 
of  the  murder  of  Christ. 

The  acted  parables  or  symbolical  actions  of  the  prophets  (the 
facta  prophetlca  of  the  old  theologians),  as  recorded  in  their  his- 
tory and  writings,  are  many  and  various.  Thus  we  are  told  that  once 
when  Jeroboam^  went  out  of  Jerusalem,  the  prophet  Ahijah  found 
him  in  the  way;  "and  he  had  clad  himself  with  a  new  garment. 

1  Deut.  xxi.  G,  7  ;  Psa.  xxvi.  G;  Ixxiii.  13.  2  1  Kings  xi.  29-31. 


OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS.  561 

And  Ahijah  caught  the  new  garment  that  was  ou  him,  and  rent  it 
in  twelve  pieces,  and  said  to  Jeroboam,  '  Take  thee  ten  pieces ;  for 
thus  saith  the  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel,  Behold,  I  will  rend  the 
kingdom  out  of  the  hand  of  Solomon,  and  will  give  ten  tribes  to 
thee.'"  The  Rationalist  Knobeli  would  make  a  difficulty  here. 
He  cannot  believe  that  a  man  of  this  jDrophet's  culture  could  be  so 
carried  away  with  his  zeal  as  to  rend  and  ruin  his  new  cloak.  But 
he  forgets  how  common  a  thing  it  was  for  kings  to  rend  the  most 
costly  garments,  whereas  this  was  probably  a  large  square  of  cloth 
such  as  is  by  a  modern  Arab  cast  over  his  shoulders  as  a  covering 
by  day  and  used  as  a  coverlet  by  night.  This  is  the  first  instance 
of  the  kind.  The  next  is  that  of  Zedekiah,2  who  made  him  horns 
of  iron,  and  said,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  '  With  these  shalt  thou 
push  the  Syrians  until  thou  have  consumed  them.' "  He  was  indeed 
a  false  prophet,  and  some  may  therefore  object  that  he  is  not  a  fit- 
ting example  to  cite  here ;  but  we  have  to  remember  that  the  false 
prophets  ever  endeavoured  to  imitate  the  true  ones.  Sometimes, 
instead  of  performing  these  acts  themselves,  they  requested  others 
to  do  so,  as  when  the  prophet  Elisha,^  during  his  last  sickness,  bade 
Joash,  King  of  Israel,  smite  on  the  ground  with  his  arrows,  and  as 
when  Jeremiah*  sent  a  prophecy  written  against  Babylon  by  the 
hand  of  Seraiah,  with  the  command  to  read  it  to  the  exiles,  and 
then  bind  a  stone  to  it  and  cast  it  into  the  midst  of  Euphrates,  say- 
ing, "  Thus  shall  Babylon  sink,"  etc.  In  some  cases  the  {)rophet 
himself  becomes  a  passive  type  of  a  suffering  nation,  as  when  a 
disciple  of  the  prophets^  said  to  one  of  his  fellow  disciples,  "  Smite 
me,"  as  a  sign  of  God's  judgment  on  the  Syrians.  In  the  primitive 
Christian  time  the  prophet  Agabus^  bound  himself  with  a  girdle 
as  an  ocular  prediction  of  the  bonds  that  awaited  Paul  at  Jeru- 
salem. 

It  being  thus  established  that  the  prophets  made  symbolical  ac- 
tions a  part  of  their  delivery,  it  is  reasonable  to  infer  that  when- 
ever we  find  in  the  history  or  writing  of  the  prophets  accounts  of 
such  actions,  they  were  many  times  really  and  externally  performed, 
and  not,  as  some  hold,  internally  or  in  vision  alone.  If  they  are 
represented  as  mere  visions  or  parables,  the  connection  and  style 
will  in  most  cases  enable  us  so  to  determine ;  thus  where,  under  the 
type  of  a  wine  cnp,  Jeremiah  (xxv.  15-38)  predicts  the  destruction 
of  all  nations,  the  very  first  sentence  decides  the  question :  "  Thus 

1  Prtypheiismiis,  vol.  i.,  chap,  iv.,  sec.  38.  2  1  Kings  xxii.  11. 

3  2  Kings  xiii.  14-19.  4  Jer.  li.  60-61 ;  also  1  Sam.  xv.  27,  28. 

5  1  Kings  XX.  35-43.  6  Acts  xxi.  10-13. 


562  OF  SYMBOLTCAL  ACTIONS. 

saith  the  Lord,  Take  the  wine  cu]^  of  this  fury  at  my  hand."  So 
in  the  visions  (Ezek.,  chaps,  viii.-xi.).  The  suggestive  action  of 
loosing  the  sackcloth  and  going  naked  (Isa.,  chap,  xx.)  is  ])y  some 
critics  thought  to  have  been  a  mere  vision,  on  the  ground  that  such 
an  exposure  would  have  been  inconsistent  with  decency ;  but  other 
critics  have  shown  that  a  man  was  sometimes  described  as  naked 
when  he  had  only  thrown  off  his  outer  clothing  or  upper  garment. 
The  account  of  tlie  hiding  of  the  linen  girdle  (Jer.  xiii.  1-10)  has, 
notwithstanding  the  objections  of  some  writers,  every  mark  of  an 
historical  proceeding.  We  have  no  good  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  prophets  either  of  the  Hebrews  or  of  other  nations  confined 
their  labours  to  their  native  land.  Jonah  had  intercourse  with  the 
polytheistic  mariners  of  the  Mediterranean  as  well  as  the  inhabit- 
ants of  monotheistic  Nineveh.  x\hab  sent  to  various  kingdoms 
and  nations  in  order  to  secure  the  person  of  Elijah.  Other  proph- 
ets fleeing  from  persecution,  or  else  from  real  or  accidental  crimes 
like  manslaying,  would  sometimes  naturally  seek  refuge  among  the 
Gentiles.  Similarly  a  Homeric  prophet,  Polypheides,  leaves  his 
country  because  of  a  quarrel  with  his  father;  so  also  did  the  seer, 
Theoclymenus,  on  account  of  his  having  committed  homicide.  If 
Jeremiah  made  this  journey  to  the  Euphrates,  it  explains  the  fact 
that  a  special  command  was  given  in  his  favour  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar (chap,  xxxiv.  11),  who  probably  made  the  prophet's  acquaint- 
ance ditring  this  very  visit  to  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans. 

But  a  full  discussion  of  these  questions  would  lead  us  too  far  out 
of  our  way.  Passing  forward,  then,  to  the  prophets  of  the  new  dis- 
pensation we  also  find  our  Lord,  the  Prophet  of  prophets,  teaching 
and  exhorting  by  symbolical  actions.  When  his  disciples  asked 
him  who  was  the  greatest  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  he  called  a  lit- 
tle child  to  him,  and  set  him  in  the  midst  of  them,  and  said,  '•  Verily 
I  say  unto  you,  unless  ye  be  converted  and  become  as  little  children^ 
ye  shall  not  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  Whosoever,  there- 
fore, shall  humble  himself  as  this  little  child,  the  same  is  greatest  in 
the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  etc.  (Matt,  xviii.  1-6).  Three  times  did  the 
Teacher  of  teachers  i)robably  ])oint  to  this  child  in  the  course  of 
his  admonition.  Many  of  his  miracles  appear  to  have  been  recorded 
rather  than  the  others  he  wrought,  because  they  were  designed 
to  be  understood  not  only  as  proof  of  his  divine  mission,  but  also  as 
acted  parables  which  illustrated  and  enforced  his  new  teachings.^ 
When  he  drove  the  traders  out  of  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  he  de- 
clared his  zeal  for  the  sanctity  of  the  temple  as  a  house  of  prayer 


1  Mutt.  xxi.  21,  22  ;  Mark  xi.  13-22  ;  vii.  33  ;  Jolin  i.\.  G. 


OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS.  563 

for  all  nations,  thus  teaching  by  this  significant  action  that  the 
Gospel  was  offered,  not  to  the  Jews  only,  but  to  the  Gentiles  as 
well.  So  when  he  washed  his  disciples'  feet  he  taught  them  that  in 
humility  they  should  serve  one  another.  And  when  he  appeared 
to  his  disciples  on  the  evening  of  his  resurrection  he  breathed  on 
them  and  said,  "  Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost."  In  this  way  he 
taught  them  that  he  would  send  them  the  Divine  Spirit,  who 
should  be  to  them  as  the  breath  of  a  new  life. 

His  disciples  were  likewise  to  shake  off  the  dust  of  their  feet  as  a 
token  of  renunciation  of  all  share  in  the  guilt  of  the  houses  and 
cities  that  rejected  the  Gospel.  Accordingly  Paul  and  Barnabas 
shook  off  the  dust  of  their  feet  against  the  Jews  of  Antioch  ;  and 
Paul  shook  his  raiment  as  a  testimony  against  the  Jews  of  Corinth. 
Not  a  few  instances  of  ocular  proof  and  persuasion  are  given  in  the 
works  of  Cicero,  Quintilian,  and  others.  Thus  the  great  orator 
Antonius  is  represented  by  Cicero^  as  putting  himself  forward  as  a 
good  example  of  this  kind  of  visible  appeal  to  judges,  when,  as  he 
boasts,  he  led  into  court  his  client  Manius  Aquilius,  an  old  man 
clad  in  mourning,  and  enforced  his  pathetic  address  by  tearing  open 
the  tunic  of  the  veteran  and  exhibiting  his  scars  as  evidence  of  his 
patriotism.  Cicero2  relates  that  on  one  occasion  he  had  himself  held 
a  young  child  in  his  hands  while  summing  up,  and  when  again  a 
man  of  noble  birth  was  on  trial,  he  lifted  up  his  little  son — an  action 
that  filled  the  forum  with  wailing  and  lamentation.  So  Mark  An- 
tony3  showed  to  the  people  the  torn  tunic  of  Ccesar,  exclaiming, 
"  Ah,  wounded  and  mangled  tunic  !  O  Cresar,  the  invincible  !  O 
invincible  Caesar,  didst  thou  put  this  on  that  thou  mightest  die  in 
it!" 

Object  not  that  such  demonstrations  would  now  provoke  derision, 
that  Burke's  "  dagger  scene,"  was  ridiculed  by  Sheridan,  who  said, 
"  The  gentleman  has  shown  us  the  knife  ;  now  where  is  the  fork  ?  " 
But  it  is  justly  doubted  whether  Sheridan  uttered  such  a  jeer  when 
the  House  was  in  a  very  serious  and  deeply  agitated  mood.*  Gilray 
did  indeed  afterwards  caricature  the  scene,  not  Burke,  however, 
but  Pitt  and  Dundas,  who  are  represented  as  horror-stricken  at  the 
object  presented  to  their  view,  while  Fox  and  Sheridan  are  deline- 
ated as  gloomy  and  alarmed  conspirators,  whose  diabolical  plots 
have  been  thus  revealed.  But  a  recital  of  all  the  facts  in  this  case 
would  be  prolix.     The  wonder  is  that  the  "  dagger  scene  "  was  not 

1  De  Orat.,  L.  ii.,  c.  xlvii.         2  Orator,  c,  xxxviii.  3  Dion  Cassius,  L.  xliv. 

4  Thos.  Macknight's  Life  and  Times  of  Burke,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  601-503  (Lond., 
1860).  Cf.  Twiss'  Life  of  Lord  Eldon,  vol.  i.,  p.  152. 


564  OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS. 

more  ridiculed  than  it  appears  to  have  been  by  an  age  so  prosy 
that,  as  we  are  told,  it  heard  Burke  with  little  attention,  and  ac- 
counted him  a  third-rate  speaker ! — an  age  that  read  with  threat 
admiration  the  graceful  but  unima<nnative  sermons  of  Dr.  IIuMi 
Blair.  But  the  English  of  to-day  approve  demonstrations  that  are 
as  superfluous  as  Burke's  was.  The  late  Prof.  Faraday  did  not 
think  he  was  insulting  the  intelligence  of  his  audience  when  he 
dropped  a  stone  in  order  to  illustrate  gravitation.  And  even  Cic- 
ero (Academics,  L.  ii.,  c.  xlvii.)  did  not  consider  it  beneath  the  dig- 
nity of  philosophy  to  repeat  the  anecdote  about  Zeno's  use  of  his 
hands  and  fingers  to  illustrate  the  difference  between  perception, 
assent,  comprehension,  and  knowledge.  And  we  are  not  without 
other  examples  in  which  the  rhetorical  propriety  of  the  actions 
have  never  been  questioned.  At  the  time  Augustine'  forbade  the 
people  to  keep  the  festival  of  Leontius  with  their  usual  carousals, 
he  heard  that  some  murmured,  saying,  "  Were  not  those  who  hith- 
erto permitted  this  custom  Christians  ?  "  He  therefore  deliberately 
purposed  that  if,  contrary  to  his  prohibition,  the  people  would  still 
keep  the  festival  with  the  usual  rejoicings,  he  would  go  into  the 
pulpit  in  the  moraing  and  read  to  them  Ezek.  xxviii.  9,  where  it  is 
said  that  if  the  watchman  warn  the  wicked,  he  has  delivered  his 
own  soul,  and  afterwards  shake  the  dust  off  his  own  garments  in 
their  presence  and  return  home.  His  pathetic  sermon,  however, 
preached  the  day  before,  had  dissuaded  them  from  their  usual  riotings 
and  so  prevented  this  solemn  demonstration.  An  example  equally 
worthy  of  attention  is  found  in  the  life  of  Alexander  Peden,  "  the 
Scottish  Prophet."  At  the  time  of  his  ejectment,  while  coming 
down  the  pulpit- at  the  close  of  his  farewell  sermon,  he  knocked  on 
the  door  three  times  with  his  Bible,  saying,  "  I  arrest  thee,  in  my 
Master's  name,  that  any  never  enter  thee  but  such  as  come  in  at  the 
door  as  I  did."  And  it  Avas  notably  the  case  that  neither  P^pisco- 
pal  curate  nor  indulged  Presbyterian  ever  entered  that  pulpit  till 
after  the  Revolution, 

But  we  do  well  if  we  occasionally  glance  at  the  reverse  of  the 
medal.  Nothing  is  more  easy,  we  must  add  by  way  of  caution, 
than  for  the  enthusiastic  young  preacher  to  allow  himself  to  be  car- 
ried beyond  decorum  in  the  invention  and  use  of  emblems  and 
acted  parables.  And  to  keep  him  on  his  guard  against  the  abuse  of 
his  Scriptural  liberty  in  this  respect,  we  now  cite  an  instance  or  two 
of  such  abuse :    Father  HonorcS  was  a  French  Capuchin  preacher 

1  Epist.  xxix.,  ()8,  ad  Alypiura. 

2  Predicatoriana,  bj'  G.  Peignot,  Dijon,  1811,  pp.  198,  199. 


OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS.  565 

• 
of  much  natural  earnestness.  Bourdaloue  said  of  him,  that  though 
he  galled  the  ear  he  could  rend  the  heart.  He  used  to  preach  a 
sermon  on  the  vanity  of  the  world,  in  Avhich  a  skull  played  a  con- 
spicuous part.  This  skull,  with  various  attire,  he  hid  behind  the  desk 
or  lifted  above  it  with  great  dexterity,  according  to  the  character 
he  intended  to  represent.  Now  the  audience  beheld  the  skull  cov- 
ered with  the  flowing  hair  of  the  magistrate.  This  he  would  ad- 
dress, saying,  "  Art  not  thou  the  head  of  a  magistrate  ?  Once 
thou  didst,  etc.,  but  now,"  etc.  Again  the  skull  betrayed  the 
curled  tresses  of  the  gay  man  of  fashion,  and  was  addressed  ac- 
cordingly. Then  the  death's  head  was  surmounted  with  the  hero's 
mihtary  plumes ;  next,  perhaps,  with  a  female  head-dress,  which  va- 
ried according  to  the  character  either  of  a  prude  or  a  coquette,  a 
widow  or  a  nun. 

Another  instance  of  the  abuse  of  visible  representation  was  Wil- 
Ham  Dawson,  an  English  Methodist  preacher  and  farmer.  He 
loved  to  repeat  a  sermon  of  his  from  the  text,  "  The  Lord  shut  him 
in."  After  announcing  the  text  in  the  pulpit,  his  first  movement 
was  out  of  it.  "  This,"  he  would  say,  "  won't  do."  He  went  down 
the  pulpit  stairs,  and  standing  in  the  large  class-leader's  pew,  he 
supposed  himself  to  be  Noah,  the  pulpit  to  be  the  ark  which  he 
was  building,  and  the  hearers  around  him  to  be  the  ungodly  world 
to  which  the  patriarch  was  preaching  righteousness.  Meanwhile 
the  ark  was  building  and  filling  with  animals  of  all  sorts.  As  Daw- 
son talked  he  gradually  mounted  the  pulpit  step  by  step  till  he 
reached  the  door,  then  slamming  it  to,  he  would  shout,  "  The  Lord 
shut  him  in !  "  And  now  the  flood,  the  fall  of  rocks  and  crags  and 
the  shrieking  of  perishing  sinners  rose  around,  while  the  ark  drifted 
safely  over  the  billows,  amidst  the  terrors  of  thunder  and  lightning 
and  howling  tempest.  He  was  wont  to  preach  another  startling 
sermon  from  the  text :  "  He  brought  me  up  also  out  of  the  horrible 
pit,"  etc.  The  colloquy  between  the  preacher  and  some  person  he 
supposed  to  be  beneath  the  pulpit,  down  in  the  miry  clay,  was  of- 
ten spoken  of  by  those  who  heard  it  as  a  singular  illustration  of  his 
skill  as  a  ventriloquist. 

And  yet  are  not  such  things,  even  when  managed  best,  unsuited 
to  a  cultivated  audience,  and  particularly  to  such  English  and  Anglo- 
American  audiences  as  are  very  intelligent,  who  cannot  abide  any- 
thing that  looks  like  a  premeditated  gesture  or  theatrical  display  of 
any  kind  in  the  pitlpit  ?  Would  not  even  our  theatre  and  opera- 
goers  pronounce  such  things  in  bad  taste  ? 

There  are,  no  doubt,  many  things  allowable  on  the  stage  that 
would  be  intolerable  in  the  pulpit.     But  as  emblematic  actions  and 


GGG  OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS. 

ocular  demonstrations  are  authorised  by  Scripture  examples,  as 
music  is,  why  should  the  fonner  be  shut  out  of  the  churches  any 
more  than  the  latter  is?  If  the  fashionable  world  would  prevent 
such  innovations  from  coming  into  pulpits,  or  drive  them  out  of 
puljjits  where  they  may  already  have  gained  a  footing,  let  them  be 
equally  zealous  for  the  preservation  of  what  they  deem  good  taste 
on  the  stages  of  the  opera  and  the  theatre.  But  it  is  ever  to  be 
remembered  that,  so  far  as  the  world  is  concerned,  the  preacher  is 
to  adapt  himself,  in  things  indifterent,  to  the  taste  of  the  many,  and 
not  that  of  the  few.  Garrick,^  a  few  years  before  his  death,  oifered 
to  the  public  an  amendment  of  Shakespeare's  Hamlet.  The  grave- 
diggers  were  absolutely  thrown  out  of  the  play.  The  spectators 
no  longer  saw  skull  after  skull  thrown  out  by  the.  diggers,  and 
heard  no  longer  the  hero's  address  to  the  skull  of  "  poor  Yorick." 
To  this  change  the  people  submitted  patiently  during  the  life  of 
Garrick,  but  they  did  not  approve  it.  Soon  after  the  emendator's 
death  they  called  for  Hamlet  as  it  had  been  acted  from  time  imme- 
morial, and  would  not  be  content  until  they  could  see  again  their 
old  friends  the  grave-diggers.  The  severest  critics  do,  as  we  have 
somewhere  read,  admire  the  emblematic  action  in  the  last  scene  of 
La  Sonnambula,  where  Amina,  the  unjustly  discarded  spouse  of 
Elvino,  walking  in  sleep,  takes  from  her  bosom  the  flowers  he  had 
given  her,  and  as  she  wails  the  lament,  ''Ah  non  credea,-''  she  slowly 
and  almost  unconsciously  lets  drop  leaf  by  leaf  the  sweet  pledges 
that  now  seepaed  to  her  so  sadly  faded.  If  such  things  are  not  only 
tolerated,  but  applauded,  in  the  theatre  and  the  opera,  as  we  are  told 
they  are,  and  that  by  persons  of  acknowledged  taste,  Avhy  should 
they  be  always  and  everywhere  shut  out  of  pulpits  ?  If  it  can  be 
proved  that  they  are  demoralising,  then  let  them  by  all  means  be 
avoided  and  condemned  by  all  Christian  people.  At  any  rate, 
those  v,ho  can  applaud  such  thhigs  in  places  of  amusement  as  touch- 
ing and  pathetic,  and  in  good  taste  withal,  cannot  consistently  pro- 
test against  their  appearance  in  the  pulpit  unless  they  can  show 
that  they  are  out  of  place  in  Christian  oratory. 

But  botli  Cicero  and  Burke,  illustrious  examples  of  eloquence  both, 
did,  as  Ave  have  already  seen,  exhibit  physical  objects  to  illustrate 
and  enforce  their  thoughts.  To  these  great  names  another  might 
be  added — that  of  Edward  Everett,  an  orator  who,  as  he  was  too 
fastidious,  and  elaborated  his  orations  excessively,  could  not  be 
supposed  to  have  introduced  such  objects  in  delivery  without  studi- 
ous deliberation.     Nor  did  he.     Professor  Park  says  that  while  the 

1  Dramatic  Miscellanies,  by  Thomas  Davies,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  146,  1J7,  Loud.,  1784. 


OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS.  567 

great  orator  was  preparing  an  address  to  be  delivered  before  Am- 
herst College,  lie  wrote  a  letter  to  a  friend,  asking  him  whether  it 
would  be  proper,  in  enforcing  one  of  his  thoughts,  to  put  his  finger 
in  a  glass  of  water  in  order  to  suspend  a  drop  therefrom.  Again, 
in  an  academic  address,  after  an  allusion  to  the  fiery  wire 
which  was  destined  to  travel  the  deep  soimdings  of  the  ocean, 
among  the  bones  of  lost  Armadas,  he  emphasised  the  description  by 
displaying  a  veritable  piece  of  submarine  Atlantic  Telegraph  Ca- 
ble ;  and  proceeding  to  compare  that  wire  murmuring  the  thought 
of  America  through  leagues  of  ocean  to  the  printed  page ;  more 
wonderful  as  murmuring  the  thought  of  the  poet  Homer  through 
so  many  centuries  to  us,  he  held  up  before  the  audience  a  little  vol- 
ume of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey — the  immortal  picture  unfaded  there? 
of  Hector's  parting  with  Andromache,  and  the  scenes  of  Ulysses' 
vagrancy.! 

If  the  firm  objector  urges  again,  that  though  symbolical  actions 
and  the  exhibition  of  physical  objects  may  be  proper  for  the  secular 
orator  but  not  for  the  sacred,  we  must  appeal  to  the  example  of  the 
holy  and  venerable  prophets,  or  rather  to  their  infallible  inspirer,  the 
Divine  Spirit,  and  to  the  example  of  Jesus,  the  Prophet  of  proph- 
ets. If  these  authorities  do  not  silence  the  objector,  it  surely  is 
not  because  they  have  not  the  power  to  silence  him. 

JBut  the  greatest  care  is  to  be  observed  as  to  the  occasion^  manner, 
and  object  of  using  symbolical  actions.^  The  ssnse  of  decorum  is 
not  in  all  equally  refined.  The  observances  and  customs  of  the 
Orientals  would  tolerate  many  things  which  ours  forbid.  They 
are  also  more  imaginative  and  demonstrative  than  we.  And  then 
the  question  arises,  how  frequently  may  the  best  chosen  objects  be 
introduced  in  modern  discourse  ?  The  Scripture  precedents  furnish 
no  answer.  For  we  rtiust  no  more  conclude  that  our  Lord  and  the 
other  proj^hets  made  use  of  no  representative  actions  and  visible 
similitudes  except  those  which  are  on  record,  than  we  ought  to 
conclude  that  they  preached  no  sermons  except  those  which  have 
been  reported  to  us.  All  we  can  prudently  say  is  that  right  feel- 
ing and  deep  study  must  in  each  case  determine  what  is  best. 
But  in  general  we  do  well  to  ponder  the  remark  which  Lord  Ba- 
con makes  about  parabolical  poetry :  "  It  is  not  good  to  stay  too 
long  in  the  theatre." 

Here  it  is  perhaps  worth  while  to  consider  the  best  means  of  re- 


1  E.  G.  Parker,  Esq.,  Golden  Age  of  American  Oratory,  pp.  301,  302. 

2  On  the  Abu.se  of  Visible  Representations  ;  see  Cicero,  De  Oral.,  L.  i..  c.  liii. ; 
Quint.,  L.  vi.,  c.  i;  s.  30-49; 

37 


568  OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS. 

calling  the  ■vrandcrlng  thouglits  of  the  auditory  and  sustaining  their 
interest  in  our  discourse.  The  subject  has  generally  been  thought 
unworthy  of  a  i)lace  in  modern  treatises  on  rhetoric.  Aristotle/  how- 
ever, thought  otherwise,  and  consequently  gave  some  good  advice 
respecting  what  he  terms  antidotes.  Discussing  the  question 
whether  these  belong  to  the  exordium  or  not,  he  says,  "  The  busi- 
ness of  exciting  attention  is  common  to  all  the  divisions  of  a  speech 
wherever  it  may  be  necessary.  .  .  It  is  ridiculous  to  range  this 
head  at  the  beginning,  when  more  particularly  every  one  is  giving  the 
closest  attention.  So  that  whenever  it  is  convenient  we  may  use 
the  formulary,  '  Lend  me  your  whole  attention,  for  the  question 
does  not  aftect  me  any  more  than  yourselves ; '  and  this  one, — '  for 
I  will  relate  to  you  a  thing  so  strange,  so  wonderful  that  you  never 
yet  heard  the  like.' "  Demosthenes,  we  may  add,  violates  this  rule 
in  the  introduction  of  his  oration  again.st  Aristocrates,  and  if  we 
may  believe  Plutarch,^  he  did  on  one  occasion  at  least  tell  an  anec- 
dote in  the  introduction  of  an  oration  in  order  to  secure  the  at- 
tention of  the  Athenians  who  at  first  would  not  sufter  him  to  speak, 
but  when  he  assured  them  that  he  had  only  a  short  story  to  tell, 
they  all  became  silent.  "  A  certain  young  man,''  said  he,  "  hired  an 
ass,  one  summer  day,  to  ride  from  here  to  Megara.  About  noon, 
when  the  sun  Avas  scorching,  he  and  the  owner  being  both  desirous 
of  sitting  down  on  the  ground  on  the  shady  side  of  the  ass,  thrust 
each  other  away.  The  owner  said,  '  I  hired  you  the  ass  but  not  his 
shadow.'  The  young  man  answered,  *  Did  I  not  hire  the  ass  ? 
Then  all  that  belongs  to  him  is  at  my  disposal.' ''  Demosthenes  said 
no  more,  and  seemed  inclined  to  go  his  way;  but  the  Athenians, 
wishing  to  hear  the  rest  of  the  story,  called  him  back  and  cried, 
"  Go  on  ! "  Then  he  demanded, "  How  comes  it  to  pass  that  you  are 
so  eager  to  hear  a  story  about  the  shadow  of  an  ass,  and  yet  refuse 
to  give  ear  to  matters  of  greater  importance":"' 

When  the  Great  Teacher  wished  to  recall  or  rouse  attention  he 
employed  an  epiphonema,  saying,  "  He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let 
him  hear,"  "  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you,"  "  Hearken  unto  me 
every  one  of  you."  St.  Peter  and  St.  James  said  "hearken,"  and 
St.  Paul  on  one  occasion  beckoned  with  his  hand,  saying  ''  give 
audience;"  at  another  time  he  said,  "I  beseech  thee  to  hear  me  pa- 
tiently." Some  of  those  who  preach  to  au<lioncos  of  industrious 
people  on  warm  summer  afternoons  or  evenings  might,  without  loss 
of  time,  keep  even  habitual  sleepers  awake  by  announcing  that  one 
of  the  hymns  will  be  sung  at  a  pause  in  the  middle  of  the  sermon. 

1  Rhet.,  Lil).  iii.,  11.  2  Lives  of  the  Ten  Orators,  cliai>.  viii. 


OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS.  569 

Chrysostom/  having  preached  two-thirds  of  an  afternoon  sermon, 
found  the  eyes  of  the  audience  wandering  to  the  act  of  lighting  the 
lamps,  and  happily  reproved  them  for  thus  forgetting  the  light  of 
the  word.  "  If  their  attention  flags  towards  the  middle  or  end  of 
the  sermon,  I  have  observed,"  says  Mr.  Gresley,  "  that  a  few  words 
of  weighty  import  in  a  loud,  animated  tone  will  make  them  still 
again.  .  .  You  may  relieve  a  long  argument  by  an  appeal  in  the 
midst  of  it :  'I  would  not  detain  you,  brethren,  so  long  on  this 
point,  but  that  I  consider  it  of  very  great  importance.' "  "  I  miss  my 
aim,"  says  Dean  Milner,  "  if  I  do  not  make  myself  rightly  imder- 
stood."  *'  Let  this  be  noted,"  says  Walker,  "  as  a  most  certain  yet 
tremendous  truth."  Cecil  once  roused  a  congregation  out  of  the 
stupefaction  of  a  full  diifher  by  exclaiming,  "  Last  Monday  morning 
a  man  was  hanged  at  Tyburn ! "  Instantly  all  was  silence  and  ex- 
pectation. Dean  Ramsey  tells  an  anecdote  about  a  Scottish  minis- 
ter who,  in  explaining  the  term  "  hyperbolical,"  said :  "  Suppose  that 
I  were  to  say  that  this  congregation  were  all  asleep  in  this  church 
at  the  present  time,  I  would  be  speaking  hyperbolically,  because 
(looking  round)  I  don't  believe  much  more  than  one-half  of  you  are 
sleeping."  But  in  general  such  words  are  of  doubtful  eftect,  for 
they  are  liable  either  to  provoke  the  laughter  of  the  wakeful  or  the 
indignation  of  the  dullheads.  "Whatever,"  says  the  earnest  Dr. 
Burgon,2  "borders,  however  remotely,  upon  drollery,  is  to  be 
strenuously  shunned.  Far  better  to  adopt  the  straightforward  prac- 
tice which  prevailed  twenty  years  ago  at  Kerry,  in  Montgomery- 
shire, namely,  of  sending  round  the  sexton  during  sermon,  shod 
with  list  slippers,  and  armed  with  hand-bell,  in  order  to  wake  the 
drowsy."  The  golden  bells  which  hung  on  the  hem  of  Aaron's 
robe  were,  as  some  opine,  intended  for  a  like  service. 

The  expediency  of  making  use  of  any  of  the  demonstrations  here 
considered  will,  in  a  given  case,  depend  much  on  the  kind  of  wor- 
ship to  which  the  congregation  have  been  accustomed.  In  a  Cath- 
olic church,  whether  Roman,  Galilean,  or  Reformed,  where  the 
spectacular  representations  are  a  part  of  the  cultus,  such  things 
ought  neither  to  astonish  nor  offend.  A  writer^  who  has  profound- 
ly and  admiringly  studied  the  ritual  and  calendar  of  these  churches, 
is  convinced  that  their  whole  aim  and  design  is  to  be  dramatic. 
The  same  is  true  of  much  of  the  medioeval  preaching.  While  speak- 
ing of  the  death  of  the  Redeemer  the  preacher  would  sometimes 
exhibit  a  crucifix,  or  an  image  of  Jesus  bound  to  a  pillar,  or  a  crown 

1  Fourth  sermon  (}wt  homily)  on  Genesis.  2  Pastoral  Office,  p.  203. 

3  Rev.  J.  M.  Neale's  Mediaeval  Preaching,  p.  57. 


570  OF  SYMBOLICAL  ACTIONS. 

of  thorns.  Ferrarius^  justifies  these  and  suca  like  tragic  shows; 
and  yet  he  confesses  that,  unless  they  are  managed  prudently,  they 
are  calculated  to  excite  laugliter  rather  than  sorrow.  Paolo  Seg- 
neri^  does  not  wholly  condemn  the  weariug  a  rope  round  the  neck, 
a  practice  of  the  preachers  of  Italy  m  the  seventeenth  century,  but 
he  thinks  that,  as  to  this  and  other  such  demonstrations,  we  should 
exercise  the  utmost  caution. 

1  De  Ritu.  Concio.,  L.  i.,  c.  xxxi.-xxxiii.        2  Arte  di  Predicar,  Trat.  v.,  c.  vii. 


ATTITUDE  AND  GESTURE.  571 


CHAPTEE  VII. 
ATTITUDE  AND  GESTURE. 

The  inspired  prophets  commonly  sat,  mi  sometimes  stood,  while 
they  were  speaking.i  The  former  posture  is  more  friendly  to  good 
temper  and  ease  and  audibleness.  In  places  where  there  is  no  pul- 
pit, it  is  likewise  more  modest  and  unassuming.  Health,  climate, 
custom,  and  dress  are  also  to  be  considered  in  determining  the  ex- 
pediency of  adopting  this  attitude.  Pretty  certain  we  are  that  it 
will  not,  except  from  necessity,  be  adopted  by  those  theatrical 
preachers  of  our  time  who  favour  the  removal  of  everythmg  that 
resembles  a  pulpit  in  order  that  the  speaker  may  be  seen  at  full 
length. 

As  to  our  eyes,  we  are  all  taught  to  look  our  audience  in  the 
face.  Sweet  George  Herbert  would  have  the  parson  "  diligent  and 
busy  casting  the  eye  among  the  auditors,  to  let  them  know  that  he 
observes  who  marks  and  who  not."  Others  recommend  it  as  inspiring 
animation  and  assisting,  if  not  conveying  our  meaning.  But  this 
rule  has  important  exceptions  which  are  never  subjoined.  The  first 
is  that  the  significance  of  the  eye  often  demands  that  it  should  not 
survey  the  audience.  In  shame  or  grief  the  eyes  are  naturally 
downcast  or  averted ;  in  deep  thought  they  gaze  on  vacancy ;  they 
are  raised  in  apostrophe ;  in  weeping  they  are  covered,  in  prayer 
closed.  There  is,  again,  a  timidity  natural  to  some  men  which  ren- 
ders it  unsafe  for  them  to  look  their  hearers  full  in  the  face.  Even 
Luther^  was  not  destitute  of  it,  and  he  gives  us  his  remedy  in  these 
words :  "  When  I  stand  there  (in  the  pulpit)  I  look  upon  none,  but 
imagine  that  they  are  all  blocks  that  are  before  me."  Charles  Sim- 
eon's advice  to  bashful  students  was :  "  You  must  learn  to  look 
upon  all  the  heads  before  you  as  if  they  were  so  many  heads  of 
cabbao-es."  But  every  form  of  timorousness  is  not  thus  mastered. 
In  some  cases  it  were  better  to  drop  the  eyelids  or  to  close  the 
eyes,  as  Bourdaloue  did.     Physical  bravery  is  not  always  the  ally 


1  Homer's  heroes  and  prophets  stand  while  speaking;  among  the  Romans  sit- 
ting was  the  posture  of  authority.  2  Table  Talk,  §411. 


572  ATTITUDE  AND  GESTURE. 

of  moral  courage ;  and  there  are,  we  doubt  not,  preachers  who 
would  have  more  fear  if  they  had  more  faith  or  more  knowledge. 
Great  preachers,  moreover,  are  apt  to  fill  their  minds  with  their 
subject,  and  the  whole  train  of  their  thoughts  to  such  a  degree  as 
to  preclude  attention  to  the  bearing  of  the  head  and  the  direction 
of  the  eyes.  Especially  are  they  so  disposed  when  they  are  hand- 
ling lifc-and-death  questions.  Thus  of  the  judicious  Hooker  we 
are  told  that  "  his  eyes  were  always  fixed  on  one  place,  to  prevent 
his  imagination  from  wandering,  insomuch  that  he  seemed  to  study 
as  he  spoke."  Robert  Hall's  eyes  often  declared  that  he  was  totally 
absorl)ed  in  his  subject.  Dr.  Emmons  held  up  his  manuscript  in 
his  left  hand  before  his  face.  Of  Dr.  Chalmers  we  have  authentic 
evidence  that  he  "  made  no  attempt  to  look  at  his  audienoe ;  there 
was  nothiug  beyond  a  passing  flash  of  the  eye  as  he  occasionally 
darted  his  head  upward."  "  As  for  myself,"  says  M.  Bautain,  "  I 
carefully  avoid  all  ocular  contact  with  no  matter  whom,  and  restrict 
myself  to  a  contemplation  of  the  audience  as  a  whole,  keeping  my 
looks  above  the  level  of  the  heads,  so  that  my  entire  attention  is 
fastened  upon  my  plan  and  ideas."  A  third  exception  is  demanded 
by  the  science  of  sounds.  Cardinal  Maury  and  a  great  Italian  au- 
thority, W.  Audisio,^  concur  in  advising  us  to  speak  ordinarily  to- 
wards the  centre  of  the  mass  of  the  audience ;  for  if  we  direct  our 
eyes  and  voice  alternately  to  both  sides  we  render  ourselves  inau- 
dible to  each  in  turn.  Professor  Audisio  further  teaches  us  to  di- 
rect the  voice,  not  towards  cavities  and  draperies,  but  tOM'ards  walls 
and  columns,  so  that,  reverberating  from  these  centres  of  repercus- 
sion, it  may  distribute  itself  in  equal  rays  over  all  the  assembly. 
A  final  exception  is  provoked  by  high  pulpits,  Avhcnce  the  speaker 
cannot  eye  his  audience  without  an  unnatural  drooping  of  the  head 
and  a  hurtful  compressure  of  the  vocal  organs. 

On  the  subject  of  gesture,  or  "action,"  as  distinguished  from 
symbolical  and  parabolic  signs,  modern  rhetoricians  have  not  agreed 
in  opinion.  Mr.  Smart  recognises  four  kinds:  1.  The  emphatic 
(adding  to  the  force);  2.  Ileferential  (pointing  at  something);  3. 
Impassioned  (expressive  of  some  natural  impulse) ;  4.  Imitative 
(<lescribing  by  action).  The  last  he  excludes  from  the  pulpit.  The 
Great  Teacher  would  naturally  have  pointed  at  those  objects  to 
which  he  directed  attentioji  ])y  tlie  word  "'behold."  On  one  occa- 
sion he  said :  "  As  long  as  I  am  in  the  world  I  am  tlie  light  of  the 
world,"  an<l  tliou  anointed  the   eves  of  a  blind  man  with  clav  and 


1  Lemons  d'Eloqiience  SacrC-e,  traduites  de  L'ltalien,  tome  1.,  p.  437  (ed.  Ly- 
ons, 1844). 


ATTITUDE  AND  GESTURE.  573 

bade  him  go  wash  in  the  pool  of  Siloam.  The  significance  of  tliis 
act  of  the  peerless  Prophet,  at  once  a  miracle  and  a  parable,  has 
been  commonly  overlooked.  The  one  gesture  of  his  which  the 
evangelists  have  recorded  was  the  lifting  up  of  his  pierced  hands 
in  benediction.  That  act,  so  simple  in  itself,  was  a  summary  of  the 
Gospel.  The  apostle  and  tent-maker  Paul  undoubtedly  held  forth 
his  scarred  and  callous  hands  while  delivering  a  passage  in  his  charge 
to  the  elders  of  Ephesus  ;^  and  at  the  close  of  his  defence  before 
Agrippa  and  Festus^  he  would  naturally  have  shaken  his  manacles, 
not,  however  (as  some  masters  represent  him),  in  the  face  of  the 
proconsuls.  Raffaelle,  in  his  cartoon  of  the  apostle  speaking  to  the 
Athenians,  has  very  properly  delineated  him  lifting  up  both  hands 
as  high  as  possible  to  enforce  the  words,  "  God  .  .  dvvelleth  not  in 
temples  made  with  hands ;  neither  is  worshipped  with  men's  hands." 
Of  the  action  of  the  earlier  Greek  preachers  we  know  very  little. 
But  as  it  Avas  no  uncommon  thing  for  the  preacher  to  sit  and  his 
congregation  to  stand,  and  there  was  current  a  strong  prejudice 
against  the  false  art  of  secular  rhetoric  (even  Athanasius  betrays 
it),  we  may  reasonably  infer  that'a  calm  and  undemonstrative  action 
was  most  acceptable.  Some,  we  learn,  were  displeased  with  the 
gestures  of  Paul  of  Samosata,  who  was  in  the  habit  of  striking  his 
thigh  and  stamj^ing  his  feet.  Borromeo,^  by  precept  and  example, 
taught  a  moderation  in  action  which  few  of  his  Italian  disciples  ap- 
pear to  have  acquired. 

English  and  Anglo-American  clergymen  gesticulate  less  than 
preachers  of  other  nations.  Addison  wrote  one  of  his  most  pleas- 
ant essays'^  on  the  subject,  concluding  with  this  observation  :  "  We 
ought  to  lay  aside  all  kinds  of  gesture  (which  seems  to  be  very  suit- 
able to  the  genius  of  our  nation),  or  at  least  to  make  use  of  such 
only  as  are  graceful  and  expressive."  In  favour  of  this  immobility 
of  English  preachers,  the  words  of  Dr.  Johnson  have  frequently 
been  cited.  The  judgment  of  this  sensible  critic  appears  to  have 
been  influenced  partly  by  the  example  of  Dr.  "Watts,  who,  being 
little  of  stature,  was  too  prudent  to  indulge  in  any  gesticulations, 
and  partly  by  the  example  of  Garrick,  who  made  use  of  fewer  ges- 
tures than  any  other  actor  of  his  day.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  he  greatly  admired  the  delivery  of  these  two  friends  of  his, 


1  Acts  XX.  34.  2  xxvi.  20. 

3  Instructions  to  Pastors,  Pt.  i.,  chap,  xxv.,  xxvi.  Hereof  liis  opinion  is  that 
as  the  actor  is  permitted  to  be  more  free  than  the  orator,  so  tlie  orator  may  be 
properly  allowed  a  larger  liberty  than  the  preacher. 

■i  Spectator,  No.  407. 


574  ATTITUDE  AND  GESTURE. 

both  favourites,  also,  of  many  other  cultivated  Londoners  of  his 
time.  Nor  should  we  overlook  the  essay  which  has  escaped  almost 
all  his  quoters,  and  in  which  he  very  judiciously  resolves  the  matter 
into  a  question  of  adaptation,  and  then  disposes  of  it  with  just  dis- 
crimination and  good  sense.  "  Whether  action,"  writes  he,*  "  may 
not  be  yet  of  use  in  churches  where  the  preacher  addresses  a  min- 
gled audience  may  deserve  inquiry.  It  is  certain  that  the  senses 
are  more  powerful  as  the  reason  is  weaker;  and  that  he  whose  ears 
convey  little  to  his  mind  may  sometimes  listen  Avith  his  eyes  till 
the  truth  may  gradually  take  possession  of  his  heart.  If  there  be 
any  use  of  gesticulation,  it  must  be  applied  to  the  ignorant  and 
rude,  who  will  be  more  affected  by  vehemence  than  delighted  by 
propriety.  .  .  As  all  innocent  means  are  to  be  used .  for  the  propa- 
gation of  truth,  I  would  not  deter  those  who  are  employed  in 
preaching  to  common  congregations  from  any  practice  which  they 
may  find  persuasive;  for  compared  with  the  conversion  of  sinners 
propriety  and  elegance  are  less  than  nothing."  A  conclusion  this 
worthy  of  a  Wesley  or  a  Whitefield." 

If  we  pass  over  to  Germany  Ave  find  a  nation  that,  for  sedatcness, 
closely  resembles  England ;  and  yet,  as  Luther,  a  man  of  famous 
zeal,  set  the  pattern  to  all  his  successors,  we  need  not  wonder  that 
many  German  preachers  have  indulged  in  gesticulation  to  excess. 
The  tradition  that  Luther  broke  the  desk  which  is  exhibited  at 
Eisenach  we  very  much  doubt,  it  was,  more  probably,  split  by 
some  later  preacher,  who  had  a  larger  fist  and  a  smaller  heart  than 
the  great  Reformer.  When  Ave  look  at  those  delicate  fingers  of  his, 
Avhich  could  play  so  skilfully  on  the  flute  and  the  guitar,  Ave  must 
believe  that  it  Avas  his  words,  and  not  his  bloAvs,  that  Avere  Avont  to 
fall  like  thunderbolts.  But  still  some  distinguished  disciples  of 
Luther  have  been  far  from  demonstrative.  Herder  was  a  motion- 
less preacher,  and_  so  Avas  that  "  little  hunchbacked,  sickly  man," 
Schleiermacher.  Others  have  shoAvn  more  animation.  The  printed 
sermons  of  Krummacher  convinced  Palmer^  that  the  hands  of  him 
that  preached  them  could  not  have  been  quiet  for  three  minutes  to- 
gether. Of  Keinhard's  gestures  Ave  are  told  that  they  were  gener- 
ally of  an  indefinite  character,  indicating  a  deej)  interest  in  his  dis- 
course, rather  than  an  attempt  at  visible  representation. 

In  general  the  action  of  the  secular  orator  ought  to  be  more  bold 


1  Iiller,  No.  00.  Younp;  Greek  and  Roman  orators  for  a  time  used  no  motion 
"f  tlio  arm,  but  kept  it  confined  in  thcir.tojia,  as  an  evidence  of  tlieir  modesty, 
till  age  and  experience  allowed  tliein  greater  freedom. — Crcsoll.  in  Ward,  vol.  ii., 
■Vi%.  2  llomiletik,  p.  G17  (First  ed.). 


ATTITUDE  AND  GESTURE.  575 

and  irregular  than  tliat  of  the  religious  teacher.  The  former  alone 
can  safely  follow  the  advice  of  Cicero/  that  we  should  learn  action 
not  from  the  theatre  and  the  player,  but  from  the  camp,  or  even 
from  the  palaestra.  For  the  preacher  to  imitate  the  actor  is  bad, 
but  tQ  imitate  the  soldier  and  the  pugilist  is,  of  all  things,  the  most 
improper.  Of  the  latter  sort  are  they  that  sally  from  behind  the 
desk  whenever  they  wish  to  deliver  a  bravura^  and  they  that,  in 
Christian  churches,  play  the  soldier  or  the  caged  lion.  "  I  have 
known  a  clergyman,"  says  Dr.  Comstock,  "  to  traverse  the  whole 
length  of  his  pulj^it  platform  twenty-three  times  during  the  delivery 
of  one  sermon."  Such  marching  and  countermarching  may  keep 
some  people  awake,  but  it  grievously  offends  all  those  who  desire 
to  treasure  and  improve  the  matter  of  the  preachment.        , 

Say  not,  '  Nature  is  the  only  safe  teacher ;  heed  her  instructions 
and  you  will  never  be  guilty  of  such  extravagances  as  these.'  The 
art  of  elocution  is  expressly  intended  to  collect,  formulate,  and  ap- 
ply the  mysterious  suggestions  of  nature.  Those  who  decry  this 
art  are  exceedingly  liable  to  be  misled  by  inductions  from  too  few 
individual  cases.  Thus  Archbishop  Whately^  holds  that  natural 
action  always  precedes  the  words  it  assists ;  but  the  principle  does 
not  apply  universally,  and  the  observance  of  it  would  betray  many 
speakers  into  a  very  unnatural  timing  of  some  of  their  gestures. 
It  is  indeed  true,  as  the  Rev.  Mr.  Austin^  remarks,  that  the  excited 
speaker,  appealing  to  the  2K(ssio?is  of  his  audience,  will  make  ges- 
tures before  his  words  can  find  utterance ;  but  in  calm  discourse  the 
words  and  gestures  are  nearly  simultaneous.  All  emphatic  g^Bstures 
(than  which  none  are  more  frequently  and  more  impressively  made 
by  preachers)  will  naturally  fall  at  the  very  same  time  with  that 
stress  of  voice  which  they  help  to  distinguish.^  Some  interjections, 
moreover,  and  other  Words  which  are  cast  forth  by  sudden  emo- 
tions, must  often  dart  ahead  of  gestures.  Then,  again,  it  should 
be  considered  that  so  diverse  are  the  temperaments  and  mental 
habits  of  men  that  the  unstudied  and  spontaneous  utterances  of  one 
speaker  will  outrun,  while  those  of  another  will  come  behind  the 
gestures  which  enforce  them. 


If  we  consider  all  these  things  well,  clearly  enough  will  it  appear 
that  there  is  no  short  by-path  to  rhetorical  delivery.  If  you  would 
speak  safely,  decorously,  and  with  all  serviceableness,  keep  the  high- 

1  De  Orat.,  L.  iii.,  c.  lix.  2  Rhet.,  Pt.  iv.,  chap,  iv.,  <^6. 

3  Chironomia,  p.  381.  4  Prof.  B.  H.  Smart. 


576  ATTITUDE  AND  GESTURE. 

way  of  an  enlightened  elocution — a  Avay  which  reposes  on  reclaimed 
Nature,  and  is  walled  on  either  hand  by  the  prudence  of  the  past. 
Adventurously  strike  out  therefrom,  and  you  encounter  nature 
more  than  enough,  ledges  hard  to  climb  or  swamps  unfordable; 
or  else  you  soon  find  yourself  brought  to  a  standstill,  amidst  Jbriers, 
nettles,  and  entangling  vines,  not  far  from  the  spot  where  the  mere 
pathfinder  to  civilisation  stood  nearly  three  thousand  years  ago.  But 
is  elocution  already  a  perfected  art  ?  Xo,"manifestly  not  ;i  and  mc  may 
reasonably  hope  that  its  professors  Avho  have  oftcnest  travelled  the 
ancient  highway  will  lead  forward,  not  with  the  desire  of  fixing 
their  own  footprints  miraculously  on  the  very  rocks,  but  rather 
of  helping  the  student  to  cast  out  of  the  way-side  chapels 
all  idols,  whether  they  be  those  of  the  "  tribe,"  the  "  den,"  the 
"  market,"  or  the  "  theatre."  And,  above  all,  let  them  resolve  that, 
if  it  be  anywise  possible,  they  will  analyse  fully  the  inborn  pecu- 
liarities of  each  student,  and  often,  if  not  always,  criticise  and 
advise  him  specifically  and  apart  from  all  others,  whereby  they 
may  honour  alike  the  oneness  of  a  creature  living,  human,  and  in- 
telligent, thp  grace  of  God  as  individualised  in  him,  and  his  own 
process  of  honestly,  freely,  and  manfully  sjjeakuig  out  these  iu 
Christian  discourse. - 

1  The  two  great  standard  •works  on  elocution  are  the  Rev.  Mr.  Austin's 
*' Cliironomia  "  and  Dr.  Rush's  "  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Voice."  Upon  the 
latter  is  founded  Prof.  William  Russell's  elaborate  treatise  on  "  Pulpit  Elocu- 
tion," which  is  very  commendable;  indeed,  amongst  books  of  its  own  class,  it 
stands  as  yet  without  an  e(iual.  Ilis  manual  of  "  Vocal  Culture  "  and  his  "  Elo- 
cutionist," both  intended  for  more  general  instruction,  are  likewise  systematic, 
lucid,  and  practical.  Also  read  Rev.  J.  II.  Ilowlett's  "  Instruction  in  Reading 
the  Liturgy,"  last  ed.,  London  (Murby). 

2  It  was  the  opinion  of  Chrysostom,  a  first-rate  authority  in  all  such  matters, 
that  eloquence  is  not  a  gift  of  nature,  but  acquired  by  a  learned  education. — 
Dc  Sacerdotio,  chap.  v. 


I. 

INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

WITH  DEFISITIOXS  AND  EXAMPLES. 


In"  the  following  Index  we  have  attempted  to  name  and  define 
all  known  rhetorical  figures.  We  have  even  ventured  to  admit  to 
our  list  a  few  terms  which  might,  with  critical  severity,  have  been 
excluded ;  but  as  ancient  authorities  have  given  them  a  place  among 
figures,  and  as  modern  writers  on  rhetoric  have,  by  slighting  this 
part  of  their  subject,  recommended  too  strongly  a  dry  and  unim- 
passioned  style,  we  have  not  considered  it  profitable  to  ignore 
them.  Nor  have  we  omitted  the  synonyms  and  some  anto- 
nyms of  the  more  common  terms.  As  to  illustrations,  those  taken 
from  the  prophetical  Scriptures  have  taken  the  first  place,  those 
from  post-apostolic  sermons  the  second  place.  For  reasons  else- 
where given  we  have  very  seldom  cited  poetry.  The  Scripture  ex- 
amples have,  for  the  most  part,  been  merely  referred  to,  because  it 
is  presumed  that  every  reader  has  the  Bible  always  lying  before 
him,  and  is  in  the  habit  of  consulting  passages  and  their  contexts. 
To  neglect  these  references  is  to  remain  ignorant  of  the  foundations 
of  this  system  of  homiletics  and  of  the  very  seeds  of  all  sacred  elo- 
quence. A  useful  monograph  might  be  written  about  these  figures ; 
but  as  holy  Scripture  furnishes  us  so  many  illustrations  of  their  real 
nature  and  most  advantageous  use,  such  volume,  however  desirable, 
is  not  indispensable.  And  it  would  not  even  be  desirable  if  it  kept 
the  young  preacher  from  studying  these  illustrations  in  their  scope 
and  connection,  whereby  alone  he  can  acquire  that  style  of  speak- 
ing which  is  sacred,  and  at  the  same  time  level  with  the  capacity 
of  the  common  people— a  style  which  is  neither  gold  nor  copper, 
but  "  silver  tried  in  a  furnace  of  earth,  purified  seven  times." 

The  writer  has  not,  he  may  be  allowed  to  add,  attempted  here  to 
name  the  innumerable  sources  into  which  he  has  dipped. 

577 


578  •  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

Accismus  is  an  apparent  or  assumed  refusal  (Matt.  xv.  24,  26 ; 
xxi.  29). 

Accommodation  {adaptation)  is  the  use  of  a  pas.sage  in  a 
broader  oi-  deeper  sense  than  that  Avhich  was  at  first  or  is  now 
commonly  found  in  it,  on  the  ground  of  the  adaptation  of  its  inner 
meanings,  or  of  its  twofold  or  even  manifold  application  to  kindred 
times,  persons,  or  subjects. 

Cajetan,  Glassius,  and  others  formerly  taught  that  quotations 
were  made  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New,  either  according 
to  the  sense  intended  by  the  Divifle  Spirit  or  according  to  "  ana- 
logical accommodation."  The  sense  intended  by  the  Spirit  is,  they 
said,  either  literal  or  typical — literal,  as  Isa.  vii.  14 ;  ]Matt.  i.  23 ;  ty- ' 
pical,  as  Exodus  xii.  46  \  John  xix.  26.  They  defined  an  analogical 
accommodation  the  use  of  words  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Xew 
on  the  ground  of  fitness  or  similitude,  so  that  they  were  adapted 
to  events,  persons,  or  things  which  were  beyond  the  knowledge  or 
meaning  of  the  first  sacred  Avriters.  They  give  as  examples  Matt, 
xiii.  85 ;  Psa.  Ixxviii.  2 ;  1  Pet.  ii.  24,  25 ;  Matt.  viii.  17  ;  Isa.  liii.  4. 
Here  Peter  quotes  according  to  the  literal  sense,  and  Matthew  ana- 
logically. But  as  these  writers  cannot  tell  us  how  much  inspired 
men  knew  and  understood,  they  base  their  definition  on  a  mere  as- 
sumption, while  they  ignore  the  spiritual  fulness  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  and  the  omniscience  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

This  figure  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  theory  of  accom- 
modation syncatahasls^  according  to  which,  as  some  maintain,  the 
sacred  writers  and  speakers  used  certain  words  and  illustrations  in 
condescension  to  tlie  errors  and  prejudices  of  their  contemporaries. 
"We  here  employ  the  term  along  with  c/u-eia,  (jnoine,  and  noinia,  to 
designate  the  various  kinds  of  quotation. 

Paul  was  called  by  the  Athenians  a  sower  of  words.  He  was  in  very  truth 
a  sower  of  words,  but  a  reaper  of  works. — Aitgiistine.  The  wine  which  Christ 
poured  forth  as  an  ofTerin?  to  his  Heavenly  Father  was  pure  and  unmixed.  Cut 
to  all  the  rest  of  mankind  that  saying  of  the  prophet  is  applicable :  "  Your  wine 
is  mixed  with  water." — Bernard. 

Addubitatio  {'Juhitatio,  aporia.diaporcsis)  isa  figure  by  which 
we  express  doubt  as  to  what  we  ought  to  think  or  say  or  do  (Isa. 
Ixiii.  11-13;  Hos.  vi.  4  ;  Luke  xvi.  3). 

To  express  such  great  mysteries  in  human  language  is  to  belittle  them. 
AVliat,  then,  am  I  to  do  1  Shall  I  hold  my  peace?  Or  shall  I  speak?  Neither 
ought  I  to  remain  silent  nor  am  I  able  to  speak.  How  can  I  remain  silent  as  to 
such  great  mercies  1  And  yet  how  can  I  sjjcak  of  such  inefl'able  mysteries  1 
To  keep  silence  were  ingratitude,  and  to  speak  were  temerity. — Luis  df  Granada. 
For  of  his  prophets  what  should  I  say  l—Sandijs.  Sliall  I  term  such  families 
Christians  or  Ijcathens? — WhiteJicUL 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  579 

Adjunction  {synezexigmenon)  refers  to  one  verb,  several  words 
or  phrases,  each  of  which,  if  placed  alone,  would  require  that  verb 
to  complete  the  sense.  According  to  Aitct.  Rhetor,  ad  Ilerennium 
this  verb  may  be  placed  either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of 
the  sentence,  -y.  Zeugma  and  Ak^tezeugmenois!"  (Psa.  xv. ;  Isa. 
ii.  3 ;  Eph.  iv.  31). 

A  religion  which  men  of  good  nature  must  abhor  for  its  many  cruelties, 
men  of  sense  for  its  many  absurdities,  and  men  of  virtue  for  its  large  indulgen-. 
cies  to  and  encouragements  of  immorality. — Seed. 

JSnigma  [enigma.,  hypmnixis)  is  an  idea  or  thought  expressed 
in  obscure  language. 

And  there  shall  come  forth  a  rod  out  of  the  stem  of  Jesse,  and  a  branch 
shall  grow  out  of  his  roots. — Isa.  xi.  1.  The  King  of  Sheshach  shall  drink  after 
them. — Jer.  xxv.  26. 

The  word  Babel.,  as  some  Biblical  critics  think,  is  here  con- 
cealed from  the  enemies  of  God  by  using  the  letters  of  the  He- 
brew alj)habet  in  an  inverted  order,  according  to  the  cabalistic 
"Atbash."  h.  parable  without  any  explanation  is  sometimes  sy- 
nonymous with  enigma  (Matt.  xiii.  35). 

etiology  is  a  figure  which  either  explicitly  or  by  implication 
renders  a  reason  for  thinking,  saying,  or  doing  something. 

The  lion  hath  roared,  who  will  not  fear  1  The  Lord  hath  spoken,  who  can 
but  prophesy "? — Amos  iii.  8.  He  was  unknown  to  them  when  he  was  come  ; 
for  he  came  at  first  in  humble  guise  and  concealed. — Augustine. 

Agnominatio.    v.  Paronomasia. 

Aganactesis  is  the  expression  of  indignation  by  language  and 
delivery.  « 

Allegory  {translatio)  has  been  differently  defined  by  the  an- 
cients and  moderns.  I.  Cicero  {Orat.  xxvii.)  says  that  when  sev- 
eral metaphors  (translationes)  follow  one  another,  the  Greeks  call 
the  figure  allegoria ;  but  it  would,  he  thinks,  be  better  to  include 
allegory ^  hyjoallage,  and  cataches is  under  the  term  translatio.  Quin- 
tilian  (B.  viii.,  ch.  vi.,  §44)  says :  "  Our  writers  interpret  the  word 
by  the  term  inversio,  which  represents  one  thing  in  words  and  an- 
other in  sense — sometimes  a  sense  quite  contrary  to  the  words. 
Among  the  different  kinds  of  allegory  he  mentions  sarcasm,  asteis- 
inos,  antijyhrasis,  and  parmmia.  There  are  those,  he  adds,  who  af- 
firm that  these  are  not  species  of  allegory,  but  tropes,  on  the  strong 
ground  that  allegory  is  obscure,  but  that  the  other  figures  speak 
with  clearness.  Elsewhere  Quintilian  calls  allegory  a  continued  met- 
aphor. II.  The  apostle  Paul  (Gal.  iv.  24),  showing  that  the  history 
of  Isaac  and  Ishmael  was  repeated  by  their  descendants  in  a  higher 
sphere,  and  at  the  same  time  represented  the  old  and  the  new  cov- 
enants and  their  heirs,  says,  "  which  things  are  allegorised."     Here 


580  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

the  verb  is  employed  to  signify  the  interpretation  of  an  actual  nar- 
rative, as  if  it  Avere  a  typical  representation.  III.  Aller/ori/  in  the 
modern  sense  may  he  defined :  A  fictitious  narrative  which  has  an- 
other and  deeper  meaning  than  that  which  is  directly  and  literally 
expressed. 

Dr.  Carson  thus  distinguishes  allegory  and  metaphor,  as  noio  un- 
derstood : 

1.  Allegory  presents  to  immediate  view  the  secondary  object 
only ;  metaphor  always  presents  the  jirincipal  also. 

2.  Metaphor  always  imagines  one  thing  to  be  another;  allegory 
never. 

3.  Everything  asserted  in  the  allegorj  applies  to  the  secondary 
object ;  everything  asserted  in  the  metaphor  applies  to  the  prhici- 
pal. 

4.  In  the  metai")hor  there  is  but  one  meaning ;  in  the  allegory 
there  are  two — a  literal  and  a  figurative. 

5.  Allegory  is  a  veil ;  metaphor  is  a  perspective  glass. 

Dean  Trench  distinguishes  the  allegory  and  the  parable  as  fol- 
lows :  The  allegory,  unlike  the  parable,  contains  its  interpretation 
within  itself  We  may  add  that,  like  the  parable,  it  embraces  other 
figures,  and  that  the  conditions  and  acts  of  its  representative  ob- 
jects are  in  keeping  with  their  own  nature  and  sphere  (Isa.  v.  1-7  ; 
Ezck.  xxxi.  3-17;    Matt.  xlii.  3-23;  John  x.  1-18;  xv.  1-8). 

The  allegory  and  the  parable  are  often  confounded.  As  both 
admit  of  a  great  variety  of  forms,  most  of  which  are  observable  in 
each,  good  usage  has  not  yet  plearly  defined  their  peculiar  quali- 
ties. 

Alliteration,    v.  IIomceopropherox. 

Allceosis.    V.  Enallage. 

Allusion  is  an  intimation  of  or  reference  to  something  that  is 
supposed  to  be  generally  known.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  inhne- 
sis.  Several  of  our  Lord's  parables  are  allusions,  as  Luke  xvi.  39; 
xxviii.  33. 

I  am  the  Lord  thy  God  .tlmt  divided  the  sea. — Isa.  li.  15.  Man  without  the 
prospect  of  eternal  happiness  was  like  leviathan  in  a  little  pool. — Manton. 
Those  who  are  in  the  shi[)  with  Christ  are  more  tossed  by  storms  than  those 
wlio  travel  by  land. — D^yos.  An  edifice  reared  stone  by  stone,  instead  of  as  by 
.Maddin's  lamp. — John  Foster.  Perhaps  the  walls  maj*  be  s?o  thick,  their  founda- 
tions may  be  so  deep,  that  they  will  not  give  way  except  at  the  sound  of  the 
trunii)et  borne  before  the  Ark  of  the  Lord. — /.  C.  Mare. 

Amoebaeon.    v.  Refrain. 

Aniphibolog'ia  is  a  phrase  or  sentence  which  may  bear  more 
than  one  iutepretation. 
Jeremiah  prophesies  as  to  Zedckiah  (xxxiv.  iii.)  :  "Thine  eyes  shall  behold 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  581 

the  eyes  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  and  he  shall  speak  with  thee  mouth  to  mouth, 
and  thou  shalt  go  to  Babylon."  Ezekiel  prophesies  as  to  the  same  prince  (xii. 
13)  :  "  I  will  bring  him  to  Babylon,  to  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans  ;  yet  he  shall 
not  see  it,  though  he  shall  die  there."  Josephus  tells  us  that  the  apparent  in- 
consistency of  these  two  predictions  determined  Zedekiah  to  believe  neither  of 
them.  Yet  both  were  strictly  and  punctually  fulfilled. — Dr.  Hurd.  Ye  men 
of  Athens,  in  all  things  I  perceive  that  ye  are  very  devout. — Ads  xvii.  22. 
Usury  hath  grown  so  strong  that  it  hath  sinews  and  bones  like  a  man,  and 
walketh  up  and  down  the  streets  like  a  serving-man,  like  a  gentleman,  like  a 
merchantman,  and  I  hope  no  man  may  justly  say,  like  an  alderman,  "  God  for- 
bid!"—  TF.  Burton. 

Amphidiorthosis  is  a  mixed  figure  composed  of  correctio  and 
jyrodiorthosis  {q.  v.). 

Ampliatio  is  rather  a  species  of  anachronism  than  a  figure.  It 
has  two  applications.  It  is  employed,  I.  Where  though  the  person 
or  thing  is  changed  the  old  name  is  retained. 

"  The  wolf  also  shall  dwell  with  the  lamb." — Isa.  ori.  6.  "  Matthew,  the  pub- 
lican."— Matt.  X.  3.  Here  we  may  remark  that  "  the  late  Professor  Richaidson, 
of  Glasgow  University,  gave  Horace's  callida  junctura  verlorum  a  place  among 
figures.  By  this  figure, a  word  is  brought  back  to  its  original  signification 
from  a  later  sense.  '  Thus  I  shall  a  tale  declare.'  By  this  figure  the  poet  ventures 
to  bring  back  the  word  tale  to  its  i)rimitive  sense,  and  applies  it  to  what  he  repre- 
sents as  an  historical  fact." — Br.  Carson. 

II.  Where  synonymously  with  one  species  of  prolepsU.i  a  name 
or  attribute  is  given  by  way  of  anticipation,  or  where  j^ersons  or 
things  are  described  not  as  they  are  now,  but  as  they  will  be.  v. 
Hyperbole. 

"His  neighbor's  wife,"  for  "  betrothed  virgin  "  (Deut.  xxii.  24).  "Other 
sheep  I  have  which  are  not  of  this  fold  "  (John  x.  16  ;  Jas.  ii.  28). 

Ampliflcatio  {eimmerado,  expolitlo,  auxesis,  epauxesis,  incre- 
vientuin,  cqjarithmesis)  is  the  enrichment  of  a  discourse  or  a  part 
of  it  by  enumerating  particulars,  or  by  multiplying  epithets,  or  by 
giving  a  graphic  description  of  anything.  Several  other  figures,  as 
ampliatio,  commoratio,  distrihutio,  exaggeratio,  e2}i/none,  2)raunsis, 
etc.,  are  species  of  aniplification. 

It  is  also  used  in  a  restricted  sense  as  synonymous  with  auxesis, 
and  as  opposed  to  meiosis.  v.  Hyperbole  (Isa.  Ix. ;  Jer.  xlviii ;  Lam, 
iii. ;  Ezek.  xviii.  and  xxvii. ;  Heb.  xi.  Edmund  Burke  was  of  opin- 
ion that  every  passage  which  is  in  a  high  degree  eloquent  ought  to 
contain  a  thought,  an  image,  and  a  sentiment.  He  adduced  as  an 
illustration  of  his  maxim  his  famous  invective  against  the  Duke  of 
Bedford,  ending  with  a  Latin  sentiment. 

Some  consider  amplification  as  one  of  the  necessary  j^arts  of  a 
discourse  rather  than  as  a  figure.  Cicero  ( De  Orat.,  Lib.  iii.,  c.  xxvi.) 
pronounces  it  the  greatest  glory  of  eloquence  {sumina  laus  elo- 


582  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

quentia),  and  makes  it  consist  not  only  in  magnifying  ancf  extolling 
anything,  but  also  in  extenuating  it  and  making  it  appear  contemp- 
tible. Examples  of  amplificatio  may  be  found  in  his  Pro  Leg. 
JT(i)}.,  e.  xi.  and  xxv.  and  xxvi. 

That  quaint  old  writer,  John  Spencer,  in  "  Things  New  and  Old," 
•  illustrating  another  subject,  dwells  on  the  utility  of  amplification 
thus :  "  There  may  be  a  fish  or  two  hang  on  the  net  being  let  down 
in  a  heap ;  but  that  is  a  chance.  It  is  not  the  net  lapped  up  to- 
gether that  bringcth  in  the  draught,  but  trailed  out  at  length  and 
spread  all  abroad,  that  closeth  in  fish.  So  it  is  the  spreading  of 
the  Word,  the  stretching  it  out  upon  every  soul  present  by  the 
Avork  of  the  ministry,  that  is  the  way  to  catch  many ;  so  that  the 
reason  of  such  ill  success  in  many  ministei's  is  not  spreading  the 
net,  not  dilating  upon  the  matter  in  hand." 

Did  not  Christ  know  that  it  behooved  him  to  sufFer  1  Oh,  j-es,  he  knew  it — 
full  well  he  knew  it;  all  that  was  to  happen  to  him  happened  only  "according 
to  his  own  predestinate  counsel  and  foreknowledge;"  and  all  therefore  that  was 
to  happen  was  known  to  him,  both  as  to  its  necessity  and  nature,  as  surely  and 
clearly  before  it  did  liappen  as  at  or  after  its  actual  gccurrence.  Yet  he  did 
l)ray,  and  pray  to  escape  it — so  pray  that  in  the  earnestness  and  agony  of  liis 
supplication  great  drops  of  blood  streamed  from  his  face  to  the  ground. — C.  JIol- 
yneux. 

Anabasis  exists  where  the  speech  or  discourse  ascends  step  by 
step  from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  or  where  the  words  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  they  express  more  and  more  vehemence.  It  is  some- 
times the  same  as  the  modem,  but  often  different  from  the  ancient 
climax.     Auxesls  is  occasionally  used  with  the  same  signification. 

T/ie  Jford  was  God.  He  was  contemplating  the  Godhead  of  the  Word.  What 
a  mountain  was  this !  How  liighly  exalted  !  He  had  ascended  above  all  the 
mountain  tops  of  the  earth,  ho  had  ascended  beyond  all  the  fields  of  the  sky; 
ascended  beyond  all  the  heights  of  the  stars ;  ascended  beyond  all  the  choirs 
and  legions  of  angels.  For  unless  he  first  ascended  beyond  all  created  beings 
he  could  not  reach  the  presence  of  Ilim  by  whom  all  things  were  made. — Att- 
ffustine. 

Catahasis  {decrcmcntwn)  is  the  opposite  figure.  It  is  espe- 
cially proper  for  the  utterance  of  sorrow  (Isa.  xl.  31 ;  Jcr.  ix.  1,  2; 
Lam.  iv.  1,  2;  Ezck.  xxii.  18;  Amos  ix.  2,  3;  Matt.  \.  18). 

Anachoresis  is  a  digression,     v.  Epaxaclesis. 

Anaclasis.    v.  Antaxaclasis. 

Anaccenosis  {coinmunicat'to,  si/nd)o>iIeusis)  is  when  we  appeal 
to  such  passions,  atfections,  feelings,  opinions,  or  faculties  of  others 
as  they  are  supposed  to  have  in  common  with  ourselves,  and  so 
submit  to  their  own  judgment  the  merits  of  our  cause.  It  is  some- 
times sjTionymous  Avith  a-'^.'^nciation  and  crotcsts  (Isa.  v.  3,  4;  Jer. 
x.\iii.  23;  Mai.  i.  C;  Luke  xi.  19;  Acts  iv.  19). 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  583 

If  the  walls  of  your  mansion  were  tottering  with  age,  the  roof  shaking  above 
you,  and  the  edifice  wasted,  wearied  out,  threatening  an  instant  ruin  of  its  time- 
enfeebled  structure,  would  you  not  in  all  haste  go  forth  from  it  1  See  a  world 
tottering  and  falling,  etc. — Cyprian. 

Anacoluthon  is  a  sentence  the  end  of  which  does  not  gram- 
matically correspond  to  its  beginning — a  want  of  sequence  which 
may  nevertheless  be  intended  by  the  speaker,  v.  Hyperbatojs" 
and  Hypallage  (Matt.  vii.  9,  12;  xii.  11;  Acts  iii.  16). 

Anadiplosis  {epanastrophe.,  reduplication  reversio,  e2^anacli- 
p)losis)  exists  where  the  same  word  that  closes  a  sentence  or  clause 
is  repeated  at  the  beginning  of  the  next.  This  has  been  termed 
"  Echo  "  (Psa.  xcvi.  13 ;  xcviii.  45 ;  cxxi.  1,  2 ;  cxxii.  2,  3 ;  Isa.  xxvi. 
5 ;  xxx.  9 ;  Joel  ii.  27,  and  John  xviii.  37,  in  original ;  Rom.  viii.  17). 

Come  unto  him  and  he  will  give  you  rest — rest  from  the  hard  servitude  of  sin 
and  appetite  and  guilty  fear. — Horsley.  You  have  charge  of  unlimited  souls — 
souls  which,  as  our  Saviour  has  taught  us,  are,  each  of  them,  worth  more  than 
the  whole  world. — Payson. 

This  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  words  thus  placed  which  only 
agree  in  derivation. 

Anseresis  is  an  antenantiosis  introduced  by  way  of  digression 
or  parenthesis ;  e.g.^  "Not  with  stones  nor  with  bricks  did  I  fortify 
the  city,"  etc. — Demosthenes,  Pro  Corona, 

Anagoge  takes  place  when  the  sense  and  thought  rise  from 
things  inferior  and  terrene  to  things  superior  and  celestial  (Luke  x. 
25-37).    V.  Anabasis. 

Anamnesis  is  a  calling  to  remembrance  ( Jer.  ii.  2 ;  Luke  xv.  17). 

Anancseon  is  when  we  show  the  necessity  of  a  thing  (Matt. 
vi.  24). 

Anaphora  {epanaphora,  relatio)  is  the  repetition  of  the  same 
word  or  phrase  at  the  beginning  of  successive  clauses  or  sentences 
(Deut.  xxviii.  3-6;  Isa.  ii.  7,  8;  vi.  10;  xv.  8;  xlii.  15,  16;  Jer.  iv. 
23-26;  Micah  v.  9-12  ;  Matt.  v.  2-11 ;  Acts  xx.  22,  25). 

Farewell,  thou  great  and  august  temple.  Farewell,  apostles,  ye  leaders  of 
my  conflicts  and  my  sufferings.  Farewell,  episcopal  throne,  thou  dangerous  and 
envied  preeminence.  Farewell,  choirs  of  monks,  harmony  of  chaunters,  noctur- 
nal processions,  holiness  of  nuns,  modesty  of  matrons,  bands  of  widows  and  or- 
phans, eyes  of  the  poor  fixed  upon  God  and  upon  us. — Gregory  Nazianzen. 

Anasceue.    v.  Occupatio. 

Anastrophe  {inversion  or  ttxtjection  of  words,  parallage)  is  a 
grammatical  and  poetical  figure,  by  which  a  preposition  or  other 
indeclinable  word  is  removed  from  its  usual  place,  as  "  the  crags 
among." 

Misplaced  negative :  e.  g.,  "  Thou  shalt  not  see  thy  brother's  ox  or  his  sheep 
go  astray"  (Deut.  xxii.  1),  for  "  if  thou  shalt  see,"  etc., "  thou  shalt  not  hide  thy 
face"  (Acts  vii.  48). 

38 


584  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

Misplaced  adverb  :  e.  g.,  "  Are  there  yet  the  treasures  of  wickedness  in  the 
house  of  the  wicked  "  (Micah  vi.  10) ;  in  the  original  we  have,  "  Yet  are  there," 
etc. 

Flacius  considers  this  figure  synonymous  with  syucategorema. 
Others  give  the  name  to  a  species  of  hyperbaton,  and  define  it :  A 
figure  by  which  we  place  far  apart  the  members  of  a  sentence  that 
are  commonly  connected. 

Annominatio.    r.  Paronomasia. 

Anomoeosis  {dlsswiiUtude).    v.  Comparatio. 

Antanaclasis  {miaclases,  antistasis,  dilogia)  is  when  a  word 
is  repeated,  but  iu  a  difierent  sense  or  inflection  from  the  first,  v. 
Ploce. 

"  If  thou  draw  out  thy  soul  to  the  hungry,  and  satisfy  the  aiflicted  soul,"  etc. 
(Isa.  Iviii.  10).  Here  the  word  soul  is  employed  in  two  senses.  See  the  word 
"liberty"  in  Jer.  xxxiv.  17  ;  "  greatest,"  Matt,  xviii.  1,  4;  "almost,"  Acts  xxvi. 
28,  29  ;  Isa.  lix.  18  ;  Matt.  viii.  22. 

Some  designate  by  this  term  a  return  to  a  former  thought  after 
a  parenthesis,     v.  Apostasis. 

Anesis.    v.  Epitasis. 

Anteisagoge  {antlcatalexis,  compejisatio)  is  when,  contrary  to 
what  is  expected,  we.  reply  to  what  is  said  against  us  by  admitting 
its  force,  and  then  adding  something  on  the  opposite  side  that  is  of 
greater  force,  or  else  when  we  answer  one  question  by  asking  an- 
other (Matt.  xxi.  23-25). 

And  had  the  Lord  need  to  be  betrayed  1  I  answer  at  once  by  asking  in  re- 
turn, Had  the  Lord  need  to  be  born  1  to  be  crucified  1  to  die  1  to  be  buried  ? — 
Auffitstme. 

Antenaiitiosis  is  when  we  express  an  idea  all  the  more  posi- 
tively by  expressing  it  negatively. 

Thou  art  not  lonst  among  the  princes  of  .Tuda. — 3Intt.  ii.  6. 

Anteoccupation.    v.  Occupatio. 

Antezeugnienon  {injmictum)  makes  one  sentence  out  of 
words  that  might  be  expanded  into  two  or  more  sentences.  It  is 
often  employed  for  adjunction. 

Anthropopatheia  {^yncatahasis)  exists  when  we  ascribe  hu- 
man or  brute  or  inanimate  attributes  to  the  Divine  Being. 

The  Lord  hath  sworn  by  his  right  hand  and  by  the  arm  of  liis  strength. — Isa. 
Ixii.  8.  My  fury  shall  come  up  in  my  face. — Ezek.  xxxt'iii.  18.  Their  angels  do 
always  behold  tlie  face  of  my  father  which  is  in  heaven. — 3fatt.  xviii.  10.  And 
now  Lord  behold  their  thrcatenings. — Ads  iv.  29.  God  looketh  when  we  will 
come;  he  waitcth  when  wc  will  return  unto  him ;  he  daily  and  hourly  watcheth 
when  wo  will  submit  ourselves  and  receive  his  mercy. — B}).  Jewel. 

Anthypophora.    v.  Occupatio. 
Antlcatalexis.     r.  Anteisagoge. 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  585 

Antic&tegoria  is  when  we  retort  ujjon  another'  the  very  ac- 
cusation, insinuation,  or  reproof  he  has  uttered  against  us. 

I  may  boldly  ask  of  them  which  say  they  have  no  leisure  to  hear  God's  word, 
how  will  they  find  the  leisure  to  be  saved  ? — Abp.  Sandys. 

Anticlimax,    v.  Climax. 

Antimeria.    v.  Enallage. 

Antimetabole  {comniutatio,  epanodos,  metathesis,  dialleloyi) 
repeats  in  an  inverse  order  words  that  have  tlie  same  sound  or 
sense,  for  the  sake  of  explanation,  distinction,  or  qualification.  It 
is  sometimes  used  to  designate  an  inverted  chiasmics. 

AVoe  unto  them  that  call  evil  good  and  good  evil. — Isa.  v.  20 ;  EzeJc.  vii.  6,  7  ; 
xxxii.  16 ;  xxxvi.  6.  The  Sabbath  was  made  for  man  and  not  man  for  the  Sab- 
bath.— Mark  ii.  27  ;  John  viii.  47  ;  xv.  16.  Then  the  houses  were  churches,  but 
now  the  church  is  become  a  house. — Chrijsostom.  If  I  should  not  only  not  help  the 
Lord  against  the  mighty,  but  help  to  strengthen  them  that  are  mighty  against 
the  Lord,  worthy  I  were  to  bear  my  own  judgment. — Hooker. 

Antimetatliesis  is  when  in  description  the  hearer  is  addressed 
in  the  second  person,  as  if  he  were  actually  present  as  a  spectator 
of  or  an  actor  in  the  scene  depicted.  It  is  also  used  for  "  change 
of  persons  "  in  general.  Longinus  brings  under  this  heac]  polypro- 
sopon.  Vossius  employs  this  word  in  the  sense  of  antimetabole, 
commutatio. 

Antiphrasis.     y.  Irokt. 

Antiptosis  is  the  use  of  one  case  for  another. 

Antistasis.    v.  Antanaclasis. 

Antistroplie  {conversid)  is  a  repetition  of  the  same  word  at 
the  end  of  successive  phrases  or  members,  v.  Epistrophe  and 
Anaphora.  Antistfophe^  c^Uistropha,  hiaion,  antistrephon,  an- 
tistrephonta  are  terms  sometimes  applied  either  to  words  that  may 
be  retorted  or  to  the  retort  itself,  as  w^hen  an  objection  is  turned 
against  the  objector  (2  Cor.  xi.  22).  When  the  retort  is  violent 
it  is  called  hiaion. 

Antithesis  (enantiosis)  is  a  figure  by  which  two  thoughts, 
words,  phrases,  or  sentences  are  set  in  opposition  to  each  other  in 
order  to  render  them  more  striking  by  contrast.  AntitJieta  are, 
(1)  The  parts  of  an  antithesis;  (2)  Enantiotes;  (3)  Theses  arranged 
pro  et  contra  (Isa.  Ixv.  13;  Ezek.  xvi.  33,34;  Luke  vii.  44-46; 
John  XV.). 

Behold  !  Compassion  kneels,  and  misery  refuses  to  kneel.  Holiness  abases 
itself,  and  sin  will  not  abase  itself.  The  judge  lies  prostrate  on  the  earth,  and 
the  criminal  has  the  face  to  stand  erect!— /S.  Cesaire,  of  Aries.  Ah,  dear  hearer, 
it  is  between  two  eternities,  so  to  speak,  that  you  are  travelling  through  this 
mortal  life,  the  one  happy,  the  other  miserable.  Your  salvation  depends  on  the 
means  you  use  for  escaping  the  one  and  reaching  the  other. — Brydayne. 


586  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

Antonomasia  exists  when  a  proper  name  is  put  for  *a  common 
or  ai)pollative  noun,  or  when,  on  the  contrary,  an  appellation  de- 
rived from  some  attribute  is  put  for  a  proper  name  (Hosea  xii.  14 ; 
Matt.  viii.  20 ;  Acts  iii.  14). 

When  Christ  suffered  his  passion,  there  was  one  Barabbas.  St.  Matthew  call- 
eth  him  a  notable  thief,  a  gentleman  thief,  such  as  rob  now-a-days  in  velvet 
coats,  and  other  two  obscure  thieves,  nothing  famous.  The  rustical  thieves  were 
hanged  and  Barabbas  was  delivered.  Even  so  now-a-days  the  little  thieves  are 
hanged  that  steal  of  necessity,  but  the  great  Barabbases  have  free  liberty  to  rob 
and  spoil  without  measure  in  the  midst  of  the  city. — Bernard  Gilpin.  The  laws 
of  God  and  man  were  but  withs  upon  the  arms  of  these  Samsons. — lip.  Atter- 
lurij. 

Apantesis.    v.  Occupatio. 

Aparithmesis.    v.  Amplificatiox. 

Apeuche.    v.  Commination. 

Aphaeresis  iS  the  taking  of  a  letter  or  a  syllable  from  the  be- 
ginning of  a  word;  as  "  Coniah "  for  "  Jeconiah "  (Jer.-xxii.  24); 
^ncatli  for  beneath. 

Aphodos  {difiression,  2^cirecbasis,  2)<^rabasis,  ccbole)  is  a  figure 
by  which  the  speaker  mentions  his  digression  and  promises  a  return 
to  his  subject,     v.  DiEXODOS  and  Metabasis. 

Aporia.    v.  Addubitatio. 

Apliorismus  {dlorismiis)  is  a  weighty  matter  expressed  in  few 
words ;  an  a])horism. 

Apocope  is  the  taking  of  a  letter  or  letters  from  the  end  of  a 
word  ;  as  Jude  for  Judas,  t/t''  for  (he. 

Apodeixis  is  a  rhetorical  demonstration  or  the  giving  of  an 
obvious  reason  (Jer,  xii.  5 ;  Matt.  x.  25). 

Apodioxis  {detestatlo,  rejcctio)  i'where  something  is  repelled 
or  spurned  as  wrong,  absurd,  or  intolerable  (Isa.  i.  12-15;  Jer.  ix. 
2 ;  Matt.  iv.  10 ;  xvi.  23  ;  Acts  viii.  20). 

Away  with  impiety  and  discords. — Ladantius.  Flee  from  sin  as  from  a  toad ; 
come  away  from  popery  and  all  antichrist  ian  religion. — John  Bradford.  Again  I 
say,  let  such  doctrine*  be  cast  out. — /.  C.  JIare, 

II.  The  term  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  a  wish  that  an  evil 
omen  may  be  averted.  Holmes,  without  any  good  authority,  calls 
this  figure  abohiinatio :  "God  forbid"  (1  Sjjm.  x.\.  2,9;  Matt, 
xvi.  22 ;  Luke  xx.  IG). 

Far  be  it  from  us  that  our  unthankfulness  should  bereave  us  of  this  felicity. 
— Abp.  Sandys. 

m.  It  has  also  been  defined  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  mere- 
ly mentions  such  jiarticulars  as  he  is  cither  unwilling  or  imable  to 
amjilify  (Ileb.  xi.  32). 

1\'.  It  has  been  employed  in  the  sense  of  ajwplanesis  (y.  v.). 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  687 

V.  Bengel  uses  the  term  in  the  very  mild  sense  of  a  skilful  trans- 
fer from  ourselves  to  another  of  the  duty  of  narrating  or  explaining 
something.  He  regards  it  as  an  epistolary  figure  (Eph.  vi.  21,  22; 
Col.  iv.  7-9 ;  Cicero's  Epp.,  L.  i.,  Bp.  viii.). 

Apologue  {fabicla,  fable)  has  been  employed  in  various  senses. 
Aristotle  used  the  word  logos  to  designate  the  fable  as  we  find  it 
in  -^sop,  while  he  used  the  word  my  thus  to  denote  the  composi- 
tion of  incidents  in  an  epic  poem.  Apthonius,  a  Greek  rhetorician 
of  the  fourth  century,  employs  the  word  logos  in  the  Aristotelian 
sense,  "Among  Latin  authors  th.Q  w  or  ^  fahula  signifies,  1,  narrra- 
tive,  common  report ;  2,  fictitious  narrative  {logos,  ainos) ;  3,  tra- 
gedy or  comedy ;  4,  an  epic  poem.  In  the  New  Testament  Greek 
we  have  the  word  mythus  in  the  sense  of  the  Hebrew  legends,  but 
not  of  fables,  either  in  the  classical  or  modern  sense.  The  fable, 
in  the  modern  acceptation,  is  a  fictitious  narrative  which  is  intended 
to  illustrate  some  maxim  of  morality  or  j)rovidence,  and  in  which 
brutes,  trees,  and  other  unintelligent  objects  are  for  the  most 
part  represented  as  acting  above  their  natural  capacity  and  sphere. 
According  to  this  definition,  some  of  -^sop's  fables,  so  called, 
would  be  more  properly  termed  pai'ables,  and  some  of  our  Lord's 
parables,  fables.     To  give  examples  were  needless. 

Apophasis  {paras ioj^esis)  is  when  we  forbear  to  express 
roundly  and  positively  ideas  which,  however,  we  msinuate  to  our 
hearers  by  the  use  of  negations.  It  does  not  differ  essentially  from 
cataphasis.  Apojihasis  says,  '  I  will  not  mention,'  and  cafaphasis 
says,  "  I  pass  by  his  libertinism."  This  figure  is  not  often  em- 
ployed by  the  inspired  speakers  (Philemon,  verse  19).  v.  Paka- 
LEIPSIS,  often  written  2:)ciralc2ysis. 

Apophonema  is  a  responsive  sentence. 

Aphora.     v.  Addubitatio. 

Apoplanesis  is  where  an  advocate  purposely  turns  the  atten- 
tion of  the  judge  from  the  point  at  issue. 

Aposiopesis  {reticentla)  begins  a  sentence,  but  increases  its 
force  by  leaving  it  unfinished,  because  some  after-thought,  sudden 
emotion,  or  overpowering  passion  of  the  speaker  compels  him  to 
retain  the  residue  (Exod.  xxxii.  32 ;  Hos.  ix.  14 ;  Luke  xiii.  9 ; 
xix.  42). 

0  eternity  !  eternity  !  all  the  more  lovely  and  ravishing  art  thou  to  my  soul 
because  thou  avt  incomprehensible.  Eternity  ! — best  described  by  adoration,  won- 
der, and — silence  ! — Brydayne.  The  farther  our  two  pilgrims  go  from  Jerusalem 
the  more  their  dejection  increases.  Care  and  sorrow  make  it  pain  for  them  to 
breathe,  and  the  world  is  all  too  narrow  for  their  oppressed  hearts.  "  Yes,  our 
fond  dreams  are  over.  Cleopas,  we  have  no  refuge  from  the  fearful  thought 
that — may  God  have  mercy  upon  us !  " — F.  W.  Krummacher. 


588  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

Apostasis  is  employed  in  two  senses :  I.  As  a  fijijure  Ijy 
■ubicli,  whon  a  sentence  is  interrupted  or  the  connection  of  the 
thought  is  broken  by  a  parenthesis,  we  arrange  it  in  order,  as  in 
one  kind  of  ejKinalepsls.  II.  As  a  figure  by  which  the  last  word  is 
repeated  after  a  pause,  as  in  anadiplosis. 

Appositum.    V.  Epitiieton. 

Apostrophe  {aoersio,  2)rospho7iests)  is  a  figure  by  which  the 
speaker  turns  from  the  tenor  of  his  discourse,  and  rises  to  a  higher 
strain,  either  by  uttering  a  solemn  oath,  or  by  addressing  directly 
some  i)erson  or  thing  present  or  absent,  v.  Obtestation  (Isa.  i. 
5;  Jer.  xi.  18;  Ezek.  xiii.  11;  Joel  ii.  21;  Matt.  xi.  21-23;  Luke 

xxUi.  30). 

Now  we  say,  as  Athanasius  said,  "  If  I  be  deceived,  thou  hast  deceived  me,  0 
Lord !  "—Bp.  Jewell.  What  utihty  is  there  in  tiiis  jjompous  cortege  of  the  rich 
at  the  burial  of  a  corpse?  Why  are* so  many  priests  sitting  luxuriously  on 
cushions  round  a  coffin,  whilst  thou,  0  Christ!  stoodest  weeping  over  the  tomb 
of  Lazarus,  and  humbly  invokedst  thy  Father  ? — John  JIuss.  Alexander!  Ju- 
lius !  was  it  good  for  you  to  have  been  masters  of  the  world,  and  to  be  now 
where  now  you  are?  They  cannot  answer  me,  but  answer  me  ye  who  can  ! — A- 
Vieyra. 

Ara.      r.  COMMIN'ATION". 

Archaism  is  a  word  or  phrase  employed  according  to  ancient 
usagf. 

Association  includes  ourselves  in  what  we  say  only  for  others, 
or  it  includes  others  in  what  we  say  only  for  ourselves,  or  it  in- 
cludes many  in  what  we  say  only  for  a  few  or  for  one.  Dumarsais 
terms  this  figure  "  communication  in  words,"  to  distinguish  it  from 
communication  as  a  figure  of  thought  {c.  AxACCENOSIS)  ;  but  it 
would  more  properly  be  called  a  kind  of  *'^/it'c'(?oc/(6'  (Acts  xvii.  29; 
Heb.  ii.  1,2,3;  in.  G;  x.  25). 

In  that  place  (hell)  what  is  burned  is  not  consumed.  AVhal  then  shall  xce  do 
there  ?     For  to  myself  also  do  I  say  these  things. — Ckri/sostom. 

Assonance,    v.  Parechesis. 

Asteismus  is  where,  in  pleasantry  or  banter,  we  a])parently 
try  to  conceal  what  we  still  disclose,  or  where  in  general  we  use 
any  graceful  language  or  hapi)y  turn  of  phrase  (Isa.  xliv.  0-20; 
Matt.  vi.  31 ;  John  x.  32). 

Those  who  are  continually  complaining  that  things  run  cross — that  the  world 
is  much  worse  than  it  should  be,  hare  every  reason  to  complain  that  there  is  one 
individual  porsrm  in  it  much  worse  than  he  should  be. — /.  Sfcd.  The  accession 
which  the  Gallican  church  gained  by  the  supi)ression  of  her  opitononts  was  like 
the  small  accession  of  length  a  body  gains  by  death. — Robert  Hall. 

Asterismus  is  a  figure  by  whidi  we  employ  some  word  in  di- 
recting the  eye  to  some  object,  or  the  attention  to  some  sul>jecl,as, 
"  Lo  ! "  "  Behold  ! " 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  589 

Asyndeton  [dlahjton,  dialysis,  dissolutio,  solutwn)  is  a  figure 
which  omits  conjunctions  or  other  particles.  This  figure  is  more 
often  rhetorical  than  grammatical  (Longinus,  c.  xix. ;  Mark  xvi.  17  ; 
Luke  xvii.  27  ;  xviii.  28 ;  John  ii.  10 ;  iv.  22).  Winer,  in  his  Gram- 
mar of  the  Idioms  of  the  N.  T.,  says  that  the  connecting  particles 
are  wanting,  1.  In  enumerating  divisions  and  gradations  (Mark  xvi. 
17,  18;  Heb.  xi.  37;  Jas.  v.  6);  2.  In  antithetical  clauses  (John  ii. 
lo';  iv!  22;  Jas.  i.  19);  3.  In  parallelisms  of  the  sense  (Mark  xvi. 
6  •  'Acts  xw.  12) ;  4.  When  the  reason  of  a  sentence  or  proposition 
is  subjoined  (John  xix.  12). 

The  Gospel  of  Christ  had  no  encouragement,  no  protection  from  the  civil 
power-  no  force  or  cunning  to  uphold  it;  no  men  of  eminence  and  esteem  to 
en-acre  on  its  ^\^e.-Atterhury.  But  there,  far  perhaps  above  the  sun,  new 
sce^ne",  new  beings,  new  wonders,  new  joys  will  present  themselves  to.  our  en- 
larged  views. — Sce^, 

Athroesmos.    v.  Symperasma. 

Auxesis.    V.  Amplificatio. 

Aversio.    v.  Apostrophe. 

Benedictio.  A  solemn  act  of  imploring  the  blessing  of  God, 
or  else  a  declaration  of  happiness  (Deut.  xxviii.  3-6;  Eccles.  x.  17 ; 
Isa.  XXX.  18  ;  Matt.  v.  2-11). 

Brachiologia  (hreviloquence)  is  the  omission  of  such  words  as 
the  hearer  will  naturally  and  readily  supply  from  the  context  (Ezek. 
xi.  11 ;  Micah  vii.  3 ;  Mark  xiv.  49  ;  John  xv.  25).     Formerly  this  , 
figure  was  included  in  ellipsis,  which  is  now  applied  to  omissions 
of  words  that  are  not  obviously  suggested  by  the  context.  • 

Biseon.    v.  Antistropiia. 

Burden,    v.  Refrain. 

Catabasis.    v.  Anabasis. 

Coenoprepe  {innovatio)  is  a  new  word  or  a  new  collocation  of 

words. 

Catachresis  is  a  figure  by  which  a  word  is  used  in  a  sense  re- 
motely analogous  to  its  own;  as  "victory"  for  life  (Isa.  xxv.  8); 
"mercies"  for  2'>romises  fulfilled  (Isa.  Iv.  3);  "vessels"  for  bodies 
(Hos.  xiii.  15) ;  "  hate  "  for  forsal^e  (Luke  xiv.  2C) ;  "  against  heav- 
en "  for  aciainst  God  (Luke  xv.  21) ;  "  to  fail "  for  not  to  be  fulfilled. 
(eh.  xvi.  17). 

Our  heart  burneth  and  is  taken  up  with  a  kind  of  noly  concupiscence  of  see- 
ing thy  Father  who  sent  thee. — Augustine. 

Cataphasis  is  the  utterance  of  what  we  profess  to  postpone 
saying,     v.  Apophasis. 

Cataplexis  is  where  the  speaker  employs  the  language  of  men- 
ace. 


590  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

Cataploce.    v.  Parembole. 

Challenge  is  a  defiance  or  invitation  to  a  trial  or  ordeal  (1 
Kings  xviii.  U4;  Isa.  xli.  21,  22;  xliu.  8,  9). 

Characterismus  is  a  graphic  description  of  the  character, 
morals,  or  manners  of  a  person,     v.  Hypotyposis. 

Charientismus  {scmmna)  is  where  language  which  might  ap- 
pear too  severe  is  mitigated  by  a  mild  word  or  phrase  (John  ix.  30 ; 
2  Thes.  m.  10). 

It  was  once  employed  to  denote  a  smoothing  joke,  as  "Bona  Verba  quajso." 
— Terence.  A  strange  delusion  it  is  wherewith  the  man  of  sin  hath  bewitched 
the  world. — E.  Hooker. 

Chiasmus  (ejyafiodos,  hysteresis,  synchysis)  exists  when  two 
pairs  of  words  or  propositions  are  so  arranged  that  a  relation  sub- 
sists between  the  former  pair  and  the  latter  pair.  It  is  called  a 
direct  chiasmus  when  the  relation  is  of  the  A  to  the  C  and  of  the 
B  to  the  D ;  in  inverted  chiasmus  when  the  relation  is  of  the  A  to 
tlie  D  and  of  the  B  to  the  C.  (See  Bengel's  Gnomon  with  Burk's 
Index,  Latin  ed.,  p.  1160). 

Chleuasmus,  or  epicertomesis,  is  where  the  speaker  excites 
laughter  by  a  jeer  or  playful  comparison  of  persons  or  things,  v. 
Mycterismus. 

Chreia.    v.  Gxome. 

Chroma,    v.  Eupiiemismus. 

Chronographia  is  a  description  of  an  event,  by  dwelling  on 
its  conjunctures  or  circumstances. 

The  kingdom  of  God  did  not  establish  itself  like  other  kingdoms,  in  a  slow 
and  leisurely  manner,  so  that  lookers-on  might  trace  it  easily  from  its  rise  through 
the  several  steps  of  its  progress,  but  fixed  itself  at  once  almost  everywhere  with 
so  rapid  and  amazing  a  course  as  did  at  once  leave  the  eyes  and  observation  of 
men  behind  it. — Atterburtj. 

Circum.ductio  {2yerihole,  2^^'oslepsis)  is  the  expansion  of  para- 
lepsis  beyond  its  proper  limits  by  actually  proceeding  to  narrate 
what  we  profess  to  omit.     (See  Hermogenes,  on  this.) 

Circum.locutio  {c'ircuitio).    v.  Periphrasis. 

Climax  {<iradatio)  repeats  one  of  the  words  of  the  antecedent 
clause  or  sentence  in  the  following  clause  or  sentence,  and  continues 
this  process  through  several  successive  clauses  or  ■sentences  (Hos. 
ii.  21,  22;  Joel  i.  3^4;  Matt.  x.  40). 

If  we  are  shocked  at  the  Pagans  in  their  festivities,  let  us  grieve ;  if  we  grieve, 
let  us  pray  ;  if  we  pray,  may  we  be  heard  ;  if  we  are  heard,  we  gain  them  like- 
wise.— Auffiistine.  When  we  have  jiractised  good  actions  awhile  they  become 
easy ;  and  when  they  are  easy  we  begin  to  take  ])loasure  in  fliem  ;  and  when 
they  please  us  we  do  them  frequently  ;  and  by  frociuency  of  acks  they  grow  into 
a  habit. — Tillotson.     0  blessed  state  when  I  shall  behold  face  to  face  Ilim  who  is 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  591 

infinitely  lovely !  love  what  I  behold  !  and  be  made  happy  in  the  enjoyment  of 
what  I  love.— J.  Seed.  The  Roman  orators,  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  art,  some- 
times did  not  repeat  the  same  word  that  stood  in  the  former  member,  but  some 
other  equivalent  to  it. — Quint.,  L.  ix.,  c.  iii. 

The  terms  climax  and  anticlimax,  as  now  employed,  are  synony- 
mous with  anabasis  and  catahasis. 

Coenotes  {complexio)  is  wher^  several  sentences  begin  with  the 
same  word  and  end  with  the  same  word.  The  figure  consists  of  a 
union  of  epibole  and  ejnstrojjhe. 

Cohabitatio  is  a  conjunction  of  opposite  ideas  in  the  same  per- 
son or  thing  (John  xvi.  32  ;  Gal.  ii.  20).     See  Synceceiosis. 

Commination  {ara,  imprecation,  maledictio,  apeuche,  misus, 
execratio)  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  utters  a  solemn  denuncia- 
tion or  predicts  calamity  (Deut.  xxviu.  16,  17 ;  Isa.  iii.  11 ;  Jer. 
xlviii.  10 ;  Matt.  xi.  21). 

Commoratio  {epimone)  is  a  kind  of  amplification  which  dwells 
long  upon  or  frequently  returns  to 'the  principal  point  of  a  subject 
untTl  it  be  well  understood  and  rest  with  due  weight  upon  the  mind 
of  the  hearer  (Isa.  ix.  12,  17,  21;  Zech.  i.  3-6;  Matt.  vii.  21-23; 
xii.  31,  32  ;  Mark  vii.  21-23 ;  John  xxi.  15-17). 

The  day  of.  prosperity  always  paves  the  way  for  evil,  and  is  its  sure  precur- 
sor What  we  call  happiness  is  full  of  danger,  and  exposes  us  to  a  thousand 
evils  In  the  repose  of  paradise  the  first  man  lost  God,  but  afterwards,  amidst 
toils  and  griefs,  he  received  the  blessed  promise  of  salvation.  In  the  wide  world 
the  mass  of  mankind  was  drowned,  while  in  the  narrow  enclosure  of  the  ark 
Noah  outrode  the  deluge.  Where  the  Egyptians  flourished  under  the  reign  of 
Pharaoh,  there  darkness  prevailed;  but  in  Goshen,  that  small  corner  of  the  land 
where  the  children  of  Israel  sighed  and  suffered,  the  light  was  resplendent. 
Prosperity  brought  ruin  upon  Solomon,  while  fasting,  nakedness,  and  continual 
persecution  lifted  Elijah  into  the  fiery  chariot.-I«/s  de  lean.  See  example  from 
3fol>/neux  under  the  head  of  AmpUJicatio 

Communicatio.    v.  Anaccexosis. 
Communication  in  words,    v.  Association. 
Commutatio.    v.  Epanodos. 

Compar  {isocolon)  is  when  the  successive  members  of  a  sen- 
tence have  almost  the  same  number  of  syllables  (Isa.  i.  5 ;  xxix.  1 ; 

Amos  V.  24).  ,  •     •,  x 

Comparatio  {eicasia,  syncrisis,  jyarathesis,  comparison,  simile) 
is  a  figure  by  which  two  things  are  brought  together  in  thought, 
while^'one  or  more  of  the  attributes  of  each  is  formally  likened  or 
contrasted  (Isa.  i.  18;   Iv.  10,  11 ;   Ixvi.  12  ;   Matt.  xxiv.  27 ;    John 

viii.  55).  ^   .  ^,     ,. 

Go  and  teach  all  nations.     Consult  neither  the  course  of  rivers  nor  the  direc- 
tion of  mountain  ranges.     Go  straight  on;  go  as  the  thunder  goes  of  H.m  who 
.   sends  you,  as  the  creative  word  went  which  carried  life  into  chaos,  as  the  eagles 
go,  and  the  angels. — Lacordaire. 


592  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

Dissimilitude,  anomwosis,  by  M-liich  things  are  contrasted,  is  by 
some  considered  a  separate  figure  (Isa.  i.  3;  Ixv.  13;  Jer.  viii.  7; 
Luke  ix.  58 ;  xvi.  19-22).  The  unparalleled  comes  under  this  head 
(Isa.  vii.  17;  Ezek.  v.  9;  Joel  ii.  2;  Matt.  xxiv.  21). 

Compensatio.    v.  Anteisagoge. 

Coniplexio  {^^ymploce,  ccenotes)  is  a  repetition  of  clauses  or  sen- 
tences which  both  begin  and  erfd  with  corresponding  words  or 
phrases.  It  is  sometimes  a  repetition  of  the  epanalepsis  (Jer,  ix. 
23,*in  the  original).  The  term  complcxlo  is  often  applied  to  that 
kind  of  transition  in  which  we  recuT  to  what  has  been  previously 
said. 

Hallelujah  is  the  sound  of  the  Maves  ;  and  the  mountains  reply  hallelujah ! 
Hallelujahs  float  along  in  the  niunnuriiig  of  the  streams,  in  the  whisperings  of 
the  grove  and  forest;  yea.  even  in  the  silent  courses  of  the  stars  his  spirit  hears 
the  mystic  hallelujah. — /.  C.  Hare.  An  act  which  God  condemns,  an  act  which 
conscience  condemns,  an  act  which  public  opinion  condemns  ;  how  can  you  praise 
it,  how  can  you  so  much  as  justify  it;»how  can  you  even  excuse  it  1 — Anmt, 

Concessio  {sj/nchoresis,  epichoresis)  is  when  we  confess  or  ad- 
rait  something  in  order  to  carry  our  point  (Jer.  xii.  1 ;  Ilabak.  i. 
13 ;  Jas.  ii.  19). 

Let  it  be  admitted  for  a  moment  that  you  will  live  as  long  and  longer  than 
you  promise  yourself  you  will — does  it  thence  follow  that  the  time  you  have 
fixed  upon  for  repentance  will  be  a  time  of  penitence  and  conversion  for  you  1 
Ah,  'no,  doubtless  not. — Brydayne.  .  .  Not  simply,  "  Before  Abraham  was,  I 
was  ;"  not  simply  a  declaration  of  having  existed  before  Abraham,  but  a  taking 
to  himself  the  great,  the  incommunicable  name,  carrying  with  it  the  assertion  of 
self-existence,  of  supreme  divinity.  So  they  imderstood  it  who  instantly  tcok 
up  stones  to  stone  him  as  a  blasphemer.  And  so  let  us  understand  it,  not  taking 
up  stones  to  stone  him,  but  lifting  up  hearts  an(l  hands  together  to  crowu  him 
Lord  of  all.— Dr.  TF.  Hanna. 

Conclusio  is  an  argument  in  few  words  from  that  which  has  al- 
ready been  said  or  done,  and  the  deduction  thence  of  a  necessary 
consequence.  The  author  of  the  Khetoric  "Ad  Ilereunium"  gives 
conclusio  a  place  among  figures. 

Conduplicatio.    v.  Epizeuxis. 

Confession  [jiaromologia)  is  a  figure  by  wliuli  tlie  speaker  ac- 
knowledges his  faults  with  a  view  to  obtain  pardon  of  God  or  of 
Ills  hearers,  to  illustrate,  or  prove,  or  warn,  or  encourage.  It  is 
sometimes  used  to  denote  a  concession  of  the  weight  of  an  objec- 
tion, while  it  is  turned  against  the  objector  (Isa.  vi.  5;  lix.  12,  13; 
Jer.  iii.  25;  Dan.  ix.  5,  S,  10;   Ezra  i.x.  G;  Jas.  ii.  19). 

Conforniatio.    v.  Prosopopoeia. 

Congeries,    v.  Symperasma. 

Conjunction  {conjunctio)  unites  the  members  of  a  sentence 
by  a  conjimction,  or  else  adds  qualifying  clauses  to  the  principal 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  593 

proposition.     The  Latin  rhetoricians  sometimes  used  the  term  in 
the  sense  of  zeugma.  ^    * 

Conquestio  is  a  passionate  bewailing  or  complaining  (Isa.  liii, 
1 ;  Ezek.  xx.  49 ;    Habak.  i.  2). 

Contentio.    v.  Antithesis. 

Continuatio  is  a  phrase  or  sentence  so  constructed  that  while 
it  contains  one  complete  sense  it  can  be  delivered  rapidly  and  almost 
without  any  jDause. 

Contrefision  {covjision)  feigns  to  inspire  hope  or  confidence  in 
something,  while  it  really  renounces  all  hope  or  confidence  in  that 
thing.     It  is  a  species  of  irony. 

Conversio.     o.  Epistrophe. 

Correctio  {e^ycmorthosls,  cUorthosis,  epicUorthosis^  metancea)  is 
a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  recalls  or  retracts  what  he  had  said 
in  order  to  substitute  something  better  in  its  place  (Isa.  lix.  15; 
Matt.  xi.  9;  John  xvi.  32;  Acts  xxvi.  27).  It  is  of  thi-ee  kinds: 
I.  Where  Avhat  is  said  is  wholly  retracted  (Mark  ix.  24 ;  John  xii. 
27).  II.  Wfiere  the  retraction  is  j^artial  or  relative  (John  xvi.  32 ; 
Gal.  ii.  20).  III.  Where  the  correction  is  made  by  a  supposition 
(Gal.  iii.  4). 

But  if  thy  heart  be  so  hardened  that  all  this  gear  will  not  more  thee,  svirely 
thou  art  in  a  very  evil  state,  and  remedy  now  know  I  none.  What !  said  I  nonel 
Know  I  none  1  Yes ;  there  is  one  which  is  suresby,  as  they  say,  to  serve,  if  any- 
thing will  serve. — John  Bradford.  Thou  who  with  grey  head  and  trembling  hands 
standest  before  me  soon,  soon  will  thy  course  be  finished.  Thou  art  already  bent 
to  the  earth  which  probably  in  a  few  days  will  receive  thee.  Receive  thee  ?  God 
forbid  !  It  will  but  possess  thy  outward  frame,  the  mere  habitation  of  thy  im- 
mortal spirit.  Thou  thyself  wilt  soar  on  high  to  see  sublime  things,  to  collect 
sublime  knowledge,  and  to  be  perfected  in  holiness. — Binter. 

There  is  a  kind  of  correctio  which  has  been  termed  collation 
(Prov.  XXX.  15,  18,  etc.). 

Crama  is  a  figure  which  mixes  praise  with  blame. 

Cyclus.    V.  Epanalepsis. 

Deference  is  a  figure  by  which  the  sj^eaker,  instead  of  directly 
answering  a  question  or  objection  himself,  directs  the  opponent  to 
another  if  not  higher  authority  (Luke  xvi.  29,  31). 

"  I  have  sinned  but  once,"  you  saj',  "  and  what  evil  will  come  upon  me  1  "  Ask 
the  rebel  angels,  and  they  will  tell  you  that  in  consequence  of  one  proud  thought 
they  were  cast  into  hell. — Brydayne. 

Crasis  is  the  contraction  of  two  vowels  into  one. 

Deasis.    v.  OBTESTATioisr. 

Decrementum.     v.  Catabasis. 

Definitio  {horismns)  is  a  figure  by  which  we  fix  the  meaning 
of  our  terms  or  describe  with  brevity  and  precision  the  qualities 
of  an  object. 


594  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

Demonstratio.    v.  Hypottposis. 

Deprecation  is  used  by  the  rhetoricians  in  various  senses  :  I. 
As  a  mode  of  proceeding  before  the  pardoning  power  by  which 
the  advocate  begs  the  forgiveness  of  the  crinjinal  on  account  of  his 
former  good  character,  mitigating  circumstances,  or  the  venial  na- 
ture of  the  crime.  It  is  sometimes  tolerated  as  a  method  of  de- 
fence in  judicial  proceedings.  II.  As  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker 
invokes  assistance  or  prays  that  some  evil  or  punishment  may  be- 
fall him  who  speaks  falsely,  whether  that  person  be  himself  or  his 
adversary.  III.  As  an  ejaculatory  prayer  for  the  prevention  or  re- 
moval of  any  evil. 

Derivatio.    v.  Paregmexo^st. 

Descriptio  is  of  seven  kinds — chrojiographia,  effidio,  ethopceia, 
hi/pof)/posis,  2va{/mator/rap/i la,  jyrosojwr/raphia,  topographia. 

Designation  by  opposite  extremes.  "This  figure,"  says 
Carson,  "  designates  something  that  is  very  great  or  very  small  by 
the  name  of  something  that  is  remarkable  for  a  great  degree  of  the 
opposite  quality."  "  The  Child  of  Hale  "  was  a  fanlous  English 
giant.  The  club  of  a  noted  cudgel-player  w^as  known  by  the  ap- 
pellation of  "  Jemmy's  switch."  "  Clarke's  Lambs  "  was  a  desig- 
nation of  most  ferocious  soldiers.     It  is  a  kind  of  irony. 

Detestatio.    v.  Apodioxis. 

Diabole  is  where  the  speaker  forewarns  the  judge  of  the  eflfects 
of  his  severity. 

Diacope.    v.  Tmesis. 

Diaeresis  is  the  separating  of  two  vowels  that  might  be  sup- 
posed to  form  a  diphthong;  as  orthoepy,  not  ortJuepy.     v.  Tmesis. 

Diallage  is  found  where  several  arguments  are  made  to  con- 
spire to  one  end,  or  else  where  subjects  are  divided  into  their  parts 
or  different  actions  are  predicated  of  different  persons,     v.  DiSTRi- 

BUTIO. 

Diallelon.    v.  Axtimetabole. 

Dialogismus.    v.  Sermocinatio. 

Dialysis,    v.  Tmesis. 

Dialyton.     v.  Asyndetox. 

Dianoea.    v.  Subjectio. 

Diaphora  {differentia)  is  found  where,  for  the  sake  of  a  clear 
discrimination,  things  that  are  different  arc  sei)arated  and  placed 
opposite  to  one  another.  It  is  a  kmd  of  antithesis  or  dissinii/ititde. 
The  term  is  also  employed  in  the  sense  of  antan aclasis,  to  desig- 
nate a  repeated  word  which  expresses  a  different  idea  from  that 
which  it  conveyed  in  the  first  instance. 

Diaporesis.     y.  Addubitatio. 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  595 

Diasceue  is  such  a  mode  of  reasoning  as  moves  the  passions  by- 
means  of  a  graphic  description  of  circumstances. 

Diasyrmus  is  a  sort  of  railery  or  rejDroach  which  attempts  to 
belittle  or  disjDarage  some  person  or  thing. 

Friend,  wherefore  art  thou  come  1 — 3fatt.  xxvi.  50. 

Diastole,    v.  Tmesis. 

Diatyposis.    v.  Htpotyposis. 

Dicseologia  is  when  we  state  the  equity  of  our  cause  in  a  few 
words. 

Diexodos  is  a  copious  exposition  of  facts.  It  is  the  opposite 
of  syntomia.     It  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  digression. 

Diezeugmenon  (disjunction)  is  where  several  members  which 
might  form  one  sentence  are  separated  into  two  or  more  sentences. 
V.  DiSJUHCTION". 

Digression,    v.  Aphodos  and  An"AChoresis, 
Dilogia.    V.  Antakaclasis, 
Diminutio.    v.  Hyperpole, 
Diorismus.    v.  Aphorismus. 
Diorthosis.    v.  Correctio, 

DiSSOlutiO.      U.  ASYNDETON^. 

Distinctio.    v.  Paradiastole. 

Distrfbutio  {diallage,  discrimination  digestio,  merisinus,  epi- 
merisnms)  divides  a  period  into  many  clauses  or  enumerates  many 
particulars  with  order,  energy,  and  feeling  (Isa,  xxiv.  1-3 ;  Ezek. 
xxxvi,  4),     One  kind  of  diallage  is  synonymous  with  distinbutio. 

Disjunction  is  when  several  clauses  or  members  of  a  sentence, 
which  are  not  connected  by  conjunctions,  depend  upon  one  word 
for  the  complete  expression  of  the  thoughts.  In  adjunction  the 
clauses  or  members  depend  upon  one  verb.  v.  Sejugatio.  Die- 
zeiignienon  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  disjimction. 

The  pomp  of  war,  the  sound  of  the  trumpets,  the  ghtter  of  the  weapons,  the 
order  of  tlie  troops,  the  silence  of  the  soldiers,  the  heat  of  the  strife,  the  begin- 
ning, the  progress,  and  the  completion  of  the  victory,  the  different  cries  of  the 
conquered  and  the  conquerors,  assault  the  soul  on  so  many  sides  that  it  loses  all 
its  wisdom  and  moderation,  and  forgets  both  God  and  itself. — Mascaron. 

Divisio.    V.  Tmesis, 

Dubitatio.    v.  Addubetatio. 

Ecbole.-    V.  Aphodos. 

Ecphonesis  {exclamation)  is  an  outburst  of  words  j)rompted 
by  some  passion  or  emotion,  and  either  is  not  addressed  to  any  jjer- 
son  or  thing,  or,  if  it  is,  expects  no  reply  (Isa.  vi,  5 ;  Ezek.  ix,  8 ; 
Matt.  xvii.  17 ;  Acts  vii.  51). 

If  these  men  had  been  of  us  indeed  (0  the  blessedness  of  a  Christian  man's 


596  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

estate!),  they  would  liavft  stood  surer  tlian  the  angels;  they  would  never  have 
departed  from  their  place. — Augustine.  0  happy  death !  wlien  Jesus,  the  van- 
quislier  of  death,  stands  by  the  couch  and  covers  the  departing  soul  with  the 
wings  of  his  mercy  !  0  glorious  victory  of  life  over  death  when  the  worn  pil- 
grim hears  with  his  spirit's  ear  the  rustling  palms  of  the  conquerors  that  bare 
gone  before !  0  sweet  sleep  on  the  bed  of  earth  and  under  the  canopy  of  stone, 
if  it  only  he  a  sleep  in  the  arms  of  Jesus  ! — Ilofacker. 

Ecphrasis.    v.  Epexegesis. 

Ectasis.    V.  Tmesis. 

Ecthlipsis  is  a  figure  of  Latin  prosody,  by  which  final  m  with 
the  preceding  vowel  is  cut  off  when  the  following  word  begins 
with  a  vowel.     Final  s  is  sometimes  thus  cut  off  by  the  early  poets. 

EflB-Ctio  {portrait)  describes  a  person  by  delineating  his  cliarac-' 
tcr,  manners,  habits,  and  features. 

Eicasia.    v.  Comparatio. 

Ejaculation  is  a  short  prayer  which  is  commonly  appropriate 
to,  if  not  suggested  by,  the  subject  or  occasion  (Hosea  ix.  14).  It 
sometimes  partakes  of  the  nature  of  aposiopesis,  as  in  the  above 
example. 

God  grant  that  the  wise  ones  of  the  world  may  at  length  attain  unto  that 
faith!  Amen.  But  in  the  second  place  Paul  saith,  etc. — Luther.  But,  God  be 
praised!  there  is  no  need  to  abandon  either  our  common  faith  or  this  essential 
and  most  comfortable  part  of  it. — Ilebcr.  « 

Eleutheria.    v.  Licentia. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word,  phrase,  clause,  or  sentence 
that  must  be  implied  in  order  to  make  out  the  sense.  It  is  either 
grammatical  or  rhetorical.  It  is  the  former  when  it  omits  some 
word  or  words  from  inadvertency  or  for  the  sake  of  brevity ;  it  is 
the  latter  when  it  omits  because  of  some  gentle  emotion,  strong 
feeling,  or  sudden  outburst  of  passion  (Isa.  xxvi.  1 ;  Jer,  xix.  1 ; 
IIos.  ix.  4;  Luke  xxii.  37  ;  Acts  vii.  51). 

One  way  or  other,  our  life  must  be  lost;  unwillingly,  and  we  lose  it  forever; 
willingly,  and  we  gain  it  forever. — /.  C.  Sare. 

Emphasis  {signification  ratiocination  syllogismus)  has  several 
apjilications  : 

I.  It  means  an  augmentation  of  the  sense,  either  by  eliciting 
some  latent  idea  in  what  is  said,  or  by  intimating  something  that  is 
not  said,  but  is  purposely  omitted. 

II.  It  is  also  employed  Avhen  by  some  sign  the  greatness  of  a 
person  or  thing  is  shown,  as  Goliath  by  the  magnitude  of  his  sword 
(Isa.  ii.  4 ;  iv.  1 ;  xlix.  20 ;  Matt.  x.  30 ;  xxiv.  20 ;  Luke  vii.  44). 

III.  It  is  likewise  used  to  designate  a  mode  of  defence  by  wliich 
in  judicial  proceedings  the  advocate,  not  finding  an  express  statute, 
reasons  from  some  analogous  \2l^. 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  597 

Ratiodnatlo  has  yet  another  signification,  which  is  given  else- 
whei-e. 

Enallage  {enallaxis,  allceosis)  is  a  change  of  words.  It  is  of 
two  kinds :  I.  Antimeria  is  when  one  part  of  speech  is  substituted 
for  another.  II.  Heterosis  is  a  change  in  the  inflexions  of  the  parts 
of  speech,  or  the  use  of  one  gender,  number,  case,  person,  mood, 
or  tense  for  another.  The  present  tense  is  often  used  in  narrating 
the  past  and  the  future.     It  includes  synthesis  and  antiptosis. 

Enallaxis.    v.  Eistallage. 

Enantiotes  {cmtitheta)  is  proof  derived  from  the  statements 
of  the  opposite  party. 

Enantiosis.    v.  Antithesis. 

Enargeia.    v.  Hypottposis. 

Enigma,    v.  Enigma. 

Enthymema  was  employed  by  Vitellius  as  synonymous  with 
commenium  or  conceptio.  The  full  definition  of  this  figure  has 
not  come  down  to  us.*  Among  modern  rhetoricians  the  entlojmeme 
is  a  sentence  which  contains  the  materials  of  a  syllogism,  but  does 
not  itself  furnish  a  legitimate  conclusion.  The  logical  enthymeme 
is  a  syllogism  with  one  premiss  suiDpressed. 

Enumeration,    v.  Amplificatiojst. 

Epagoge.    V.  Paeable. 
■  Epanaclesis-l-a  return  from  a  digression,     v.  A^stachoeesis. 

Epanadiplosis.    v.  Epizeuxis  and  Ajstadiplosis. 

Epanalepsis  {cydus)  is  a  figure  which  repeats  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence  the  same  word  or  phrase  that  is  placed  at  its  beginning 
(Eccles.  i.  2 ;  Mark  siii.  35-37  ;  Jas.  ii.  14-16). 

Make  that  thy  goal,  0  soul !  despising  all  beside,  or  also  transcending  them ; 
make  that  thy  goal ! — Augustine.  Hallelujah  is  the  sound  of  the  waves  ;  aiM 
the  mountains  reply,  hallelujah  ! — /.  C.  Hare. 

Some  call  it  epanalepsis  when  the  antecedent  is  repeated  after  a 
parenthesis.     This  sjiecies  of  epanalepsis  is  also  termed  apostasis. 

Epanaphora.    v.  An^aphoea. 

Epanastrophe.    v.  Anadiplosis. 

Epanodos.    v.  Antimetabole  and  Chiasmus. 

Epanorthosis.    v.  Coeeectio. 

Epauxesis.    v.  Amplificatio. 

Epembole.    v.  Paeembole. 

Epexegesis  {exegesis,  vcphrasis,  exergasia,  epexergasia,  epichi- 
rema,  hermeneia,  synonymia,  interptretatio)  is  when  an  explanation 
immediately  follows  the  word  or  words  which  the  speaker  has  em- 
ployed (Psa.  Ixxvii.  19 ;  Isa.  i.  22,  23  ;  xxxivf  6 ;  xliv.  3 ;  Jonah  ii. 
3,  4;  Amos  iii.  8;  Hos.  vii.  8,  9;  Luke  xvi.  13;  John  xvi,  7-11). 


598  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

On  the  one  liand  we  have  seen  the  dove  descending  upon  the  Lord  ;  on  the 
other,  the  cloven  tongues  upon  the  assembled  disciples.  In  tlie  one  case  sim- 
plicity is  shown,  in  the  other,  fervency. — Augustine.  The  blessed  martyrs  offered 
a  mixed  cup  of  red  wine.  Mixed,  I  said  ;  for  none  has  ever  offered  it  pure  but 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  perfectly  pure  liimself. — Bernard. 

Epexerg§,sia.    v.  Epexegesis. 

Epibole  is  when  the  same  word  or  several  words  which  have 
the  same  signification  begin  two  or  more  sentences.  It  has  nearly 
the  same  ai)pIication  as  anaphora.  When  antczeugmenon  places 
its  verb  between  the  members  of  the  sentence  it  sometimes  takes 
the  name  of  epibole. 

Epicheirema  is  called  a  logical  figure  when  it  is  only  another 
name  for  an  assumption  in  a  minor  proposition.  It  is  sometimes 
employed  to  denote  a  short  argument  in  a  single  sentence. 

Epicrisis  is  when  to  what  has  been  said  something  is  added 
by  way  of  ajiproval  or  confirmation  or  explanation  (John  v.  39, 40). 
It  is  sometimes  a  sjiecies  of  epiplionana ;  sometimes  it  is  called 
epitasis. 

Epichoresis.    v.  Coxcessio. 

Epidiegesis  is  the  repetition  of  a  statement  of  facts  with  such 
an  amplitication  as  serves  to  kindle  indignation  or  melt  compassion. 

Epidiorthosis.    v.  Correctio. 

Epimerismus.    v.  Dlstributio.  ^ 

Epimone.    v.  Commoratio. 

Epiphonema  is  a  Inief  and  animated  expression  prompted  by 
something  that  was  just  before  said  or  done.  It  is  of  three  kinds: 
I.  When  to  a  narration  a  short  general  reflection  or  passing  re- 
mark is  added.  II.  When  in  a  comparison  we  exj)lain  our  mean- 
ing, as  when,  after  describing  a  sliipwreck,  we  show  what  m'c  un- 
derstand by  a  shipwreck  of  the  sfate.  III.  When  we  add  to  a 
narrative  or  argument  an  exclamation  by  way  of  approval  or  con- 
firmation. The  term  is  now  commonly  used  in  the  last  significa- 
tion (Jonah  ii.  9;  IIos.  xiii.  9;  Zeph.  ii.  10;  Matt.  xi.  15;  xxii.  14; 
Mark  vii.  14;  Acts  xix.  20). 

Oh!  abomination,  and  that  not  only  herein,  but  in  all  their  penance  as  they 
paint  it. — John  Jiradford.  Be  sure,  if  you  forget  every  ])art  of  this  sermon, 
carry  this  home  with  you,  "God  is  a  refuge  for  me." — John  Jierridge^ 

Epiphora,    v.  Epistropiie. 

Epiplexis.    v.  Epitimesis.  • 

Epiploce  is  a  figure  by  which  a  second  sentence  springs  from 
the  first,  a  third  from  the  secoriTl,  and  so  others  in  succession. 

Epistrophe  (<  in  tint  raphe,  ej>iphora,  coni'crsio)  is  the  emphatic 
repetition  of  a  word  or  phrase  at  the  end  of  successive  sentences 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  599 

or  members  of  a  sentence,  v.  Refraix  (Dent,  xxxii.  10;  Ezek. 
xxxiii.  25,  2G;  xxxvi.  23-27,  in  the  Hebrew;  Joel  ii.  26,  27). 

The  poor  in  spirit  liave  come  to  us ;  they  that  mourn  have  come  to  us;  they 
that  hunger  and  thirst  after  righteousness  have  come  to  us.—/.  C.  Hare. 

Epitasis  {intentio)  is  Avhen  to  what  we  have  said  we  add  some- 
thing by  way  of  emphasis  or  explanation.  It  is  sometimes  used  as 
synonymous  with  epicrisls.  It  is,  in  strictness,  the  opposite  of 
anesls,  which  subjoins  something,  that  diminishes  the  effect  of 
what  has  been  said  (Exod.  iii.  19  ;  Mark  x.  44;  John  xiii.  34;  Acts 

vii.  5). 

What  has  human  nature  that  it  did  not  receive,  yea,  even  human  nature  in 
the  Only  ^e'yoiievy.— Augustine.  Instances  of  her  goodness  were  not  known  till 
after  her  dearth  ;  no,  not  by  him  who  was  partaker  of  all  her  joys  and  sorrows. 
—Atterbunj.  The  absurdity  of  courting  the  favour  of  Rome  is  England's  sm— 
En-land's  great  sin,  England's  very  great  sin.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
exc^ept  repentance  and  amendment  avert  the  stroke,  this  will  prove  England's 
plague,  England's  great  plague,  England's  very  great  plague.— l^e^r^A  Mc^eile. 

Epitimesis  {epijylexls)  is  a  figure  by  which  a  rebuke  or  re- 
proach is  conveyed. 
Epitrechon.    v.  Parenthesis.  • 

Epitrope  {lyermissio)  takes  the  form  of  a  serious  or  ironical 
command,  entreaty,  permission,  concession,  or  surrender,  in  order 
the  more  effectually  to  carry  a  point  (Eccles.  xi.  9 ;  Jer.  ii.  28 ;  vii. 
21;  Ezek.  xx.  39;  Amos  iv.  4,  5;  Matt,  xxiii.  32;  John  xiu.  27). 

Thou'hidest  thine  heart  from  man  ;  hide  it  from  God  if  thou  ca.\i?.i.— Augus- 
tine. 

Epitrochasmus  (jyercursio)  is  a  figure  by  which  events  are 
briefly  and  rapidly  mentioned,  in  order  to  shorten  apparently  the 
intervals  of  time  that  separated  them.  Or  else  it  is  a  rapid  and 
copious  pouring  forth  of  words  in  order  to  embarrass  an  adver- 
sary. It  is  sometimes  confounded  with  synathroesmus  and  epimone. 
It  is  generally  associated  with  a^jndfiton  (Exod.  xv.  9,  10). 

Epitherapeia  is  when  we  subjoin  to  what  we  have  said  a  dec- 
laration of  kind  or  respectful  feeling  towards  our  hearers,  or  add 
some  statement  or  explanation  by  way  of  apology  or  qualification.  ^ 
V.  Protherapeia  (Matt.  xxvi.  41). 

Now  it  were  to  weary  you  out  of  all  grateful  and  thankful  frames  beseeming 
our  festival  were  I  to  enlarge  further.  Let  me  therefore  only  add,  eic.—CharUs 
Wadsworth. 

Epitheton  {appositum)  is  some  adjective  or  noun  attached  to  a 
word  or  phrase  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  an  idea  that  is  not 
expressed  by  the  latter.  It  is  employed  for  the  sake  of  distinction 
or  explanation  or  description. 

Ezek  i  24  •  I  heard  as  the  voice  of  the  Almighty.     John  svii.  3  :  The  only 

39 


600  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

true  God.  Leaving  it  to  such  thinjs  as  these — to  the  low,  mercenary,  Machia- 
veliaii  lierd,  etc. — Charles  TJ'adsuorih. 

Epizeuxis  {epanadljtlosis^  ^)a^i7o^/a,  condapUcatio,  repetito,  it- 
eration fjcmhuitio)  is  an  immediate  repetition  of  the  same  word  or 
series  of  words  for  the  sake  of  force  or  emphasis.  Earnest  repeti- 
tions in  prayers  are  sometimes  called  inrjeminations. 

Deut.  xxviii.  43 :  The  stranger  that  is  within  thee  shallget  up  above  thee,  high, 
high  ;  and  thou  shalt  come  down  low,  low  [literal  translation).  Isa.  xl.  1 :  Comfort 
ye,  comfort  ye  my  people  (Isa.  li.  0,  17 ;  Ezek.  xxi.  9,  27  ;  Matt.  v.  27 ;  xxiii.  37 ; 
John  i.  51).  Dost  thou  see  a  soul  that  has  the  image  of  God  in  him  1  Love  him, 
love  him  ;  say,  this  man  and  I  must  go  to  heaven  some  day. — John  Buntjan.  But 
away  with  them !  Away  with  them !  God  will  have  none  of  them.— C/«rt;-fcs 
IJ'adsivorth. 

Erotema.    v.  Erotesis. 

Erotesis  {erotema,  jvjsma,  2^ci(sis,  2)eyconfatio,  interrogatlo)  is  a 
figure  by  which  the  speaker  asks  animated  questions,  not  to  obtain 
information,  but  to  declare  a  conviction,  to  make  an  assertion,  to 
excite  curiosity,  to  express  indignation,  to  vindicate  authority,  etc. 
As  from  the  nature  of  this  figure  it  is  not  easy  to  define  it  with 
brevity,  we  may  form  some  notion  of  it  by  examining  its  various 
uses.  It  is  employed,  I.  In  admonitions  (Matt.  iii.  7 ;  II.  In  affir- 
mations (Isa.  li.  19;  Luke  xiv.  5);  III.  In  disparagements  (Isa.  ii. 
22) ;  IV.  In  demonstrations  (Ezek.  viii.  G ;  Matt.  xi.  7-9) ;  V.  In 
doubts  (Hos.  vi.  4 ;  Micah  vi.  G,  7) ;  VI.  In  expostulations  (Isa.  v. 
4;  Iviii.  3);  VII.  In  indignation  (Matt.  xvii.  17);  VIII.  In  .lamen- 
tation (Lam.  ii.  20;  Ilabak.  i.  17);  IX.  In  negations  (Deut.  vii.  17; 
Matt.  xii.  26) ;  X.  In  pity  (Lam.  i.  1 ;  ii.  1 ;  ^Matt.  xxiii.  37) ;  XL 
In  prohibitions  (Eccles.  v.  G;  Jer.  xxvii.  13,  17);  XII.  In  raptures 
(Jcr.  xxii.  23;  Habak.  iii.  8);  XIII.  In  reproaches  (Jer.  xxiii.  33, 
35,  3G ;  John  xviii.  38) ;  XIV.  In  retort  and  refusal  (Num.  xxiii. 
8 ;  John  ii.  4) ;  XV.  In  wishes  (Isa.  vi.  8 ;  Jer.  xlix.  4) ;  XVI.  In 
wonder  (Isa.  Ixiii.  1,  2;  Mark  vi.  37).    - 

What  is  the  use  of  soldiers  arrayed  in  gold  when  the  general  is  dragged  along 
captive  1  What  the  profit  of  a  ship  beautifully  e<iuipped  when  the  pilot  is  sunk 
beneath  the  waves  ?  What  the  advantage  of  a  well-proportioned  body  when 
the  sight  of  the  eye  is  stricken  out  ? — Chrtjsostoin.  Where  is  Horace,  where  is 
Pindar  now  1  Let  them  come  here  and  throw  their  palms  down  before  the  sweet 
singer  of  Israel. —  TJ'hiteJiclil. 

Ethopceia  {notation)  describes  a  person's  disposition  or  feel- 
ings by  delineating  the  manners,  caprices,  expressions  of  his  coun- 
tenance, language,  voice,  gestures,  dress,  and  the  like  (Isa.  iii.  IG, 
17 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  3-4G ;  Luke  xviii.  9-14). 

Euche  {votuin)  a  prayer  or  expressed  desire,  as  in  Paul's  de- 
fence before  Agrii)pa  (Acts  xxvi.  29) ;  or  as  at  the  end  of  Cicero's 
first  oration  against  Catiline  (Deut.  xxviii.  G7;  Is^a.  Ixiv.  1,  2). 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  GOl 

Eupliemy  {evphcmismns,  jierij^Ioce,   chroma)  is  a  figure  by 
which  a  disagreeable  or  oiFensive  idea  is  conveyed  by  language 
rather  suggestive  than  expressive,  or  more   elegant  than  literal 
(Matt.  viii.  11;  Luke  vii.  35;  xiii.  1;  John  xi.  11;  Acts  ii.  39). 
Evidentia.    v.  Hypotyposis. 
Exaggeratio.    v.  Amplification-. 
Exartesis.    v.  Sustektatio. 
Exclamatio.    v.  Ecphonesis. 
Execratio.     v.  Comminatioi^. 

Exemplum  (examjyle)  is  when  something  said  or  done  is  em- 
ployed by  way  of  similitude  or  dissimilitude,  or  as  a  precedent  to 
be  followed  or  avoided.  This  application  of  the  term  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  that  in  "  Arguments  from  Example,"  as  when  we 
adduce  a  known  object  of  a  certain  class  as  a  sample  of  that  class 
in  respect  of  some  point  (Luke  xvii.  32). 
Exergasia.    v.  Epexegesis. 

Expeditio  is  when  the  speaker  enumerates  the  reasons  which 
may  serve  to  prove  something  either  possible  or  impossible,  and 
after  setting  aside  all  the  others,  selects  that  reason  which  is  valid 
and  conclusive.     It  is  frequently  used  in  partitions. 
Expolitio.    V.  Amplificatio. 
Extenuatio.    v.  Litotes. 

Exouthenismus  is  wdiere  we  speak  in  disparagement  or  con- 
tempt of  anything. 
Fabula.    v.  Apologue. 

Frequentatio  is  a  brief  and  animated  summary  of  the  scat- 
tered details  of  a  cause  in  order  to  make  the  speech  more  weighty 
and  effectual. 

Geminatio.    A  doublmg  of  words,    v.  Epizeuxis. 
Gnome  {seiitentia)  is  a  brief  general  maxim  conceraing  human 
life  or  affairs,  without  the  name  of  the  author. 

Eccles.  ix.  4 :  For  a  livinc;  clog  is  better  than  a  dead  lion.  There  is  an  old 
Punic  proverb  :  "  The  plague  looks  for  a  piece  of  money;  give  it  two,  and  let 
it  be  o&"-Aiigmtinc.  There  is  a  proverb  among  the  Germans  :  "  The"  pocket 
gives  courage."— XM<A«r.  "The  death,"  everybody  says,  "is  the  faithful  echo 
of  the  Y\ie:'—Bi-ydayne. 

A  noema  is  a  gnome  either  alluded  to  or  applied  to  person,  time, 

or  place. 

He  that  gathereth  not  with  me  scattereth  abroad.— lf«i<.  xii.  30.  For,  breth- 
ren in  Christ,  there  are  some  who  are  the  very  opposite  of  ban  who  said,  "  I 
have  not  reigned  to-day,  for  I  have  not  conferred  a  single  htneUr-Eustailmcs 
of  Tliessahnica. 

Chreia  is  the  quotation  of  a  short  and  suggestive  saying  to  which 
the  name  of  the  author  is  prefixed  or  subjoined.    The  direct  cita- 


602  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

tion  of  another's  words  in  narration  is  more  common  in  the  Hellen- 
istic than  in  the  Attifc  Greek.  (See  Accommodation,  which  adopts 
the  language  of  another,  but  uses  it  in  a  different  sense  from  that 
which  it  first  conveyed.) 

Gradatio.    v.  Climax. 

Heirmus  is  when  all  or  most  of  the  nouns  in  a  sentence  are  in 
the  same  case  (Isa.  iii.  18-23).  F.  S.  Charisius  (Institut.  Gram., 
Lib.  iv.)  gives  the  following  illustration: 

Principio  coelum  ac  terras  camposque  liqiientis 
,     Lucentemque  globum  Lunaj  Titaniaque  astra 
Spiritus  intus  alit. —  Vir//.,  JEn.,  Lib.  vi.,  721-6. 

Hendiadys  is  when  one  idea  that  is  usually  expressed  by  one 
word  is  conveyed  by  two  words.  This  figure  may  be  formed  in 
three  ways :  I.  When  one  thought  is  expressed  by  two  words,  one 
of  which  takes  the  place  of  an  adjective.  Jer,  xxiii.  3  :  "  Justice 
and  righteousnes,"  for  strict  justice.  II.  When  two  nouns  are  con- 
nected by  a  copulative  conjunction,  one  of  which  takes  the  place 
of  or  is  to  be  understood  as  if  it  were  in  the  possessive  case.  Acts 
xxiii.  6 :  "  Hope  and  resurrection,"  for  hope  of  a  resurrection.  III. 
When  two  verbs  are  thus  connected,  one  of  which  has  the  signifi- 
cation of  an  adverb.  Acts  ix.  31  :  Oikodomoumene  kal  2ioreuo- 
mpie — '•  were  progressively  edified." 

Hermeneia.    v.  Epexegesis.  ' 

Heterosis,    v.  Enallage. 

Hibernicon  is  a  figure  which  employs  words  of  the  worst 
meaning  to  express  the  greatest  affection.  "  Its  peculiar  province," 
says  Dr.  Carson  (who  is  the  first  to  dignify  this  mode  of  speech 
with  a  place  among  figures),  "  is  in  the  caressing  of  children,  who 
will  receive  with  the  utmost  pleasure  a  rating  of  this  kind,  even  ac- 
companied with  blows  given  with  a  corresponding  manner."  In 
Ireland,  he  tells  us,  the  most  dreadful  imprecations  are  exchanged 
by  friends  when  they  meet  after  long  absence,  as  the  highest  ex- 
pression of  affection. 

Hirmus.    v.  Symperasma. 

Homoeoptoton  is  a  repetitior\  or  rhyming  of  the  same  case  or 
tense,  or  else  of  cases  that  resemble  one  another,  while  the  declen- 
sions of  the  words  may  be  different : 

Ad  hanc  te  amentiam  natura  perperit,  voluntas  exercuit,  fortuua  servavit 
(Nature  has  formed  you,  resolution  has  trained  you,  fortune  has  preserved  you 
for  this  madness). — Cicero. 

Homoeopropheron  [aJJ Iteration)  is  the  frequent  recurrence 
of  the  same  letter  at  the  beginning  of  words. 
Homoeosis.    v.  Parable. 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  603 

Homoeoteleuton  is  where  two  or  more  neighbouring  words 
have  like  endings. 

Multa  palam  doraum  suam  auferebat ;  plura  clam  de  medio  removebat ;  non 
pauca  suis  adjutoribus  large  effuseque  donabat ;  reliqua  constituta  auctione  ven- 
dehat.— Cicero.     (Matt.  vi.  3,  4,  6,  18.) 

Hononymy  is  when,  on  the  ground  of  analogy,  we  call  by  one 
name  persons  or  things  that  are  different  in  the  aspects  or  relations 
of  their  nature  (Zeph.  ii.  11;   John  x.  34,  35). 
Horisinus.    v.  Defixitio. 
Hypaenixis.     v.  Enigma. 

Hypallage  is  such  an  interchange  of  words  that  what  is  said 
of  one  person  or  thing  is  to  be  understood  of  another.  It  is  often 
the  result  of  attraction  (Isa.  i.  18) ;  i.  e.,  Ye  shall  be  so  thproughly 
cleansed  from  your  sins  that  the  change  will  appear  as  great  as  il  _ 
scarlet  were  to  become  white  as  snow,  and  crimson  like  wool  (Isa. 
vii.  11 ;  xxxi.  6).  See  Bengel  on  Matt.  x.  15 ;  Acts  v.  20 ;  Heb.  ix. 
23 ;  xiii.  2 ;  Jas.  ii.  17 ;  iii.  4. 

Hyperbaton  {synchisis)  is  such  a  transposition  of  words  or 
members  of  periods  as  ignores  the  laws  of  their  arrangement,  v. 
Anacoluthok  and  Hypallage  (v.  Hebrew  in  Isa.  xxiii.  11;  Jer. 
xiv.  1 ;  xvii.  3 ;  Isa.  xxxiv.  4 ;  John  iv.  24 ;  vii.  4 ;  xvii.  5 ;  Acts 
xvii.  23). 

Habeat  ergo  apud  nos  honorem  propbeta,  quia  non  habuit  honorem  in  patria 
sua. — Augustine. 

Hyperbole  is  when  the  speaker  says  more  for  the  purpose  of 
enlaro-ing  or  diminishing  a  thought  than  he  intends  shall  be  literally 
understood.     It  is  of  two  kinds : 

I,  Auxesis,  -epaiixesis,  hyperoche,  hyperthesis,  ampUficatio  uses 
such  language  as  enlarges  the  thought  (Isa.  xiii.  13 ;  Jer.  xxxvii. 
10;  Ezek.  xxxii.  5-8;  Habak.  ii.  5,  11;  Zech.  ix.  3;  Matt.  xxi.  13; 
Luke  xviii.  5 ;  John  iii.  32).  Bengel  employs  the  term  amplifica- 
tion or  ampUatio,  to  designate  word^that  are  used  in  the  permansive 
and  anticipatory  sense;  e.  g.,  Believers  (1  Cor.  xiv.  22)  put  for  those 
who  are  about  to  believe;  again,  the  lost  (2  Cor.  iv.  3)  put  for 
those  who  are  on  the  way  to  destruction. 

I  declare  and  maintain,  with  St.  Augustine,  that  it  were  better  that  families 
be  ruined  and  e.states  lost,  better  that  provinces  be  desolated,  kingdoms  and  em- 
pires fall,  that  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  even  the  whole  universe  pass  away 
than  that  we  should  commit  one  venial  sin. — Brydaijne.  These  calamities  would 
have  been,  and  in  fact  they  were,  a  judicial  example,  engraven  on  the  gates  of 

hell. /.  C.  Hare.     Indeed,  a  month  seldom  goes  by  but  the  sound  as  of  some 

fresh  crack  in  the  walls  of  our  Church  seems  to  pass  from  one  end  of  England 
to  the  other. — Id. 

II.  Hysteresis,  litotes,  meiosis,  tapeinosis,  dimimttio,  extenuatio 


(304  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

employs  such  language  as  diminishes  the  thought.  And  yet  some- 
times, even  when  the  figures  appear  to  lessen,  it  really  increases  the 
force  of  a  thought  (Isa.  xl.  15,  17 ;  Ezek.  xvii.  10,  20 ;  Micah  v.  2,  as 
quoted  Matt.  ii.  6 ;  Luke  xii.  30 ;  John  vi.  37 ;  Acts  x.  47 ;  xxvi. 
19;  Heb.  ix.  13). 

Nevertheless,  it  is  certain  that  our  Saviour's  words  were  not  spolien  to  the 
winds. — J.  C.  Hare. 

Hyperoche.     v.  Hyperbole. 

Hypobole.    v.  Occupatio. 

Hypocatastasis  is  the  substitution  of  a  figurative  for  a  literal 
predicate,  by  which  the  speaker  or  writer  describes  one  act  in  place 
of  another,  in  order,  by  way  of  resemblance,  to  exemplify  and  en- 
force tha*  for  which  the  substitute  is  used.  Thus  has  David  N. 
.Lord,  Esq.,  defined  a  certain  form  of  speech  which  has  always  been 
denominated  metaphor.  Among  his  illustrations  are  the  following  : 
Deut.  xxxii.  40-42;  Isa.  i.  5,  6,  22;  v.  26;  x.  38;  xl.  12-16; 
Ezek.  xxxii.  7,  8 ;  Matt,  xviii.  8,  9. 

Hypodiegesis  is  a  kind  of  narration  in  which  we  set  forth 
along  with  the  events,  the  passions,  desires,  purposes,  or  other  causes 
which  led  to  them. 

Hypographe  is  where,  chiefly  in  narratives,  things  are  repre- 
sented as  if  painted  to  the  life,  with  a  view  to  persuade  or  dissuade. 

Hypomone.    v.  Paradox. 

Hypopliora.    v.  Occupatio. 

Hypostrophe  is  a  figure  by  which,  after  a  digression,  we  re- 
turn to  the  matter  in  hand.  It  occasionally  means  an  addition  to 
the  principal  proposition  of  a  reason  for  something,  and  the  repe- 
tition for  this  purpose  of  something  before  said. 

Hypothesis  has  several  significations :  I.  A  dissertation.  II. 
Subject  or  object,  as  of  a  treatise.  III.  A  limited  and  narrowed 
question  concerning  particular  persons,  places,  causes,  or  times,  in 
distinction  from  thesis,  or  a  disquisition  on  a  general  subject.  IV. 
A  supposition  advanced  in  order  to  deduce  from  it  some  conclusion 
which  establishes  the  truth  or  falsity  of  a  proposition.  A  parable 
or  fable  made  in  the  form  of  a  case  supposed  is  of  the  nature  of  an 
hi/pnf/iesis. 

Hypotyposis  {diatyposis,  enarrjeia,  phantasia)  is  such  a  de- 
scription of  an  action,  event,  phenomenon,  condition,  or  passion 
that  the  main  points  are  represented  in  the  most  lively  and  forcible 
manner  (Deut.  xxviii.  49-68  ;  Isa.  v.  26-30 ;  eh.  xxxiv.,  ch.  liii ;  Jer. 
iv.  10,  20,  21,  23,  24,  25,  20,  31 ;  Zech.  viii.  20-23). 

Hypotimnesis  is  a  parenthetical  apology  for  the  use  of  a  bold, 
extravagant,  or  vulgar  figure,  word,  or  phrase.     The  term  mcUij- 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  605 

matn  is  applied  to  the  apologistic  words  or  phrases  which  this  figure 
employs ;  as  "  if  I  may  say  so,"  "  as  it  were,"  "  so  to  speak." 

What,  Lord!  it  seems  as  if  we  might  saj^,  wouldst  thou  restore  the  world  to 
its  former  state. —  Vieijra. 

Hypozeuxis  is  when  every  subject  has  its  own  verb,  and 
when,  generally,  the  correspondhig  members  of  a  sentence  are  ex- 
pressed instead  of  being  understood.  It  is  the  opposite  o^  zeugma 
(Psa.  cxlv.  5-7;  1  Cor.  xiii.  8). 

^  Hysterologia  {hysteresis),  is  such  a  form  of  construction  in  his- 
torical narrative  that  what  is  placed  last  ought,  according  to  the 
usual  order,  to  be  placed  first,  v.  Hyperbole  (Isa.  xxxviii.  21,  22. 
Comp.  Luke  iv.  9  and  Matt.  iv.  5,  8). 

Hysteron  Proteron  is  such  a  form  of  construction  that  what 
is  put  first  ought,  according  to  the  usual  order,  to  be  put  last  (Amos 
vi.  2 ;  Heb.  iv.  2). 

Hysteresis,    v.  Hysterologia  and  Hyperbole. 

Idiotismus  has  three  significations :  I.  The  language  peculiar 
to  the  vulgar.  II.  The  language  peculiar  to  a  nation  or  tribe. 
III.  The  language  peculiar  to  any  author  or  s^^eaker. 

Imago  {eicon)  is  such  a  lively  representation  as  has  much  the 
same  eflect  upon  the  mind  as  the  exhibition  of  a  work  of  j^lastic 
or  graphic  ai't,  or  as  the  contemplation  of  the  very  objects  which 
are  described,     v.  Hypotyposis  (Mai.  iv.  2). 

Imprecation,    v.  Comminatio^^. 

Incrementum..    v.  Auxesis. 

Innovatio.    v.  C(enoprepe. 

Inopinatum..    v.  Paradox. 

Intentio.    v.  Epitasis. 

Interjectio  is  a  natural  sound  exj^ressive  of  some  passion  or 
emotion  thrown  (often  parenthetically)  between  words,  phrases,  or 
sentences. 

Interpretatio.    v.  Epexegesis  and  Synoxymia. 

Interrogatio.    v.  Erotesis. 

Injunctum..    v.  Aktezeugmenox. 

Inversion,    v.  A]S"astrophe. 

Involutio.    V.  Periploce. 

Irony  {jyermutatio)  expresses  a  sense  contrary  to  or  l^etter  than 
that  which  the  speaker  evidently  intends  to  convey.  It  is  of  three 
species :  I.  That  Avhich  is  expressed  by  single  words.  It  is  com- 
monly called  antiphrasis.  "  Wise  men,"  "  knowledge  "  (Isa.  xliv. 
25) ;  "  excellency  of  Jacob "  (Amos  vi.  8).  II.  That  which  is  ex- 
pressed by  i^hrases  and  sentences  (Deut.  xxxii.  37,38;  1  Kings 
xviii.  27;  xxii.  15;  Isa.  xxix.  1;  Ivii.  12;  Jer.  xxii.  23;  Ezek.  xxviii. 


606  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

3,  12;  Amos.  iv.  4;  Mark  vii.  9;  Jolmvii.  28;  x.  32).  .The  proph- 
ets employ  irony  chiefly  against  idolaters — Christ  against  the  Phar- 
isees, III.  Sarcasmus  is  language  in  which  scorn  or  contempt 
says  one  thing  and  means  another.  Sarcasm  is  that  kind  of  irony 
which  has  a  sinister  look.  Its  eyes  are  like  those  of  the  fabled 
basilisk — red,  with  a  kind  of  cloudy  blackness,  as  if  fire  were  mixed 
with  'Smoke  (Matt,  xxvii.  29 ;  Mark  xv.  32).  Some  rhetoricians 
place  under  this  head  the  following  figures :  Asteismus,  charientis- 
vius,  diasi/)'mus,  mimesis,  mr/cterismus,  or  chleuasmus.  It  is  the 
distinguishing  mark  of  Scripture  irony  that  it  is  followed  by  a  for- 
cible conclusion  in  the  serious  style  (1  Kings  xxii.  17 ;  Eccles.  vii. 
18,  19;  xi.  9,  10;  Matt,  xxiii.  21). 

0  sensible  man  !  If  the  wine  in  thy  bottle  is  diminished,  thou  art  sad  ;  days 
art  thou  losing,  and  thou  art  glad  ! — Augustine.  I  hear  the  excuse  made,  "  Come, 
now  !  i^ersecution  is  a  strong  term — ilnjustifiably  strong;  I  never  persecuted  any 
one  for  leading  a  holy  life ;  I  may  have  teased  So-and-so,  but  that  is  all ;  just 
teased  him  in  joke,  you  understand."  In  joke!  a  joke  more  ruinous  than  the 
worst  cruelty  of  a  persecutor.  A  joke  !  Ah,  ha  !  a  right  merry  joke,  a  capital 
joke,  indeed  !  Go,  cut  the  pipes  which  bring  water  into  this  city — only  in  joke, 
of  course — cut  the  pipes,  then,  and  watcli  the  result.  Such  a  joke !  the  foun- 
tains fail,  the  mills  cease  working,  the  gardens  are  parched  up,  men  and  beasts 
perish  through  thirst.  Oh,  magnificent  joke  ! —/osepA  Be  Barzia  (Mr.  S.  Baring- 
Gould's  trans.).     See  also  Segneri,  in  Quaresimaie,  ser.  xiii.,  ()6. 

ISOCOlon.      V.  COMPAR. 

Iteratio.    v.  Epizeuxis. 

Leptologia  is  a  minute  explanation  or  discussion. 

Ijicentia  {eleutheria,  pan-Aes/a)  is  when  the  speaker,  without 
intending  any  oifence  to  those  Avhom  he  ought  to  respect,  rever- 
ence, or  love,  re2:)rehends  them  with  freedom  and  boldness  (Job 
xxxii.  6-12  ;  Luke  xiii.  82;  John  viii.  44).  The  word  parrhesia  is 
found:  Acts  ii.  29;  iv.  13,  29,  31;  xxvui.  31. 

"  They  sank  as  lead  in  the  mighty  waters.  Thou  stretchedest  out  thy  hand, 
the  earth  swallowed  them."  Pharaoh  and  his  host  all  went  to  hell,  without  one 
escaping,  because  where  all  persecute  and  all  enslave,  all  are  condemned.  Is 
not  the  example  good  1  Now  mark  the  reasoning.  Every  man  who  holds  an- 
other unjustly  in  servitude,  being  able  to  release  him,  is  certainly  in  a  state  of 
condemnation.  All  men,  or  almost  all  in  Maranham,  hold  others  unjustly  in  ser- 
vitude; all,  therefore,  or  almost  all,  are  in  a  state  of  condemnation.  .  .  .  But 
you  will  say  to  me.  This  republic  cannot  be  supi)orted  without  Indians.  Who 
will  bring  us  a  pitcher  of  water  or  a  bundle  of  wood  1  Who  will  plant  our  man- 
dioc  1  Must  our  wives  do  it  1  Must  our  children  do  it  1  In  the  first  place,  as 
you  will  presently  see,  these  are  not  the  straits  in  which  I  would  place  you ;  but 
if  necessity  and  conscience  require  it,  then  I  reply,  yes!  and  I  repeat  it,  yes! 
You  and  your  wives  and  your  children  ought  to  do  it !  AVe  ought  to  support 
ourselves  with  our  own  hands.  Far  better  it  is  to  be  supported  by  the  sweat  of 
one's  brow  than  by  another's  blood.     0  ye  riches  of  Maranham !     AVhat  if  these 


.     INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  607 

mantles  and  cloaks  were  to  be  wrung'?      They  would  drop  blood! — Antonio 
Vieyra. 

Litotes.    V.  Hyperbole. 

Liocutio  concisa.    v.  Concisa  Locutio. 

LiOgismus.    V.  Seemochstatio. 

Macrologia.    v.  Pleonasm. 

Maledictio.    v.  CoMMiifATio. 

Meiligmata.    Hypotimnesis. 

Meiosis.    v.  Hyperbole. 

Merismus.    v.  .Distributio. 

Mesarchia  is  where  a  line  or  sentence  has  the  same  word  in 
the  beginning  and  middle. 

Mesodiplosis  {mesophonia)  is  a  repetition  of  the  same  word 
in  the  middle  of  two  sentences. 

Mesoteleuton  is  where  the  middle  and  end  of  a  line  or  sen- 
tence have  the  same  word. 

Metabasis  {transition  interfactid)  is  when  the  speaker  passes 
from  one  thing  to  another  by  reminding  his  hearers  of  what  has 
been  said  and  what  yet  remains  to  be  said.  It  is  sometimes  used 
for  a  brief  or  abrupt  transition.  It  is  also  chosen  to  designate 
that  kind  of  apostrophe  in  which  the  speaker  turns  from  what  he 
is  saying  to  address  some  absent  person  or  thing  as  if  it  were  pres- 
ent. V.  Polyprosopoit  and  Aphodos.  This  figure  in  its  first  sig- 
nification is  not  found  in  any  of  the  inspired  speeches,  except,  per- 
haps, in  Heb.  vi.  1-3. 

If  one  good  man  has  been  thrown  back  in  his  devotions,  hundreds  and  thou- 
sands have  been  extremely  forwarded  by  it.  III.  And  this  is  what  I  shall  now 
more  particularly  endeavour  to  prove  under  my  third  general  head. — Atterbury. 

Metabole  is  a  figure  that  produces  a  variety  by  means  of  a 
a  brief  and  animated  combination  of  difl:erent  particulars.  II,  This 
term  was  once  also  employed  to  designate  such  changes  in  the 
rhythm,  figures,  and  sti-ucture  of  periods  as  relieve  the  mind  by 
way  of  variety.  III.  It  likewise  denoted  the  point  of  transition 
from  one  kind  of  transition  to  another. 

Metagoge."    v.  Polyptotoit. 

Metalepsis  {translation  transumptio)  has  various  meanings  :  I. 
It  was  once  used  for  a  certain  species  of  metonymy  ;  as  metonymy 
of  antecedents  for  consequents,  and  metonymy  of  consequents  for 
antecedents;  e.  </.,  metalepsis  of  the  antecedent  is  when  doing  is 
put  for  saying;  metalep>sis  oi  t\ie  consequents  is  when  sj^eaking  is 
put  for  feeling.  II.  It  now  denotes  several  gradations  or  interven- 
ing senses  which  come  between  the  word  that  is  expressed  and  the 
idea  intended  to  be  conveyed  by  it ;  in  other  words,  it  is  employed 


608  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

to  designate  a  figure  wherein  the  same  trope  is  repeated  or  differ- 
ent tropes  are  expressed  by  the  same  word  or  phrase.  For  exam- 
ple— Acts  XX.  25:  "And  now,  behokl,  I  know  that  ye  all,- among 
whom  I  have  gone  preaching  the  kingdom  of  God,  shall  see  my 
face  no  more."  Vossius  calls  this  rnctalcpsis  oi  gradation.  It  may 
be  explained,  if  not  defined,  as  a  figure  that  uses  language  which, 
if  literally  understood,  has  no  relevant,  adequate,  or  reasonable 
sense,  and  therefore  the  words  are  construed  as  a  common  medium 
by  which  our  thoughts  pass  from  one  thing  to  another. 

Ilosea  iv.  18 :  Their  wine  is  stubborn  or  unruly.  Micah  11.  7 :  Are  these  his  do- 
ings 1  Zech.  xi.  13 :  The  pride  of  Jordan  is  spoiled ;  xiv.  21 :  There  shall  no  more 
be  the  Canaanite  In  the  house  of  the  Lord  of  hosts.  Peace,  too,  has  its  crowns. 
— Cyprian.  That  we  hear  the  sound  of  bells  and  not  the  thundering  of  guns,  do 
wo  think  it  a  small  or  common  benefit  1 — Sandys.  Vossius  finds  a  twofold  sj'n- 
echdoche  (Virg.,  Buc.  Eccl.  i.)  in  the  word  aristas,  where  cars  of  corn  is  put  for 
corn  season,  and  this  for  years.  He  also  finds  a  metonymy  and  a  metajjlior  in 
(Virg.,  Georg.  iv.)  fovere  Larcm :  cherish  their  Lares,  where  the  domestic  gcd  is  put 
for  household,  and  this  for  a  subterranean  cell  of  bees. 

Metallage-  {siqypositio,  materialis)  is  when  a  word  or  phrase  is 
spoken  to  or  of  as  a  sejiarate  object  of  thought  (Hos.  iv.  18). 

0  friglitful  and  terrible  perhaps! — Brydaync.  Judas  accosting  his  glorious 
Lord  with  a  "  Hail,  Master  "  ! — Whitejield.  A  man  nailed  to  the  cross  was  yet  a 
king,  and  before  his  Ephphatha  "  be  opened  "  even  the  gates  of  Paradise  must 
be  uijclosed  to  a  repenting  malefactor. — Tholuck. 

Metanoea.    v.  Corkectio. 

Metaphora  (metaphor)  puts  one  word  and  idea  for  others 
which  they  resemble,  or,  more  particularly,  it  is  an  affirmation  ex- 
pressed or  understood  that  an  agent,  action,  or  quality  is  that  to 
which  it  bears  some  resemblance,  either  direct  or  analogical  (Isa. 
i.  10;  Iv.  12;  Ixii.  3;  Jer.  xv.  20;  Zech.  xii.  2;  Matt.  iv.  19;  v.  13; 
Acts  xxiii.  3). 

Nor  does  anything  so  much  cause  men  to  be  rivetted  to  worldly  concerns  as 
ignorance  of  one's  self. — Chrysoslom.  Concerning  this  virtuous  gentlewoman 
only  this  little  I  speak,  and  that  of  knowledge — she  lived  a  dove  and  died  a 
lamb. — 7?.  Ifooker. 

Metaplasm.  is  a  general,  term  that  comprehends  all  those  gram- 
matical figures  which  consist  in  alterations  of  the  Tetters  or  sylla- 
bles of  a  word  ;  as  ajyhccresis,  paraejoge,  etc. 

Metarrliysis  (antlrrhcsis)  is  the  refutation  of  objections. 

Metastasis  (fraNsIatio)  is  found  where  the  cause  or  blame  of 
any  tiling  is  transferred  from  one  person  to  another  (1  Kings  xviii. 
17,  18;  Lam.  v.  7;  Matt.  xv.  2G,  27).  It  was  once  occasionally 
used  to  denote  a  transition  from  the  present  in  order  to  give  a 
lively  re])resentation  of  the  future  (Jer.  xxxi.  29). 

Metathesis,    v.  Antimetabole. 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  609 

Metonymy  is  a  figure  by  which  the  name  of  an  idea  or  thing 
is  substituted  for  that  of  another  to  which  it  has  a  certain  relation. 
It  is  distinguished  from  the  metaphor  by  being  chiefly  ai^i^lied  to 
nouns.  There  are  four  kinds  of  metonymy  :  I.  3Ietonymy  of  the 
cause,  which  is  employed  where  the  person  acting  is  put  for  the 
thing  done,  or  the  instrument  by  which  a  thing  is  done  is  put  for 
the  thing  effected ;  or  where  an  action  is  put  for  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  that  action;  in  short,  wherever  the  cause  is  put  for  the 
effect  (Isa.  xxix.  10 ;  Jer.  xviii.  18 ;  Ezek.  vii.  15 ;  Amos  vii.  9 ; 
Matt.  X.  34;  xviii.  IC).  Here  properly  belongs  "metonymy  of  the 
antecedent,"  where  the  'antecedent  is  put  for  the  consequent  (Luke 
xi.  52;  Acts  xv.  10).  II.  Metonymy  of  effect,  on  the  contrary,  oc- 
curs when  the  effect  is  put  for  the  efficient  cause  (Deut.  xxx.  15, 
20;  Eccles.  xi.  1 ;  Isa.  xi.  2;  xlix.  6;  Jer.  iii.  24;  xxi.  8;  John  iii. 
19 ;  xi.  25).  Under  this  head  may  be  placed  what  is  called  "  meto- 
nymy of  the  consequent,"  where  the  consequent  is  put  for  the  an- 
tecedent (Luke  iv.  23 ;  Acts  xiii.  46).  III.  Metonymy  of  the  sub- 
ject is  where  the  subject  is  put  for  the  adjunct — that  is,  for  some 
circumstance  or  appendage  belonging  to  the  subject;  where  the 
place  or  thing  containing  is  put  for  that  which  is  contained  in 
such  place  or  thing ;  where  the  jyossessor  is  put  for  the  thing  j^ossess- 
ed;  where  the  object  is  put  for  the  thing  that  is  conversant 
about  it;  where  the  thing  sif/nijied  is  put  for  the  sign;  where 
an  action  which  is  said  to  be  done  is  put  for  that  which  is  declared, 
or  permitted,  or  foretold  that  it  shall  be  done  ;  or  where  an  action 
which  is  said  to  be  done  is  put  for  the  giving  of  an  occasioji  for  that 
action  (Deut.  ix.  1;  Isa.  v.  21 ;  xiii.  1;  xlix.  16;  Jer.  i.  10;  iv. 
10;  xxxviii.  23,  in  original ;  xlix.  12;  Ezek.  vii.  27;  xiii.  19;  xiii. 
22,  in  original;  xx.  25,  26;  Hab.  ii.  14;  Hos.  vi.  5;  Matt.  xvi.  19; 
xxvi.  26;  Acts  i.  18;  ix.  9;  x.  15  in  original).  IV.  Metonymy  of 
the  adjunct,  on  the  contrary,  is  found  where  that  which  belongs  to 
anything  serves  to  represent  the  thing  itself  (Eccles.  vii.  10 ;  Isa. 
X.  14 ;  XX.  5,  6 ;  Ix.  1 ;  Ixii.  4 ,  Jer.  xvii.  7 ;  Micah  v.  4 ;  Zech.  x. 
11;  Matt,  xxiii.  2;  xxv.  10;  Luke  xvi.  15;  xix.  42;  John  iii.  27; 
Acts  i.  4,  15). 

To  see  that  face  of  mildness  turning  away  from  us. — Chyysostom.  To  what 
purpose  do  we  fatigue  and  exhaust  ourselves,  if  those  men,  0  noble  Venice, 
queen  of  the  Adriatic — if  those  men  who  preach  to  you  the  truth  are  to  be 
thrown  into  prisons,  thrust  into  cells,  and  loaded  with  chains  and  fetters'?  — 
Ochino.  The  sin  of  Magus  must  be  removed. — Sandys.  It  is  the  very  folly  of 
iooWslmess.—Attcrhury.  When  the  Vatican  issued  the  celebrated  bull  unigeni- 
tus,  etc. —  TF.  R.  Williams. 

■  Meiosis.    v.  Hyperbole. 
Mimesis  [imitatio)   is  when  we  allude  to  or  repeat  the  words 


GIO  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

of  another  for  the  sake  of  argument,  reproof,  direction,  or  encour- 
agement. Denis  of  Halycamassus  uses  the  term  to  designate 
such  language  as  imitates  motions  and  thoughts  (Isa.  xiv.  13,  14; 
xxviii.  If);  IIos.  xiii.  2;  Micah  ii.  11;  iii.  11;  Acts  xxii.  3).  The 
term  is  now  sometimes  defined  a  hidicrous  imitation  of  a  blunder 
or  of  a  mispronunciation ;  as,  "  Have  you  any  u-ery  good  loeal  in 
your  vallet  /V 

MisuS.      r.  COMMIXATIOX. 

Modalis  Sermo.  A  modal  proposition  in  logic  is  one  wliich 
asserts  that  the  predicate  exists  in  the  subject  in  a  certain  manner. 
A  modal  speech  in  rhetoric  is  one  which  is  hot  put  forth  absolutely, 
but  in  such  a  way  that  we  must  consider  the  ardent  feeling  Avith 
which  it  is  uttered  in  order  to  reconcile  the  predicate  and  the  sub- 
ject (Matt.  xxvi.  25;  Mark  xii.  38;  John  v.  44;  Acts  iii.  23). 

Mycterism  is  a  kind  of  delicate  sneering  which  appears  partly 
pretended.  Longinus  is  of  the  opinion  that  Ilyperides  is  very  skil- 
ful in  the  use  of  this  figure.  It  is  not  emjiloyed  by  the  inspired 
speakers,  though  the  covetous  Pharisees  were  guilty  of  '•  turning 
uj)  the  nose"  (Luke  xvi.  14). 

Mythologism  is  fictitious  language  borrowing  from  or  allud- 
ing to  mythology;  as  Phcebus  for  the  sicn ;  Aurora  for  the  murn- 
if)f/,  etc.  •  See  what  Gregory  Xazianzen  says  of  Tanddus  (see  his 
4th  oration),  and  Segneri  of  Gugex  (Quaresimale,  Pred.  12). 

Brazil  has  had  many  opportunities  of  recovery ;  many  times  we  have  liad  tlie 
reniptly,  as  it  were,  in  our  own  hands;  but  we  have  never  reached  it,  because 
we  came  always  a  day  too  late.  And  how  can  that  man  lay  hold  of  Occasioii 
wjio  always  attempts  to  seize  her  where  she  is  bald  1 — Vieyra. 

Obsecratio.    v.  Obtestation. 

Obtestation  {deasit^  obsecratio)  is  used  when  the  speaker  sol- 
emnly swears  by  or  calls  God,  lieaven,  or  some  person  or  thing  held 
sacred  or  memoral)le,  to  bear  witness  to  the  facts  which  he  relates 
or  to  the  truth  of  what  he  maintains  (Jer.  xxii.  5).  Some  illus- 
trations of  this  figure  are  also  examples  of  apostrophe.  Indeed, 
this  figure  is  often  a  species  of  apos/rop/ir,  and  were  it  not  desir- 
able to  fix  attention  on  the  oath  which  characterises  obtestation,  it 
would  not  have  demanded  a  separate  term  to  designate  it.  Lon- 
ginus (De  Sublim.,  sec.  10)  places  under  the  head  of  apostropJte 
the  celebrated  oath  in  Demosthenes  for  the  Crown,  ]>.  207  (ed. 
IJeiskii).  There  is  another  obtestation  in  Cicero's  oration  for  Milo, 
"  Vos  enii/i  Jam  A/bani,"'  etc.  "I  implore,  I  call  you  to  witness — 
you,  I  say,  O  ye  Alban  hills !  .  .  And  you,  too,  O  sacred  Jupiter 
of  Tjqtinum!"  The  inspired  speakers  do  not  often  empJDy  this  fig- 
ure in  the  classical  form  as  we  commonly  define  it  (Deut.  iv.  2(5; 
XXX.  19).     I'auh  in  his  epistles,  frequently  uses  the  obtestation,  and 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  611 

comes  very  near  employing  one  in  his  address  to  the  elders  at  Mi- 
letus (Acts  XX.  26).  In  the  prophetic  sermons  it  is  Jehovah  him- 
self, and  not  the  mortal  speaker,  that  utters  the  form  of  oath  in 
question  (Isa.  xiv.  24;  Ixii.  8;  Jer.  xxii.  5;  Ezek.  v.  11 ;  xxxiii. 
11;  xxxiv.  8). 

Occ\xpSitio{anteocciqjatlon,2Jrceniii)iitio,2)}'olepsis,procatcde2)sis, 
epantesis)  is  when  we  state  and  do  away  what  we  anticipate  will  be 
said  against  us.  It  is  of  two  kinds.  ILjpopliora.,  prolepsis  is  when  we 
merely  state  what  may  be  said  against  us.  Anthypophora.,  schesis, 
anasceue,  prosapodosis,  or  hypohole^  is  when  we  ansioer  beforehand 
what  may  be  said  against  us.  Prolepsis  is  of  three  kinds :  I.  It 
is  grcaninatical  when  we  speak  of  things  in  general  terms,  and  then 
speak  of  each  of  those  things  separately.  II.  It  is  rhetorical  when 
it  is  synonymous  with  hypophora.  III.  It  is  poetical  when  circum- 
stantials are  presumed  to  belong  to  persons  or  events  to  which,  in 
the  order  of  time,  they  do  not  really  belong.  This  is  a  species  of 
ampUatio  ('Isa.  xxxvii.  28 ;  xlviii.  5,  7 ;  xlix.  14,  15 ;  Amos.  v.  25, 
26;  Matt.  iii.  9;  Acts  ii.  23;  xiv.  16;  Heb.  ii.  8  ;  Jas.  iii.  17). 

"What  then  1  Are  we  to  shut  up  the  theatre?  "  it  will  be  said,  "and  are  all 
things  to  be  turned  upside  down  by  tliy  word  1  "  Nay,  but  as  it  is,  all  things 
are  turned  upside  down.  For  whence  are  they  that  plot  against  our  marriages'? 
Is  it  not  from  this  theatre"?  etc. — Chrysostom.  He  who  looks  upon  a  woman  and 
thinks  that  he  would  gladly  commit  sin  with  her,  has,  in  God's  sight,  already 
done  the  deed.  What,  brother  Berthold !  how  many  would  then  be  lost !  Well, 
suppose  thou  shouldst  find  in  thy  cellar  a  man  that  had  broken  open  thy  chest, 
though  as  yet  he  had  purloined  nothing  from  it ;  what  wouldst  thou  take  him  to 
be  1  Surely  thou  wouldst  take  him  to  be  a  thief,  and  send  him  to  the  gallows. 
Just  so  God  holds  thee  to  be  an  actual  adulterer,  etc. — Berthold.  Almost  all  men 
in  Maranham  hold  others  unjustly  in  servitude;  almost  all,  therefore,  are  in  a 
state  of  condemnation.  You  will  tell  me,  that  even  if  it  were  thus,  they  did  not 
think  of  it,  nor  know  it,  and  that  their  good  faith  would  save  them.  I  deny  it. 
They  did  think  of  it  and  did  know  it,  as  ye  also  think  of  it  and  know  it,  etc. — 
Vieyra. 

CEonismus  [optatid)  is  a  figure  by  which  we  express  an  ardent 
desire  or  lively  anticipation  (Deut.  xxxii.  29,  30;  Isa.  xlviii.  18). 
Cicero  wields  the  figure  in  Oratio  ^jro  Lege  Manilia:  "I  wish, 
O  Romans,  that  you  had  such  a  great  number  of  brave  and  honest 
men  that  it  were  difficult  to  decide  whom  you  thought  best  to  ap- 
point to  take  charge  of  such  important  affairs  and  so  great  a  war." 
Again,  in  his  Vlllth  Philippica :  "  O  that  Lucius  Caesar  were  in 
health ;  that  Servius  Sulpicius  were  alive.  This  cause  would  be 
pleaded  much  better  by  theSe  men  than  it  now  is  by  one  alone  " 
(Acts  xxvi.  29). 

Onomatopoeia  {nominatio)  is  the  making  or  else  the  use  of 
words  which,  by  imitating  the  sounds  or  motions  of  the  lower  ani- 


612  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

mals,  of  the  elements,  or  of  instruments,  and  the  like,  suggest  their 
own  signification;  as  the  Hebrew,  rfiah,  a  gentle  breeze;  gaash,  a 
blast ;  zaphza])h,  the  chirping  of  a  bird ;  shibbCr,  to  shiver  in  pieces ; 
gulgal,  a  wheel  or  any  round  thing,  so  called  from  its  sound  in  roll- 
ing. In  a  sermon  on  the  Trumpet  of  the  Last  Judgment,  Luther 
more  than  once  employs  this  figure  :  "  In  an  instant  all  that  are  in 
their  graves  shall  live.  They  shall  hear  the  kettle-drum  and  trum- 
pet of  the  good  God.  It  is  thus  that  they  will  sound — poitmerle 
^joi^m^:) .' ^;o?»5ieWt5  ^^ow»?^:) .'  pUz^plaz!  shnii,  shmirf  .  .  It  will  be 
the  cry  of  war  and  the  taratautara  of  the.good  God.  Then  shall 
all  heaven  resound  with  the  noise — JcJr!  Iclr  !  poiimerle  poump  ! '''' 
The  great  Reformer  has  been  ridiculed  for  his  use  of  this  figure  in 
such  excess,  and  yet  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  instruments 
Avhose  sounds  he  imitated  were  sometimes  employed  in  public  wor- 
ship. I  am  not  aware  that  the  poet  Ennius  has  ever  been  ridiculed 
for  imitating  the  sound  of  a  trumpet  by  using  the  word  taratan- 
tara. 

"  AVe  have  no  wine."  ]\Iary  was  not  long  in  hib'>le  babble,  saj'ing  she  wist  not 
what;  bnt  said  one  word,  Help,  for  it  is  needed.  Slie  doth  not  as  our  Papists 
do,  wliich  prittle  prattle  a  whole  day  upon  their  beads,  saying  our  Lady's  psalter. 
But  she  only  saith,  "They  have  no  wine,  help,"  etc. — Latimer.  Observe:  Eter- 
nity approaches.  i)o  you  know  what  this  eternity  is"?  It  is  a  pendulum  whose 
vibrat,ions  say  contiuuouslj*,  "  Always !  Ever!  Ever!  Always!  Always!" — Bry- 
datjtte. 

Optatio.    V.  (EoxiSMUS. 

Orismus.    v.  IIorismus. 

Orthotes  is  such  an  arrangement  of  words  as  is  direct  raid  clear. 

Oxymoron  is  a  figure  which  acutely  unites  words  or  phrases 
whose  literal  meanings  are  incongruous,  if  not  even  contradictory, 
or  where  we  speak  in  one  sense  wisely  and  in  another  sense  fool- 
ishly at  the  same  time.  v.  Synceceiosis  (Isa.  Iviii.  10;  Jer.  xxii. 
19i  Acts  v.  41). 

Others  will  cozen  for  lands  and  extort  all  they  can,  and  then  will  make  them 
their  farmers  who  were  the  owners,  and  think  they  do  them  a  i)leasure,  and  thus 
they  threat&n  kindness,  like  lawyers  and  usurers,  which  i)ay  themselves  with 
ours  and  yet  say  w-e  are  beholden  to  them. — Edward  Topsell.  0  cruel  love  ! — 
Segneri.  Blessed  misfortunes.  .  .  Such  are  the  consolations  the  wicked  will  en- 
joy in  hell.  0  bittei"  and  remorseful  consolations  ! — Brydayne.  They  have 
dreamt  of  strengthening  the  building  by  cementing  it  with  this  universal  sol- 
vent.— J.  C.  Hare. 

Peeanismus  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  rejoices  or  calls 
on  others  to  rejoice  (Isa.  xliv.  23;  Zeph.  iii.  14;  Luke  x.  21;  Jas. 
i.  9). 

Palillogia  is  a  figure  in  which  the  same  word  ends  one  clause 
of  a  sentence  and  beuiins  the  next.     v.  EriZEUXiS. 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  613 

Palinodia  is  when,  having  spoken  against  any  person  or  thing, 
we  make  a  retraction  and  speak  well  of  him  or  it. 

Parabasis.    v.  Aphodos. 

Parabole  {symhole)  has  different  significations :  I.  In  the 
Ilehreio  the  word  mashed  is  employed  in  the  sense  of  parable  ac- 
cording to  the  New  Testament  Greek,  in  Ezek.  xvii.  2 ;  xxiv.  3. 
In  other  parts  of  the  O.  T.  it  is  used  with  various  meanings,  as  a 
resemblance^  a  comparison,  a  vision,  figurative  langitage,  and  jyoefri/ 
of  several  kinds.  II.  In  the  classic  Greek  the  word  j^irable  signi- 
fies a  case  siqyposed  for  the  safce  of  illustration.  Aristotle,  in 
Ilhet.,  B.  ii.,  20,  says  there  are  two  species  of  examples — one  mat- 
ters of  fact,  the  other  fictitious  cases.  Of  the  last  species  there 
are  tAVO  kinds — the  parable  and  the  fable.  He  adds  that  the  2^cir- 
able  is  like  the  Socratic  similes.  III.  In  the  classic  Latin,  Quin- 
tilian  says  that  most  of  the  rhetoricians  of  Rome  chose  to  give  the 
name  similitude  (similitudinem)  to  that  which  the  Gi*eeks  denomi- 
nated parable.  Seneca  employs  the  word  parable  in  the  sense  of 
imago,  which,  according  to  his  notion,  must  also  include  the  idea 
of  compariso7i,  if  we  may  judge  by  the  example  he  gives :  "  As  an 
army  forms  itself  into  a  square  when  it  is  threatened  with  an  at- 
tack of  the  enemy  on  every  side,  so  ought  a  wise  man  to  draw  out 
all  his  virtues  on  every  side,  so  that  he  may  be  ready  for  any  temp- 
tation or  emergency."  IV.  In  the  New  Testament  6rr^e/v- the  word 
signifies:  1.  A  comparison  (Mark  iv.  30) ;  2.  A  parable  according 
to  the  modern  acceptation  of  the  word  as  applied  specifically  to 
the  comparisons  reported  in  the  first  three  Gospels.  It  may  be  de- 
fined :  A  brief  fictitious  description,  usually  in  an  historic  form, 
of  jDOSsible  events,  in  which  men  or  animals  or  things  are  repre- 
sented according  to  their  habits  and  the  laws  of  their  existence, 
employed  by  way  of  comparison,  to  explain  or  foreshadow  the  na- 
ture of  Christ's  kingdom,  or  to  illustrate  or  impress  or  prove  or 
apply  his  teachings.  Some  of  the  parables  are  allusions,  and  not 
distinct  and  formal  narratives ;  as  Matt.  vii.  13,  14 ;  Luke  vi.  39 ; 
xiv.  28-33.  3.  A  structure  which  was  typical  of  spiritual  things, 
as  the  first  tabernacle  (Heb.  ix.  9).  4.  A  symbolical  action  repre- 
senting a  resurrection,  as  where  Abraham  received  back  Isaac  from 
expected  death  (Heb.  xi.  19).  5.  A  proverb  or  adage  in  a  figura- 
tive form  (Luke  iv.  23).  6.  A  psalm  containing  brief  historical 
sayings,  to  be  used  for  instruction  and  exhortation  (Matt.  xiii.  35; 
compare  Psa.  Ixxviii.  2).  We  gather  from  the  Greek  commentary 
on  Homer,  by  Eustathius,  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica  in  the  twelfth 
century,  his  notion  of  a  parable  as  derived  from  the  similes  of  Ho- 
mer.    According  to  this  scholar,  a  parable  is  a  comparison  in  which 


GU  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

familiar  objects  and  occurrences  are  employed  to  illustrate  and  con- 
firm any  subject  whatever.  /-*.  liutllius  Lupus  classifies  parables 
thus :  I.  Homoeosis,  or  similitude.  This  is  of  two  kinds — para- 
deirpaa  and  jxtrabole.  (1)  The  paradeir/ma  is  of  three  species : 
(a)  It  is  an  example  of  a  person  without  words;  (b)  of  words  with- 
out a  person  ;  (c)  of  both  person  and  words.  (2)  Parable  is  also 
of  three  kinds  :  {a)  Icon  where  the  simile  forms  a  complete  image .; 
{b)  IIoma3on,  or  a  simile  founded  on  certain  points  of  resemblance ; 
(c)  Epagoge,  or  the  argument  from  induction. 

Paradeigma.    v.  Parabola. 

Paradiastole  {distinctio)  is  where  we  make  a  distinction  be- 
tween things  that  have  some  resemblance  (1  Cor.  iv.  19 ;  2  Cor. 
iv.  8,  9). 

0  thou  Invisible,  who  seest  all !  Unchangeable,  who  changest  all !  Thou  to 
whom  neither  origin  gives  beginning,  nor  time  increase,  nor  consummation  end. 
Thou  art  he  who  created  all  things  without  necessity,  and  who  ui)holds  them  all 
M'ithout  weariness,  governs  all  without  labour,  and  sets  all  in  motion  without 
being  moved.  Thou  'dwellest  in  all  things,  and  yet  art  not  encompassed  by 
them.  Thou  dwellest  outside  of  all  things,  but  art  not  shut  out  of  anything ; 
below  all  things,  but  not  degraded  by  them  ;  above  all  things,  but  not  exalted 
by  them. — Luis  de  Granada. 

Paradiegesis  is  a  narration  of  facts  which,  although  they  are 
outside  of  a  cause,  yet  help  to  establish  it, 

Paradox  {hypouione)  is  a  proposition  which  seems  to  be  ab- 
surd or  at  variance  with  common  sense,  or  to  contradict  a  known 
truth,  yet  when  explained  or  investigated  it  is  maintained  or  ad- 
mitted to  be  well  foimded.  President  D  wight  was  of  opinion  that 
paradoxes  are  usually  absurd,  not  only  in  appearance  but  in  truth. 
It  was  sometimes  taken  to  designate  any  surprising  or  unexpected 
idea  or  thought,  as  Isa.  v.  2. 

Jesus  alone  knew  what  it  was  to  lose  Jesus  (Matt,  xxvii.  47). — Thilip  von  Ilar- 
tung.  Oh  !  how  are  we  deafened  by  these  ears  of  ours !  And  how  are  we  blind- 
ed by  these  eyes  of  ours !  that  we  cannot  hear  the  voice  of  God  calling  us  to 
heaven  ;  that  we  cannot  behold  the  divine  light  that  shines  through  all  things. — 
John  Hoioe.  I  tell  you  the  truth.  I  am  against  good  works — don't  run  away 
before  I  have  finished  my  sentence — we  are  against  good  works  being  put  iu  the 
room  of  Christ,  as  the  ground  of  our  acceptance. —  Whitefcld. 

Parseneticon  is  when  the  speaker  uses  the  language  of  exhor- 
tation. 

Paragoge  is  the  addition  of  a  letter  or  syllable  at  the  end  of  a 
word — loithouteu  for  without,     v.  Pahelcox. 

Parallage.    v.  Anastrophe. 

Paraleipsis  {paralejjsis,  p>arasiopesis,  lyrceternilsslo,  2'>neteritio) 
is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  expresses  a  wish  to  pass  in  silence 
or  ignore  what  he  nevertheless  briefly  mentions.     It  embraces  the 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  C15 

figures  ajjophasis  and  cataphasis.     We  have  an  example  of  this 
figure  in  Philemon  19 ;  Heb.  xi.  32. 

Helias,  Saul,  David — But  what !  go  I  about  to  avouch  ancient  examples,  -where 
daily  experience  doth  teach  1 — John  Bradford.  I  might  allege  the  like  out  of 
Joel,  Jeremy,  Amos,  Micheas  ;  but  the  matter  is  clear  enough,  and  needeth  rather 
to  be  considered  than  proved. — Sandys. 

Parasceue.    v.  Occupatio. 

Parasiopesis.    v.  Paealeipsis. 

Parathesis.    v.  Comparatio. 

Parecbasis.     v.  Aphodos. 

Parechesis  {2'>arison,  ^jx^r/sosis,  p>aromoeon)  i«  a  kind  of  ^jaro- 
nomasia,  wherein  two  or  more  syllables,  words,  or  members  of  a 
sentence  are  pronounced  with  a  similar  sound,     v.  Paromceosis. 

0  fortunatam  natara,  me  consule,  Romam. — Cicero. 

Paregmenon  {derivatio)  is  the  use  of  several  words  of  the 
same  origin  in  one  sentence  (originals  of  John  iii.  20  ;  Acts  viii.  30 ; 
Jas.  ii.  4). 

He  Avished  rather  to  die  a  present  death  than  to  live  a  miserable  life. — Cicero. 

Parelcon  ( parolee)  is  the  addition  of  a  syllable  or  particle  to 
pronouns,  verbs,  or  adverbs.     It  is  the  same  as  paragoge. 

Parenthesis  is  a  figure  that  divides  a  sentence  by  the  insertion 
of  words,  i^hrases,  or  sentences  which  have  no  grammatical  connec- 
tion with  the  members  that  precede  or  follow  (Isa.  Ix.  12 ;  Heb. 
xii.  18-28).  Cataploce  is  that  kind  of  parenthesis  which  consists 
in  a  quick  and  lively  turn  of  thbught ;  e.  g.  : 

When  the  Phocian  war  had  broken  out — not  tlirough  me,  for  I  had  not  then 
commenced  public  life — you  were  in  this  position,  etc. — Demosthenes,  Pro  Coro. 
Of  whom  the  world  was  not  worthy. — Keh.  xi.  38 ;  Ezek.  xvi.  23. 

E]pitrecho7i,  suhcontlnuatio  is  a  rapid 'statement  thrown  between 
sentences,  and  so  making  parts  of  discourse  parenthetical  and  cir- 
cuitous. Hermogenes  gives  us  the  following  illustration  of  the 
figure : 

The  Pandionian  tribe  had  not  had  a  choir-master  for  two  years,  and  the  as- 
sembly having  met,  etc. — Demosthenes  against  Midias,  ^19.  Dives  was  one  of  that 
set  of  men  (a  numerous  set)  who  are  very  hospitable  to  those  who  do  not  want, 
and  very  unfriendly  to  those  who  do. — Seed.  After  such  examples,  my  brethren 
(I  blush,  alas  !  to  offer  them  to  you,  because  I  fear  that  through  your  neglect 
of  them  they  will  but  confound  and  condemn  you),  after  such  examples,  I  say, 
eitc. — Brydayne. 

Parembole  {eptemhole,  cataploce.i  paremptosis)  is  such  a  paren- 
thetical sentence  as  would  make  complete  sense  if  it  were  separated 
from  the  sentence  which  it  divides. 

If  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  had  been  the  only  one  baptised  with  John's  baptism 
(hold  fast  what  we  say,  .  .  .  for  why  are  we  constrained  to  say  the  same  things 

40 


616  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

again  but  because  we  are  not  sure  of  the  memory  of  your  heart  ?) ;  if  then  the 
Lord  liaJ  been  tlie  only  one  baptised,  etc. — Aurpiistme. 

Paremptoses.    v.  Parembole. 

Parison.    v.  Parechesis. 

Paroemia — a  common  saying.  Such  is  its  rhetorical  significa- 
tion. It  is  used  in  John's  Gosj^el  as  synonymous  with  lyarabU  ( Jer. 
xxxi.  29  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  44). 

Paromoeosis  {iKiromceon^iiarechesis)  is  a  pecuUar  kind  of  al- 
literation, in  which  cither  the  beginnings  or  the  endings  of  tv/o 
clauses  are  similar  in  sound ;  when  it  is  in  the  beginnings  the  two 
words  must  hav»  the  same  root. 

Paromologia.    v.  Confession. 

Paronomasia  {awiominatio)  is  the  use  of  two  or  more  words 
which  resemble  each  other  in  sound  or  form,  but  differ  as  to  signifi- 
cation, for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or  antithesis  or  playful  allusion. 
Annomhiatio  differs  from  paronomasia  in  this,  that  it  comprehends 
a  reference  b©th  to  the  sound  and  to  the  meaning  of  words,  and 
consequently,  for  the  most  part,  it  is  a  kind  of  antithesis  (Matt, 
xvi.  18;  John  ii.  23,  24;  Acts  viii.  30).  It  was  sometimes  used  to 
designate  an  alteration  in  the  meaning  of  a  word  by  interchanging, 
transposing,  adding,  or  omitting  one  or  more  letters  or  syllables. 
Some  rlietoricians  misname  this  figure  jn'osonotnasia ;  others  in- 
clude in  this  figure  antcmaclasls,  2^<^rechesis^  and  annomlnatio,  ap- 
plying the  last  term  in  the  sense  of  ^:)i«i.  JParonomasia  may  be 
divided  into  three  kinds:  I.  Syn^nymoics  (as  Isa.  x.  16;  xxiv.  3; 
Micah  i.  14;  ii.  4;  Nahum  ij.  10).  II.  Antithetic  (Isa.  v.  7;  Ixi.  3). 
III.  Of  varied  signification  (Isa.  xxiv.  17;  Jer.  Ii.  2;  Luke  xxi.  11 ; 
Acts  viii.  30,  i«  the  original).  This  figure,  though  condemned  by 
Addison,  is  approved  by  Aristotle  (Rhet.,  L.  iii.,  c.  xi.),  and  em- 
ployed not  only  by  the  sacred  Avriters,  but  by  Cicero,  Augustine, 
Milton,  and  many  other  first-rate  human  authorities. 

Sanabilem,  non  sanum. — Augustine.  .  ,  .  Qunc  ibat  effusa  redit  confusa. — Id. 
IIow  many  otiier  officers  of  new  names  and  jurisdictions  would  be  created  and 
founded  {fundi)-)  for  these  mines  to  confound  (confundir)  you  and  bury  you  in 
them.  .  .  .  They  would  distress  you  for  what  you  had  or  for  what  you  liad  not, 
and  your  mills  would  have  much  to  grind  {mocr),  because  you  and  your  children 
would  have  to  be  ground  (moidos). —  Vicyra.  Bishop  Jewel,  walking  on  foot  in 
the  dirt,  going  to  preach  to  a  few  people,  was  asked  by  a  person  that  met  him, 
"  Why  does  your  lordship,  weak  as  you  are,  expose  yourself  thus  1  "  lie  an- 
swered, "  It  l)ecomes  a  bishop  to  die  preaching."  Lord  send  all  the  world  that 
have  bishops  such  jewels  as  he  was. — Whitcjicld.  Whether  you  were  converted 
formerly  or  not,  you  are  perverted  now. — Id. 

]\Iore  examples  of  this  figure  are  found  in  Isa.  x.  30 ;  xxx.  7 ; 
Zcph.  ii.  4-6 ;  Matt.  xxiv.  7  ;  Acts  xvii.  25 ;  Heb.  v.  8. 

Parrhesia.    v.  Licentia. 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  617 

Pathopoeia  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  expresses  some 
strong  aifection,  as  love  or  hatred,  joy  or  sorrow  (Isa.  xxii.  4;  xlix. 
15;  Jer.  ix.  1,  2;  xxiii.  9,  10;  xxxi.  20;  Hos.  xi.  8,  9;  Mark  iii.  5; 
vii.  34;  Luke  xix.  41,  42 ;  Acts  vii.  55,  66). 

This  gift  (speaking  of  King  Edward)  God  gave  unto  us  Englishmen  before 
all  nations  under  the  sun,  and  that  of  his  exceeding  love  towards  us.  But  alas 
and  well  away,  for  our  unthankfulness'  sake,  for  our  sins'  sake,  for  our  carnality 
and  profane  living,  God's  anger  hath  touched  not  only  the  body,  but  also  the 
mind  of  our  king  by  a  long  sickness,  and  at  length  hath  taken  him  away  by 
death,  death,  cruel  death,  fearful  death. — John  Bradford. 

Percontatio,  or  Percunctatio.     v.  Ekotesis. 

Percursio.    v.  Epitrochasmus. 

Periphrasis  [clrctdtio,  circumlociitlo)  is  the  use  of  two  or  more 
words  to  express  the  sense  of  one,  in  order  to  veil  a  disagreeable 
thought,  to  impart  power  to  ideas,  or  to  speak  with  the  exactitude 
of  truth.    V.  Pleonasm. 

Pariphrasis  for  God  (Gen.  xviii.  25) ;  for  death  (Isa.  xiv.  15  ;  xxxviii.  10) ;  for 
wife  (Ezek.  xxiv.  16,  21,  25).;  for  men  (Matt.  xi.  11)  ;  for  wine  (Matt.  xxvi.  29; 
Heb.  i.  14).  When  we  consider  that  we  have  but  a  little  while  to  be  here,  that 
Ave  are  upon  our  journey  travelling  towards  our  heavenly  country,  where  we 
shall  meet  with  all  the  delights  we  can  dqgire,  it  ought  not  to  trouble  us  much 
to  endure  storms  and  foul  ways,  and  to  want  many  of  those  accommodations  we 
might  expect  at  home. — Tillotson. 

Periploce  {involutio)  is  a  circuitous  phrase  or  sentence  which 
expresses  agreeably  a  disagreeable  idea.     v.  Euphemy. 

Peristasis  is  where  we  make  an  argument  out  of  the  circum- 
stances of  a  particular  case,  or  out  of  those  which  are  peculiar  to  a 
case. 

Permissio.     v.  Epiteope. 

Permutatio  is  a  figure  which  conveys  to  the  mind  a  sense  dif- 
ferent from  that  which  the  words  strictly  signify.  The  term  in- 
cludes those  of  metaphor,  sarcasm,  and  irony.  For  examples  v. 
Auct.  ad  Ilerenniian,  Lib.  iv.,  c.  xxxiv.,  a  work  attributed  vari- 
ously to  Cornificus,  Cicero,  and  others. 

Personification,    v.  Peosopopceia. 

Peusis.    V.  Eeotesis. 

Phantasia.     v.  Visiois". 

Pleonasm,  is  using  a  greater  number  of  words  than  is  neces- 
sary to  express  the  bare  meaning  to  a  cultivated  intellect,  in  order 
to  impart  greater  clearness  or  emphasis,  or  to  move  the  common 
mind  by  the  employment  of  repetition  and  other  amplifications. 
The  term  is  often  applied  to  any  redundant  or  needless  expression. 
Under  this  head  some  writers  include  parelcoimyolysyndeton.,  hen- 
diadys,  and  2^<i^'iphrasis  (Judges  v.  27 ;  Isa.  iii.  9 ;  xxxviii.  1 ;  li.  1 
2;  Jer.  xiii.  17;  Ezek.  xviii.  13;  xxxiii.  11;  Hos.  ii.  2;  Mark  xii. 


G18  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

30 ;  John  v.  24 ;  Acts  xviii.  9).  The  Hebrew  parallelism  is  often  a 
rcLTulatc'd  pk'ouasm. 

Ploce  has  various  significations:  1.  It  -svas  once  used  to  desig- 
nate a  blending  ot  two  or  more  kinds  of  repetition  in  the  same  con- 
text, as  cpanak2)sis,  anaj^hora,  etc.  2.  The  use  of  the  same  word 
twice  in  the  same  connection,  but  in  different  senses.  This  is  the 
same  as  ivdanaclasis.  3.  When  a  Avord  is  so  repeated  that  in  the 
one  instance  the  word  itself,  and  in  the  other  a  property  or  attri- 
bute of  it,  expresses  the  meaning  (Eccles.  vii.  G;  Isa.  xxxvii.  18; 
Ixvi.  3,  4;  Jer.  vii.  18,  19;  viii.  4,  in  original.  Also  Matt.  v.  45; 
Luke  xi.  3G;  John  iii.  31 ;  x.  13;  xii.  27  ;  Jas.  iv.  11). 

"  Barabbas  was  a  robber."  And  is  not  Barabbas  a  robber,  still  ? — Stephen  II. 
Tijnp,  Sen.     What  he  giveth,  he  giveth. — Charles  Jfaelstvorlh. 

Polyprosopon  (literally,  manifacedness)  is  found  where  the 
person  spoken  of  is,  without  notice,  by  a  quick  transition,  repre- 
sented as  speaking  for  himself,  or  else,  when  speaking  of  some  one, 
we  turn  aside  to  address  the  person  himself  It  seems  to  be  con- 
sidered a  species  of  witimefathesis  by  Longinus  (sec.  26,  27),  who 
adduces  an  example  of  this  figure  from  Iliad,  B.  xv.,  1.  34G : 

"But  Hector,  shouting  aloud,  exkorted  the  Trojans  to  rush  upon  the  ships 
and  to  let  go  the  bloody  spoils.  '  And  whoever  I  shall  discover  away  from  the 
shii)s  anywhere,  there  will  I  kill  him.'  "  Also  this  from  Demosthenes'  oration 
against  Aristogiton :  "  And  shall  not  one  among  you  boil  with  wrath  when  the 
ini<iuity  of  this  insolent  and  profligate  wretch  is  laid  before  your  eyes  1  This 
insolent  wretch,  I  say,  who— Thou  most  abandoned  creature !  when  shut  out 
from  the  liberty  of  speaking,  not  by  bars  or  gates,  for  these  indeed  some  other 
might  burst,"  etc.  (Ezek.  xvi.  23;  Luke  v.  14;  Acts  i.  4;  xvii.  3;  xxiii.  22; 
XXV.  8.)  Nor  doth  the  Spirit  make  hving  members  any  except  those  whom 
the  Spirit  itself  findeth  in  the  body  which  it  quickeneth.  For  the  Spirit  which  is 
in  thee,  0  man,  doth  it  make  alive  a  member  which  it  shall  find  separated  from 
thy  flesh  1  .  .  .  These  things  are  said  that  wo  may  love  unity  and  fear  separa- 
tion.—^Ki/j^/Zwr.  So  that  keeping  bad  company  was  another  step  that  led  to  his 
great  fall.  Oh,  Peter!  my  blood  begins  now  almost  to  run  cold  within  me.  I 
tremble  for  thee  more  than  ever.  .  .  Well,  the  blessed  Jesus  is  now  at  the  bar. 
—  iniifefirld. 

Polyptoton  {inctae/o;/e)  is  a  repetition  of  the  same  word  in  dif- 
ferent cases,  genders,  numbers,  etc.  (Isa.  xxiv.  IG ;  IIos.  x.  1 ;  Micah 
ii.  4;  Zc'i»h.  i.  15;  John  iij.  13). 

Polysyndeton  is  found  where  copulative  conjunctions  are  re- 
peated between  successive  words,  clauses,  and  sentences.  The 
term  is  sometimes  u.sed  for  a  redundancy  of  conjunctions  (Isa.  iii. 
18-24;  xxxvii.  37;  Jer.  xxxi.  28;  Hag.  i.  11;  John  x.  27,28).  A 
good  example  of  the  pairing  of  nouns  (carried  to  such  excess  in 
modern  essays  and  reviews)  is  to  be  found  in  Zcph.  i.  15,  IG. 

Yea,  and  there  are  both  foul  sayings,  and  gestures  yet  fouler ;  and  the  dress- 
ing of  the  hair  tends  that  way,  and  the  gait,  and  apparel,  and  voice,  and  flexure 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  619 

of  the  limbs  ;  and  there  are  turaings  of  the  eyes,  and  flutes,  and  pipes,  and  dra- 
mas, and  plots;  and  all  things,  in  short,  full  of  the  most  extreme  impurity. — 
Chrysostoin. 

Portrait,    v.  Effictio. 

Prsemunitio.    v.  Occupatio. 

Praeteritio.    v.  Paraleipsis. 

Praetermission.    v.  Paraleipsis. 

Pragmatographia  is  such  a  description  of  actions  that  they 
appear  not  so  much  described  to  the  ear  as  exhibited  to  the  eye 
(Joel  ii.  1-11 ;  Matt.,  c.  xxiv.  and  xxv.). 

Praunsis  is  a  figure  by  which  anger  is  assuaged  or  extinguished. 
This  has  but  a  doubtful  claim  to  a  place  among  figures,  v.  Am- 
plification". 

Procatalepsis.    v.  Occupatio. 

Proecthesis  is  a  reasoning  from  what  has  been  lawfully  done 
to  what  ought  to  be  done.  It  is  more  commonly  used  to  signify 
an  explanation  or  justification  of  what  has  been  said  or  done  (Matt, 
ix.  12,  13,  15-17;  xii.  11,  12;  Mark  iii.  4). 

Prodiorthosis  is  a  preparation  of  the  audience  for  hearing 
something  that  might  otherwise  have  shocked  or  ofiended  them. 
It  resembles  protherapeia. 

Proepiplexis.    v.  Protherapeia. 

.  Proepizeuxis  (in  place  of  a  repetition)  is  the  separation  of 
two  substantives  by  means  of  an  intermediate  verb  in  the  dual  or 
plural  number,  for  the  sake  of  speaking  of  both,  instead  of  employ- 
ing a  separate  verb  for  each  of  them,  or  one  verb  agreeing  Avith 
only  one  of  the  substantives,  as  in  zeugma.  It  has  also  been  de- 
fined a  grammatical  figure  by  Avhich  a  verb  is  placed  between  two 
substantives  in  construction.     Example : 

Then  they  approached  each  other ;  the  one  eager  to  launch  his  pointed  s^ear, 
the  other  an  arrow  from  the  string. — Iliad,  B.  xiii.,  585,  586. 

Prolepsis.    v.  Occupatio  and  Ampliatio. 

Prosapodosis  is  found  where,  after  expressing  two  or  more 
opinions,  we  return  to  give  a  reason  for  each,  or  else  subjoin  to  each 
assertion  its  proper  reason.  It  is  also  employed  for  reddUio,  or  a 
return  to  a  word  in  order  to  repeat  it  with  emphasis  or  to  dwell 
upon  it.  Then  it  differs  little  from  sejugatio.  It  sometimes  means 
a  reply  to  an  objection,     v.  Occupatio. 

So  then  Christ  is  rich  and  poor;  as  God,  rich;  as  man,  poor. — Augustine. 
AVhy  will  you  perish,  0  house  of  Israel  7  You,  my  brethren,  who  have  been  dis- 
tinguished by  so  many  blessings,  to  whom  in  your  earlier  days  the  immaculate 
page  of  divine  revelation  was  unfolded,  who  were  nurtured  upon  the  holy  bo- 
som of  Christianity,  why  will  you  perish  1  You  for  whom  this  roof  resounds 
with  the  voice  of  the  preacher,  for  whom  the  sacred  table  is  spread  with  celes- 
tial food,  why  will  you  perish  1     You  for  whom  Jesus  died,  you  for  whom  he 


G20  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

rose  from  tlie  dead  and  now  intercedes,  showinE;  to  liis  Fatlier  the  lioly  wounds 
he  received  for  your  salvation,  why  will  you  perish  1 — Bossuet.  Run  the  race 
set  before  thee,  fight  the  good  fight,  win  the  bright  crown,  the  race,  and  the 
fight,  and  tlie  crown  of  an  overcoming  faith. —  77'.  11.  Williams. 

Prosopographia  is  a  lively  description  of  a  persoyi  by  deline- 
ating his  features,  mien,  disposition,  dress,  manners,  etc.  (Isa.  Ixiii. 
1-G ;  Ezek.  xvi.  4-26). 

A  new  and  mighty  teacher  appeared  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea.  His  dress, 
his  voice,  his  aspect  were  the  image  of  austere  lioliness.  His  hair  and  beard 
unshorn,  after  the  manner  of  the  Nazarites,  hung  wildly  over  his  breast  and 
shoulders;  his  half-naked  body  was  macerated  by  frequent  fasting;  his  raiment 
was  the  coarse  hair-cloth  which  covered  the  Arab's  tent;  his  food  the  insects  of 
the  air  and  of  the  field ;  and  his  luxury  the  honey  left  by  wild  bees  in  the  sun- 
burnt rocks  of  Arabia  Petrasa. — Hebe)-. 

Prosopopoeia  [conformatio,  2'><^i'SoniJication)  is  a  figure  by 
which  we  give  intelligence,  language,  or  other  human  attributes  to 
inanimate  objects  or  abstract  ideas.  The  term  is  sometimes  used 
to  designate  cases  where  the  absent  are  introduced  as  j^resent,  or 
the  dead  as  if  they  were  alive  again  (Isa.  iii.  8 ;  xliv.  23 ;  xlix.  13 ; 
Jcr.  xxxi.  15,  and  Matt.  ii.  18;  Jer.  xlvi.  10;  xlvii.  6,  7;  Ezek. 
xxxi.  9,  15;  Hos.  ii.  21,22;  Habak.  ii.  11;  Matt.  vi.  3,  3-4;  com- 
pare Luke  xvi.  29  and  Heb.  xi.  2). 

'O  England,  England  !  if  thou  obstinately  wilt  return  into  Egypt — that  is,  if 
thou  contract  marriage,  confederacy  or  league  with  such  princes  as  do  main- 
tain and  advance  idolatry,  such  as  the  emperor  who  is  no  less  an  enemy  unto 
Christ  than  ever  was  Nero — if  for  the  pleasure  and  friendship  of  such  princes,  I 
say,  thou  return  to  thine  old  abominations  before  used  under  papistry,  then  as- 
suredly, 0  England,  thou  shalt  be  plagued  and  brought  to  desolation  by  means 
of  those  whose  favour  thou  seekest,  and  by  whom  thou  art  procured  to  fall  from 
Christ  and  to  serve  Antichrist. — John  Knox.  Many  agonies  hast  thou  gone  through, 
unfortunate  Brazil.  Many  have  destroyed  theft  to  elevate  themselves ;  many 
have  built  palaces  with  materials  from  thy  ruins  ;  many  eat  their  bread,  or  rather 
the  bread  that  is  not  theirs,  with  the  sweat  of  thy  brow  ;  .  .  they  rich  and  thou 
poor,  they  safe  and  thou  in  peril,  the}'  through  thy  means  living  in  prosperitj', 
and  thou  through  theirs  in  danger  of  expiring.  But  rejoice  now  and  take  heart, 
and  recover  thyself  and  give  thanks  to  God. —  Vieyra.  (See  also  Segncri,  Qua- 
resimale,  Prcd.  xxvlii ,  ^8.)  Mercy  calls:  Him  that  cometh,  etc.  (.John  vi.  37}. 
Faith  answer*  :  I  will  arise  and  go  to  my  father,  etc.  (Luke  xv.  18,  10). — John 
ArnrU.  They  look  upon  Christianity — may  I  not  say  so? — as  a  scheme  for  just 
paring  the  claws  of  sin  and  then  letting  it  run  about  at  will. — J.  C.  Hare. 

Prosphonesis.     v.  Apostrophe. 

Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  a  letter  or  syllable  to  a  word  : 
oifiiirn  for  doir/i  ■  ccantshed  for  va)iishc(7. 

Protherapeia  {jyroepqylexis)  is  found  where,  by  way  of  pre- 
caution, we  conciliate  faith  or  indulgence  in  behalf  of  something 
we  are  about  to  say.  v.  Epituerapeia  (John  xii.  27 ;  Acts  ii.  29 ; 
xvii.  22,  23 ;  xxvi.  2,  3). 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  621 

Protimesis  enumerates  things  according  to  their  order  or  im- 
portance, using  the  particles ^rs?",  again^  thoi,  etc. 

Protrope.     An  exhortation. 

Proupergasia  {jyctrasceiie,  jprcemitnitio).     v.  Occupatio. 

Proverb,     v.  Parcemia. 

Pysma  {2:)eicsiti).     v.  Erotesis. 

Ratiocinatio  is  when  the  speaker  questions  himself  or  demands 
of  himself  the  reasons  for  his  assertions  or  the  motives  he  has  for 
saying  or  doing  anything.  The  term  is  also  employed  sometimes 
in  the  sense  of  em2)hasis.  The  author  of  Hhet.  ad  Ilerenniicm 
commends  the  use  of  this  figure  as  helping  to  hold  the  attention 
of  an  audience.     He  gives  this  illustration  of  it : 

Our  ancestors  were  right  in  not  taking  the  life  of  any  king  they  had  defeated 
and  made  prisoner.  Why  1  Because  it  is  unjust  to  make  use  of  the  power 
which  fortune  has  given  us  over  one  who,  a  little  while  ago,  she  placed  in  the 
highest  rank  among  men.  But  why  sol  Did  he  not  lead  an  army  into  the  field 
against  us  "?  I  ought  no  longer  to  remember  that.  Why  so  lenient  1  Because 
it  is  worthy  of  a  brave  soldier  to  regard  as  enemies  those  who  fight  against  him 
for  the  victory,  and  as  fellow-men  those  who  are  conquered,  so  that  he  may  by 
his  magnaminity  lessen  the  horrors  of  war,  and  by  his  humanity  increase  the 
blessings  of  jieace.  But  if  your  royal  adversary  had  been  the  victor,  would  he 
have  done  as  much  1  No ;  doubtless  he  would  not  have  been  so  wise.  Why, 
then,  should  you  not  refuse  to  show  him  any  clemency  1  Because  I  always  de- 
sjiised  and  never  imitated  such  foil}'.     (See  Epistle  to  Romans,  chap,  iii.) 

Reduplicatio.    v.  Anadiplosis. 

Kefrain  {bitrden ,amoehmo7i)  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  phrase 
or  sentence  at  the  end  of  poetic  strophes  and  prophetic  periods. 
V.  Epistrophe  (Isa,  ix.  12,  17,  21;  x.  4;  Jer.  iii.,  1,  12,  22;  Amos 
iv.  G-12;  John  vi.  39-44;  Matt.  vi.  2,  5,  16;  John  vi.  39,  40,  44). 

Look  at  these  excellent  gifts  that  Christ  bringeth  with  him.  He  bringeth  jus- 
tification Avith  him  ;  and  is  not  that  an  excellent  giftl  He  bringelh  sanctiflca- 
tion  with  him  ;  and  is  not  that  an  excellent  giftl  He  bringeth  joy  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  with  him  ;  and  is  not  that  an  excellent  gift  1  He  bringeth  the  love  of 
God  with  him  ;  and  is  not  that  an  excellent  giftl  He  bringeth  patience  under 
sufferings  with  him ;  and  is  not  that  an  excellent  gift  ?  But  why  should  I  name 
what  he  bringeth  1  He  bringeth  himself  and  all  things,  and  what  would  you 
have  more  1 — Andreiv  Gray,  of  Glasaoiv.  I  remember,  0  gracious  Lord,  how 
thou  who  thoughtest  it  no  robbery  to  be  equal  with  God,  .  .  and  all  this  to  save 
us  sinful  men.  I  remember,  0  gracious  God,  how  thou  didst  endure  a  most  bit- 
ter agony,  .  .  and  all  this  to  save  us  sinful  men.  I  remember  how  thou,  0  God 
of  truth,  wast  accused  by  false  witnesses,  .  .  and  to  save  us  sinful  men,  etc. — 
Bishop  Kcnh  Thanksgiving  for  Christ's  Sufferings. 

Regressio.    v.  Antimetabole. 
Rejectio.    v.  Apodioxis. 
Relatio.    v.  Anaphora. 

Repartee  is  a  smart,  witty,  and  pleasant  reply.  It  differs  from 
sarcasm  in  not  being  severe  or  offensive. 


622      '  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

Repetitio.  v.  Axaphora,  Axadiplosis,  Anta2«"aclasis,  An- 
timetabole,  epaxados,  epaxalepsis,  epipfora,  epistrophe, 
Epizeuxis,  Refraix. 

Reticentia.    v.  Aposiopesis. 

Reversio.    v.  Axadiplosis. 

Sarcasmus.    v.  Irony. 

Schesis.    v.  Occupatio. 

Scomma.    v.  Ciiariextismus. 

Sejugatio  {diezeicgmenon,  disjunction)  is  found  where  two  or 
more  words  or  members  of  a  sentence  are  separately  repeated  and 
more  fully  discussed  (John  xvi.  8-11 ;  Rom.  xi.  22;  Phil.  i.  15-17). 

Some  are  condemned  for  certainty,  others  for  doubt,  others  for  ignorance. 
They  who  are  certain  are  condemned  for  not  making  restitution  ;  they  who  are 
in  doubt  are  condemned  for  not  examining  ;  they  who  are  in  ignorance  are  con- 
demned for  not  knowing  what  it  was  their  duty  to  know. —  Viei/ra.  (See  example 
from  Don  Antonio  Giievai-a,  under  Subjcctio.) 

Sententia.    v.  Gxome. 

Sermocinatio  {dicdogismns)  is  a  figure  by  which  we  represent 
one  or  more  persons  as  speaking  in  a  manner  suitable  to  their  char- 
acter or  situation,  or  as  we  may  suppose  they  would  if  they  were 
brought  forward  to  speak  on  the  subject  we  are  handling.  When 
the  speaker  both  objects  and  answers,  the  figure  is  said  to  be  in 
dialogismo  ;  otherwise  in  logismo  (Isa.  xiv.  10-19;  Ixiii.  1-G ;  Micah 
ii.  4 ;  Zech.  viii.  20,  23 ;  Luke  xiii.  6-9).  Sometimes  this  figure  is 
enlivened  by  natural  repetitions  (Matt.  xxv.  37-39;  Luke  xv.  18, 
19,  21). 

And  why,  0  blessed  Paul,  dost  thou  bid  us  keep  the  feast  ?  Tell  us  the  rea- 
son. "Because,"  he  says,  "our  passover  is  sacrificed  for  us,  even  Christ,  who 
is  God." — Chrysostom.  IIow  then  shall  man  be  justified  by  faith  without  works  1 
The  apostle  himself  answers,  "  For  this  cause  said  I  this  to  thee :  0  man,  lest 
thou  shouldst  seem  as  it  were  to  presume  on  thy  works.  Thou  knowest  that  faith 
found  thee  a  sinner,  though  faith  bestowed  made  thee  righteous." — Augustine. 
Zion  said,  "The  Lord  has  forgotten  me."  Foolish  thought,  indeed,  and  unwor- 
thy of  a  believing  soul.  Behold  the  wounds  he  received  near  thy  walls,  and 
consider  whctlier  he  can  have  forgotten  thee.  "  I  have,"  saith  he,  "graven  thee 
on  the  palms  of  my  hands,  and  I  cannot  lift  them  to  my  eyes  without  remem- 
bering thee."  The  sufferings  we  endure  for  others  kindles  our  love  to  such  a 
flame  that  we  glory  in  the  wounds  we  receive  in  their  defence. — P.  J.  Marqucz. 
I  seem  now  to  hear  the  voice  of  God  speaking  to  me,  as  he  once  spoke  to  the 
prophet,  saying,  "Preacher  of  the  living  God,  what  seest  thou  !  "  Lord,  I  see, 
and  see  with  comfort  a  great  number  of  the  noble  and  the  rich  moved— afllected 
for  the  first  time  in  view  of  the  condition  of  these  unfortunate  ones.  It  is  as  if 
the  Lord  again  said  to  me,  "  Pass  to  look  at  another  spectacle  ;  dig  through  the 
wall,  dig  into  the  vaults  ;  what  do  you  see  there  1 "  I  see,  0  Lord,  a  crowd  of 
prisoners,  more  unfortunate,  perhaps,  than  blameworthy.  "Descend;  what  do 
you  discover"?  "  I  find,  0  Lord,  a  funereal  light,  tombs  for  liabitafions,  a  liell 
upon  earth,  food  that  serves  to  prolong  misery  rather  than  life,  a  little  straw 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  623 

scattered  here  and  there,  some  rags,  haggard  faces,  sepulchral  voices,  men,  or 
rather  fric^htful  ghosts.  "  Follow  these  victims  to  the  place  of  execution  ;  what 
do  vou  see  there  1  "  I  see,  0  Lord,  etc.  "  Consider  what  you  have  witnessed  and 
draw  your  own  conclusions."  Lord,  the  more  I  observe  the  more  I  am  persuaded 
that  there  is  in  the  world  a  law  of  exact  compensation,  that  there  is  a  protector 
for  every  one  that  is  oppressed,  a  liberator  for  every  captive,  and  only  a  wall  be- 
tween these  prisoners  and  the  hearts  of  the  rich,  eic.-Abbe  Louts  Foule. 

Significatio.  *v.  Emphasis. 

Simile,    v.  Compakatio. 

Similitude,    v.  Comparatio  and  Parabola. 

Simploce.    v.  Complexio  and  Synthesis. 

Simultanenm  is  found  where,  in  the  narration  of  two  facts 
which  occurred  at  the  same  time,  the  statement  of  one  of  them  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  while  the  statement  of  the  other  is  placed 
as  a  parenthesis  between  the  two.  (See  Bengel's  Gnomon  on  Mark 
xiv.  13 ;  Rev.  xvi.  14). 

Solutum.    V.  Asyndeton. 

Subcontinuatio.    v.  Epitrechon. 

Subjectification  consists  in  saying  of  some  physical  or  ab- 
stract thing  by  which  a  subject  acts  or  speaks,  or  which  is  its  or- 
gan, instrument,  or  attribute,  what  in  preciseness  of  speech  can 
only  be  said  of  the  subject  itself  This  figure  is  always  either  a  spe- 
cies of  metonymy  or  of  synecdoche. 

The  sound  of  the  axe  and  the  hanimer  preached  respecting  that  deluge  ;  the 
noise  of  the  saw  in  its  sawing  cried  aloud  of  the  hmnd^tion.-EphmmSip-us. 
Oh!  happy  eyes  that  see  these  things,  and  most  happy  hearts  that  feel  them.- 
John  Bradford. 

Subjectio  {dlana3a)  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  uses  ani- 
mated questions  and  answers  in  developing  an  argument,  amplify- 
ino- a  subject,  or  making  an  application.  The  term  is  sometimes 
employed  in  the  sense  of  hypophora.  v.,  Occupatio.  iJianoia  is 
now  and  then  defined  a  figure  by  which  a  subject  is  treated  not  as 
it  ought  to  be,  but  as  is  suitable  to  the  occasion. 

0  Alexander'  either  thou  seekest  to  redress  wrongs,  or  thou  wouldst  form 
alliances  ;  or  thou  seekest  peace,  or  thou  wouldst  make  friends.  But  how  can 
we  believe  that  thou  desirest  to  redress  wrongs  when  thou  dost  lord  it  over  the 
whole  earth  ^  How  can  we  believe  that  thou  wouldst  form  alliances,  since  thou 
makest  tributaries  of  those  who  receive  thee  without  opposition,  and  treat  as 
enemies  those  who  question  thy  claims  1  How  can  ive  believe  that  thou  seekes 
peace,  since  thou  carriest  tumult  into  all  the  worldl  How  can  we  believe  that 
thou  wouldst  make  friends,  since  thou  art  the  scourge  of  human  weakness  ?- 
Don  Antonio  Guevara.  Consider  how  he  hath  made  thee  a  man  or  a  woman  which 
might  have  made  thee  a  toad  or  a  dog.  And  why  did  he  this  1  Venly  because 
he  loved  thee.  And  trowest  thou  that  if  he  loved  thee  when  thou  wast  not,  to 
make  thee  such  a  one  as  he  hath  most  graciously  made  thee,  will  he  not  now 
love  thee,  being  his  handiwork  1     Doth  he  hate  anything  that  he  made  1     Is  there 


G24  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

unableness  in  liini  7     Doth  he  love  for  a  day,  and  so  farewell  1     No,  forsooth,  he 
lovelli  to  flio  pikI,  his  mercy  endureth  forever. — Joint  Bradford. 

Suppositio  Materialis.    v.  Metallage. 

Suspension,     v.  Sustextatio. 

Sustentatio  (susjycnsion,  creman,  exartcsls)  is  found  where  the 
speaker  so  constructs  his  sentences  that  the  hearer  waits  for  their 
conchision  to  solve  their  import  (Prov.  xxiii.  29,  30  ;  Matt.  xi.  7-9  ; 
1  Cor.  ii.  9). 

My  chief  reason  for  appearing  here  to-day  is  that  I  may  prove  myself  obedi- 
ent. But  to  whom?  Their  lordships  1  No,  indeed.  Excuse  me — I  am  not 
bound  to  obey  what  is  evil.  Well,  hast  thou  come  to  be  persuaded  by  the  peo- 
ple 1  By  no  means;  it  is  not  to  be  believed  that  I  would  allow  myself  to  be 
persuaded  in  this  matter  bj'  any  man.  Art  thou  minded,  then^to  obey  the  high 
prelates!  Not  a  word  has  been  spoken  to  me  by  any  of  the  prelates.  But 
know  that  I  have  come  here  to  obey  one  who  is  Prelate  of  prelates  and  Pope  of 
popes. — Savonarola.  He  that  will  not  shroud  himself  under  this  vine,  he  that  en- 
tereth  not  into  this  ark,  he  that  will  not  be  partaker  of  these  celestial  treas- 
ures, these  heavenly  mysteries,  this  true  bread  of  life  so  largely  offered  unto  all 
nations,  if  his  soul  die  the  death,  who  will  have  pity  or  compassion  of  him. — 
Ahp.  Sandys.  "  Now  is  the  son  of  man  glorified  7  "  Tell  me  in  what  manner  he 
is  going  to  be  glorified  7  AVhat  means  the  emphatic  word — note  ?  Is  he  at  once 
to  rise  above  the  clouds  and  thence  to  launch  vengeance  on  his  foes  1  Or  is  the 
angelic  hierarchy,  seraphs,  dominions,  principalities,  and  powers  to  descend  from 
on  high  and  pay  him  instant  adoration!  No.  Ho  is  going  to  die  with  malefac- 
tors.    Tiiis  he  denominates  his  glory. — Bossuct. 

Syllepsis  is  a  figure  by  which  one  word  is  made  use  of  twice 
to  convey  two  different  ideas.  As  a  figure  of  sjiitax  it  is  defined, 
a  figure  by  which  an  adjective  or  verb  belonging  to  two  or  more 
nouns  of  different  genders,  persons,  or  numbers  agrees  with  one 
rather  than  another.  Zeugma  is,  in  this  sense,  included  by  some 
under  this  term  (Matt.  viii.  22). 

Scourged  he  was  with  the  scourges  of  the  Jews ;  scourged  he  is  with  the  blas- 
phemies of  false  Cliristians. — Augustine.  What  can  be  oftener  from  home  than 
tlieir  persons !  Than  their  thoughts,  which  are  continually  from  home,  ever 
wandering  abroad  and  returning  empty  and  unsatisfied. — Seed.  What  he  giveth, 
lie  givctli. — Cliarls  Wadsicorth. 

Syllogismus.    v.  Emphasis. 

Symbol.  The  use  or  mention  of  any  material  object  in  order 
to  represent  some  intellectual,  moral,  or  spiritual  notion. 

Symbole.    v.  Parabole. 

Symbouleusis.     v.  Anaccenosis. 

Symperasma  {ndira'smns,  synathrcesmns,  si/nniiSy  hirnius, 
coiKjeries)  is  a  conclusion  which  contains  a  brief  summary  of  the 
foregoing  discourse.  The  second,  third,  and  fourth  terms  are  some- 
times used  to  signify  an  enumeration  of  the  j)arts  of  a  whole,  the 
species  of  a  genus,  or  the  different  name  of  one  species,  v.  Ai'O- 
Dioxis  (Isa.  i.  11-14;  iii.  18-23;  Horn.  i.  29-31;  Ileb.  xi.  39). 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES.  625 

What  is  all  this  visible  world  but  a  great  and  wonderful  book,  which  thou,  0 
Lord,  has  written  and  opened  before  the  eyes  of  all  nations,  in  order  that  all  of 
thein  may  study  it  and  learn  who  thou  art.  What,  then,  should  all  his  creatures 
be  but  preachers  of  their  Creator,  witnesses  of  his  greatness,  mirrors  of  his 
beauty,  heralds  of  his  glory,  awakeners  of  our  slumbers,  stimulators  of  our  af- 
fection, and  reprovers  of  our  ingratitude  1 — Luis  de  Granada. 

Synaeresis  {synecplionesis^  sym])honesis,  sy^iizesis)  is  the  con- 
traction of  two  vowels  or  syllables  into  one ;  as  seest  for  seest,  'tis 
for  it  is,  does  for  doeih. 

Synaloepha  is  a  figure  of  Latin  prosody  by  which  a  final  vow- 
el or  diphthong  is  cut  ofi"  in  scanning  when  the  following  word  be- 
gins with  a  vowel.     Thus,  terra  antiqua  is  read  terj-'  cmtiqiia. 

Synantesis  is  a  repetition  of  two  words  or  phrases  in  an  in- 
verse order.  The  repetition  begins  with  the  last  word  and  ends 
with  the  first. 

Corydon  and  Thyrsis  had  driven  their  flocks  together ;  Thyrsis  his  sheep, 
Corydon  his  goats,  distended  with  milk. —  Virff.,  Ed.  vii. 

Synapheia  is  a  figure  of  prosody  by  which  verses  are  so  con- 
nected ton;ether  that  the  first  syllable  of  a  verse  has  an  influence 
on  the  final  syllable  of  that  which  precedes  either  by  position,  syn- 
ahxpha,  or  ecthlipsis. 

Synathroesmus.    v.  Symperasma. 

Syncatabasis.    v.  Anthropopatheia  and  Accommodation. 

Syncategorema  is  an  accessory  proposition,  or  one  added  to 
a  principal  one. 

Synchoresis.    v.  Concessio. 

Synchrisis.    v.  Comparatio. 

Synchronism,    v.  p.  325. 

Synchysis  is  a  confused  or  disorderly  placing  of  words  in  a 
sentence.  It  is  sometimes  identified  with  hyperhaton,  epanodos, 
chias}/)us,  hysterologia,  and  anaeoluthon. 

Syncope  is  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  syllable  in  the  middle 
of  a  word;  as  e'en  for  even,  o'er  for  over. 

Synecdoche  is  a  figure  by  which  words  are  made  to  compre- 
hend either  more  or  less  than  they  literally  signify ;  as  where  the 
whole  of  a  thing  is  put  for  a  part  of  it,  or  a  part  of  a  thing  is  put 
for  the  whole  of  it.  Here,  as  Ernesti  says,  the  change  or  transfer 
of  a  word  from  one  idea  to  another  is  made  on  account  of  the  in- 
ternal connection  of  the  two  ideas,  v.  Association^".  I.  Genus 
for  species,  or  imiversals  for  particulars  (Hos.  vii.  -4 ;  Mark  ix.  23  ; 
John  X.  8 ;  Acts  ii.  IT).  II.  Species  for  genus,  or  particulars  for 
universal  (Isa.  Ixiii.  16 ;  Jer.  xvii.  5 ;  Ezek.  xx.  6;  Joel  ii.  7).  III. 
The  whole  of  anything  for  a  part  of  it  (Zeph.  ii.  13 ;  John  xviii. 


G26  INDEX  OF  FIGURES 

20).  ly.  The  part  of  anything  for  the  whole  of  it  (Isa.  iii.  15  ; 
Ixi.  2 ;  Zopli.  i.  IG ;  John  iv.  23). 

Synesls.    r.  Syxthesis. 

Synezeugmenon.    v.  Adjuxctiox. 

Synoeceiosis  (cohabUatio)  is  a  figure  by  which  contrary  quali- 
ties or  conditions  are  affirmed  of  the  same  subject.  The  term  as 
now  commonly  used  may  be  defined,  a  figure  by  which  two  words 
convey  contradictory  or  incongruous  ideas  if  taken  literally,  but  har- 
monious and  consistent  ideas  if  one  be  taken  literally  or  in  one  sense, 
and  the  other  figuratively  or  in  another  sense,  v.  Oxymorox. 
Quintilian  says  that  rhetoricians  oi:)pose  to  this  figure  distinctio,  or 
paradiastolc.  He  quotes  an  example  which  may  be  translated 
thus  :  "  The  miser  wants  as  well  what  he  has  as  what  he  has  not." 
It  would  appear  from  the  context  that  Quintilian  regarded  this  fig- 
ure as  a  species  of  synezeugmenon,  which  might  be  defined,  a  figure 
by  which  two  phrases  that  convey  opposite  ideas  are  referred  in 
combination  to  the  same  word.  Yossius  gives  us  this  example : 
"Unlimited  servitude  and  unlimited  liberty  are  both  extremely 
bad."  This  figure  as  now  made  use  of  may  be  illustrated  by  such 
texts  as  the  following : 

To  him  that  liath  not,  even  that  which  he  hath  shall  be  taken  from  him. — 
Hail.  'XXV.  29.  Whosoever  shall  seek  to  save  his  life  shall  lose  it;  and  whosoever 
shall  lose  his  life  shall  preserve  it. — Luke  xvii.  33.  (1  Tim.  v.  6.)  Disperse 
therefore,  that  thou  niayest  not  lose  ;  keep  not,  that  thou  mayest  keep  ;  lay  out, 
that  thou  mayest  save ;  spend,  that  thou  mayest  gain. — Chrysosiom.  Thou  art 
longing  for  India;  thou  wilt  pass  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  so  lose  all  hope 
of  eternal  felicity. —  Vieyra. 

Synonymia  {Inteiyretatlo)  is  found  where  the  same  thing  that 
was  said  before  is  repeated  in  equivalent  words  or  phrases.  It  is 
sometimes  a  species  of  cj^cxcr/esis,  and  sometimes  a  kind  of  anipli- 
ficatloii.  When  sentences  are  synonymous,  the  figure  is  called  ex- 
ergasia  or  epexergasia  (Isa.  xix.  8). 

Synthesis  [sgnesls,  sgmploce)  is  adapting  the  construction  to 
the  sen.se  of  a  Avord  rather  than  to  its  gender  or  number.  It  has 
also  been  defined,  a  figure  by  which  a  pronoun,  verb,  or  participle 
is  constrticted  with  a  collective  noun  not  grammatically,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  sense  (Matt.  xxv.  32;  xxvii.  19,  in  original).  The  term 
is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with  Jn/i>Jtcn,  or  tlie  making  of  a 
compound  word.  Syniploce  was  once  employed  in  this  sense,  which 
is  opposite  to  that  of  tmesis. 

Syntheton  is  found  where  two  words  are  in  common  usage 
joinctl  by  a  conjunction  for  the  sake  of  emphasis;  as  "^Mighty  in 
words  and  in  deeds"  (Act  vii.  22);  "  end  and  aim,"  "  rank  and  for- 
tune," etc. 


INDEX  OF  FIGURES,  627 

« 

Syrmus.    v.  Symperasma. 

Systole  is  a  figure  of  prosody  by  which  a  syllable  which  is  long 
by  nature  or  by  position  is  sometimes  shortened;  as  muUimodls  for 
nniU'is)iiodis,  hodie  for  Aoc  die. 

Systrophe  is  a  graceful  brevity  of  expression,  as  opposed  to 
a  loose,  disconnected  phrase. 

Tapeinosis.    v.  Hyperbole. 

Tautologia  is  a  repetition  of  the  same  word  or  phrase.  It  is 
sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  epanalepsis  (Acts  xxiii.  6). 

Tautotes  is  found  where  the  same  word  is  repeated  from  igno- 
rance or  without  good  reason. 

Taxis  is  where  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  is  clearly  determined 
by  its  last  word. 

Thaumasmus  is  an  expression  of  wonder  (Matt.  viii.  10;  Jas. 
iii.  5). 

Thesis  is  a  proposition  either  afRrmative  ornegative,  which  is  put 
forward  to  be  supported  by  reasoning,  v.  Antithesis.  It  was 
once  used  to  designate  an  indefinite  universal  question  in  contradis- 
tinction to  hypothesis.  In  prosody  there  is  an  alternate  elevation 
(cD'sis)  and  depression  {thesis)  of  the  voice  in  pronouncing  the  syl- 
lables of  verse.  These  terms  sometimes,  also,  designate  the  parts  of 
a  foot  in  which  the  elevation  or  depression  occurs. 

Tmesis  {diacojye,  diceresis,  diastole^  ectasis,  diali/sis,  divisio)  is 
a  grammatical  figure  by  which  a  compound  word  or  connected 
phrase  is  divided ;  as  to  tis  irxo'd,  how  much  soever.  DicBresis  di- 
vides a  syllable  or  diphthong  into  two  syllables ;  as  cooperate.  Di- 
astole or  ectasis  lengthens  a  syllable  that  is  naturally  short.  These 
terms,  with  the  exception  of  diastole  or  ectasis,  were  often  em- 
ployed as  synonymous  by  the  old  grammarians  and  rhetoricians. 

Topographia  is  a  lively  description  of  «  ^^lace ;  as  a  field, 
mountain,  temple,  palace,  city,  or  the  like  (Isa.  xxx.  33 ;  xxxiii.  20 ; 
Ixv.  17-25  ;  Joel  ii.  3 ;  Luke  xvi.  24-26). 

Traductio.     v.  Aittanaclasis. 

Transitio.    v.  Metabasis. 

Translatio.    v.  Allegory,  Metastasis,  Metalepsis. 

Transsumptio.    v.  Metalepsis. 

Vision  {phantasicc)  represents  a  past,  future,  distant,  or  ficti- 
tious action  or  event  as  transpiring  in  the  present.  By  this  figure 
we  sjDcak  of  things  with  such  passion  and  enthusiasm  that  we  seem 
to  behold  them  with  the  eye  of  the  mind  and  to  depict  them 
before  our  hearers.  The  term  is  often  used  synonymously  with 
hypotyposis  and  imago  (Isa.  vi.  1-4;  Ezek.  i.  4-26;  Luke  x.  18). 

See  !  see !     He  cometli !     He  maketh  the  clouds  bis  chariot !     He  rideth  upon 


628  INDEX  OF  FIGURES. 

the  wings  of  the  wind  !  A  devouring  fire  goeth  before  him,  and  after  him  a 
flame  burneth  !  See !  He  sitteth  upon  his  tlirone,  clotlied  with  hght  as  with  a 
garment,  arrayed  with  majesty  and  honour  !  Behold  !  his  eyes  are  as  a  flame 
of  fire,  his  voice  as  the  sound  of  many  waters  !  How  will  ye  escape  1  Will  ye 
call  to  the  mountains  to  fall  on  you,  the  rocks  to  cover  you '?  Alas,  the  moun- 
tains themselves,  the  rocks,  the  earth,  the  heavens,  are  just  ready  to  flee  away  ! 
Can  ye  prevent  the  sentence  1  Wherewith  1  With  the  substance  of  thy  house, 
with  thousands  of  gold  and  silver  1  Blind  wretch !  Thou  earnest  naked  from 
thy  mother's  womb,  and  more  naked  into  eternity.  Hear  the  Lord,  the  Judge  ! 
"  Come  ye  blessed  of  my  Father  !  inherit  the  kingdom  jirepared  for  you  from 
the  foundation  of  the  world  !  "  Joyful  sound  !  How  widely  difterent  from  that 
voice  which  echoes  through  the  expanse  of  heaven,  "  Depart,  ye  cursed,  into  ev- 
erlasting fire,  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels  !  "  And  who  is  he  that  can 
prevent  or  retard  the  full  execution  of  either  sentence  ?  Vain  hope !  Lo,  hell ' 
is  moved  from  beneath  to  receive  those  who  are  ripe  for  destruction  !  And  the 
everlasting  doors  lift  up  their  heads,  that  the  heirs  of  glory  may  come  in. — John 
Wesley.  (Cf.  Whitefield's  ser.  on  Beholding  the  Lamb  of  God,  John  i.  35,  36, 
Pt.  i.)  Brethren,  what  do  I  hear'?  Truly  our  desires  and  prayers  for  blessing 
pierce  through  the  heavens.  A  voice  from  above  comes  hovering  down  to  us. 
Ye  may  all  hear  it.  To  the  assurance  and  great  joy  of  your  hearts  ye  may  hear 
it  echoing — it  is  the  voice  of  God,  the  Faithful  and  True — "  Amen,  so  let  it  be." 
This  is  the  voice  from  the  clouds.  Thus  let  all  be  glad  and  rejoice.  Brethren, 
what  we  desire,  may  it  be  granted !  Amen,  it  will !  Yea,  Hallelujah,  Amen. — 
F.  W.  Krummachcr. 

Votum.      V.  EUCKE. 

Zeugma  is  a  term  that  has  been  differently  applied.  It  has 
been  defined  :  I.  A  figure  by  which  one  verb  or  other  common  or 
connecting  word  is  put  in  grammatical  coanection  with  two  or 
more  words  or  phrases,  each  of  which  would  require  the  verb  if 
placed  alone,  i',  Adjunctioi^^.  II.  A  figure  by  which  a  vorb  is 
used  as  the  predicate  of 'two  or  more  nouns,  while  it  can  in  strict- 
ness refer  to  only  one  of  them.  III.  A  figure  by  which  words  used 
but  once  are  to  be  understood  a  second  time,  but  in  a  related,  con- 
nected, or  contrary  sense.  IV.  It  is  applied  to  the  repetition  of 
two  words  in  the  order  they  were  first  j)laced,  in  opposition  to 
synantesis.  The  second  definition  of  the  term  is  now  most  gener- 
ally accepted.  Where  the  verb  or  connecting  word  is  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sentence,  the  figure  is  sometimes  called  jvotozeuffma ; 
where  it  is  in  the  middle,  mesoz/'ur/ma ;  at  the  end,  liifpozcugma. 
V.  IIypozeuxis  (Mark  xiii.  26;  1  Cor.  iii.  2;  1  Tun.  iv.  3). 


II. 

INDEX 

OF 

SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  THINGS. 


Action,  meaning  of,  448. 

Actions,  symbolical,  560. 

Adaptation,  191. 

Aims  and  ends,  50. 

Alliteration,  506. 

Anecdotes  unfavourable  to  movement, 
452. 

Antidotes  to  drowsiness,  568. 

Application,  241 — of  instruction, 
242  —  confutation,  243  —  excitation, 
244 — of  imagination,  247 — of  Feel- 
ings, 262  —  reproof,  272  —  exhorta- 
tion, 284 — consolation,  296 — contin- 
ual, remarks  on,  299. 

Argumentum  ad  Doctrinam,  401,  433. 

Arguments,  various  kinds  of,  223. 

Aristotle  on  Arithmus,  or  Number,  484. 

Arithmus  in  Classic  Greek,  485 — in 
Hebrew,  470 — in  Hellenistic  oratory, 
483. 

Arrangement,  332. 

Articulation  and  melody,  533. 

Attention,  62. 

Attitude  and  gesture,  571. 

Augustine  on  Arithmus,  471. 

Authority,  not  the  mode  of  speaking, 
the  chief  thing  in  proclaiming,  8, 
116,  132,  134,  544,  523. 

Baxter,  examples  from,  445. 

Beauty  of  style,  459. 

Bible  and  Burke,  455 — matter  as  pro- 
portioned by  Scripture,  142. 

Biblical    preaching,    137  —  Preachers, 
Bunyan  and  Vieyra,  140. 
Boldness,  "52. 


Books  bolder  than  some  preachers, 
544. 

Burke  and  Johnson,  454  —  and  the 
■  Bible,  455. 

Cadence  and  verbal  forms,  498 — and 
emphasis,  496. 

Cautions,  study,  69,  84,  86. 

Christ,  preaching,  107,  143,  149. 

Clearness  a  relative  qualitj",  433 — un- 
friendly to  the  sublime  and  to  the 
terrible,  438. 

Colour  of  style,  449,  460. 

Commonplaces,  188. 

Confirmation,  219. 

Conscience,  50. 

Conclusion,  324. 

Consolation,  152. 

Conversational  manner.  The,  529. 

Copying  and  imitation,  518. 

Declamation,  practice  of,  518 — Stier 
and  Rothe  on,  518. 

Delivery  and  inspiration,  79,  83  — 
modes  of,  538 — composite  mode  of, 
540 — no  particular  mode  of  is  the 
best  for  all,  548 — and  psychological 
states  of  the  prophets,  533 — of  the 
apostles  and  prophets,  545 — of  the 
prophets  as  modified  by  feeling,  533 — 
Demosthenes  set  small  store  by,  525. 

Demosthenes'  orations  interrupted  by 
reading,  550. 

Denham's  couplet  and  euphony,  495, 
507. 

Development,  322. 

Dignity  of  style,  509. 


629 


C30 


INDEX  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  THINGS. 


Digressions,  340. 

Directness  of  style,  511. 

Discretion  more  than  eloquence,  429. 

Disposition,  332. 

Doctrines  of  grace,  153 — value  of,  154. 

Dynamis,  or  power,  54. 

Elocution  and  inspiration,  83 — Profes- 
sors of  should  be  pious  men,  529 — 
reading  sermons  for  criticism,  518 — 
a  secular  will  not  do  for  divinity 
students,  529 — relative  value  of,  524 
— subjective  relations  of,  528 — over- 
valued by  many,  525. 

Eulogies,  182. 

Euphony,  501 — of  the  English  lan- 
guage, 502. 

Ewald  on  rhythm,  473. 

Examples,  accumulated,  395. 

Exordium,  302. 

Exposition,  advantages  of,  208 — disad- 
vantages of,  210. 

Explication,  200. 

Expository  preaching,  hints  on,  215. 

Extemporising,  538 — as  to,  some  mis- 
leil  by  the  example  of  veteran 
preachers,  557 — historically  consid- 
ered, 543. 

Extemporise,  did  the  inspired  proph- 
ets] 545. 

Extraordinary  aid  of  the  Spirit,  81,  98. 

Eyes,  571. 

Fables,  use  and  abuse  of,  415,  417 — 
errors  as  to,  corrected,  410 — in'O.  T., 
412. 

Faith,  38,  41. 

Faithfulness,  our,  98. 

Feet,  strong  and  weak,  491. 

Fervency,  47. 

Figures  (see  Index  of,  p.  577) — popular 
use  of,  384 — as  related  to  beauty  of 
style,  4G0 — defined,  380— maliciously 
Avrested,  404,  40G,  418,  420— not 
ornaments  and  flowers,  385  —  pre- 
judices against  the  study  and  use 
of,  380,  383— twofold  classification  of, 
382 — religious  subjects  demand,  386. 

Force  of  Demosthenes,  444. 

Force  or  energy  of  style,  438. 

Fox  and  Pitt,  455. 

Framework  of  sermons,  360. 

Fulness  of  the  Spirit,  57. 


Funeral  sermons,  182. 

Gentile  prophets  (note),  135. 

Gentleness  of  style,  Hermogenes  on,  465 

Gesture,  571 — Dr.  Johnson's  views  of, 
573 — four  kinds  of,  572 — the  timing 
of,  575. 

Gifts  and  graces,  32-38,  83. 

Gracefulness  defined,  447. 

Hellenistic  and  Doric  dialects,  483. 

Herald,  133. 

Homiletics,  theories  of,  1,  3  —  true 
basis  of,  3-6. 

Homilies,  206. 

Holy  Ghost,  preaching  about,  145. 

Ilohness,  41,  45. 

Idols  of  speech  to  be  cast  out,  576. 

Imagination,  67. 

Imitative  properties  of  words,  507. 

Imitation  and  copying,  7-9,  518 — the 
fruitful  mind  liable  to  neglect  divine 
revelation,  the  barren  mind  in  dan- 
ger of  plagiarism,  522. 

Implications,  202. 

Improvisation,  538. 

Individuality,  14,  15— to  be  respected, 
576— of  style,  511. 

Inspiration  and  attention,  62 — percep- 
tion, 63 — wi.sdom,  64 — imagination, 
67 — and  fixed  resolutions,  51 — and 
fervency,  47,  48 — and   boldness,  52 

—  and  self-diflBdence,  55  —  partial, 
and  the  intellect,  62,  69— false,  38, 
88,  92 — cautions  about,  86 — tested 
by  Scripture,  95 — partial,  7 — and 
invention,  70— method,  74— style,  75 

—  delivery,  75,  83  —  the  principal 
thing,  29,  101,  107— partial,  know- 
ledge of  progressi%'e,  31,  32  —  and 
faith,  88,  41 — and  love  to  the  people, 
47 — means  and  conditions  of,  101 — 
temptation,  102— humility,  102,  104 
— self-denial,  104 — exercise  of  gifts, 
105,  and  stuily,  113 — and  teaching, 
130 — and  holiness,  41,  45 — and  the 
Spirit's  sovereignty,  97. 

Introduction,  302. 

Introitus,  310. 

Invention  and  inspiration,  70 — neces- 
sity of,  129 — great  subjects  treated 
plainly,  and  practically,  131 — right 
ends  in,  131 — and  road-making,  131. 


INDEX  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  THINGS. 


631 


Invocation,  320. 

Isocolon,  a  popular  figure,  472. 

Jeremiah,  disorderly  in  his  grief,  355. 

Judgments  on  nations,  171. 

Junctura,  501,  504. 

Kings  and  prophets,  160. 

Kingcraft  best  learned  from  books,  514. 

Keryktik  by  Stier,  1,  137,  280,  518. 

Ladies,  preaching  to,  221. 

Logic,  the  prophetic,  219— in  sermons, 
222. 

Love  to  the  truth,  45-47,  85 — to  the 
people,  47. 

Means  and  conditions,  study  of  Scrip- 
ture, 108 — meditation,  108 — prayer, 
111 — praise,  119. 

Memorising  not  always  needful  either 
for  preacher  or  hearer,  557. 

Metaphor,  Aristotle's  notion  of,  419 — 
mixed,  423. 

Method  and  inspiration,  74 — in,  ser- 
mons, 302— of  prudence,  332— the 
logical,  333— the  rhetorical,  335— 
in  exposition,  350  —  in  historical 
sermons,  353— in  funeral  sermons, 
354 — in  reasoning,  356  —  examples 
of,  360. 

Melody  and  articulation,  536. 

Memorising,  541. 

Metaphors,  reasoning  in,  424. 

Missionary  preaching,  153. 

Music,  extemporaneous,  128 — and  pro- 
phecy, 122. 

Natural  manner,  its  dangers,  530 — 
qualities  less  valued  than  spiritual, 
523 — in  the  inspired  writers,  512. 

Naturalness,  15,  17,  511 — of  style  de- 
fined, 513. 

Nature,  preaching  on,  151. 

Nexus,  311. 

Number  in  English  eloquence,  489 — 
the  figures  which  assist,  494. 

Objections  to  the  author's  theory,  7-27. 

Onomatopoeia,  507. 

Oratorical  style,  three  requisites  of : 
Clearness,  430. 
Force,  438. 
Gracefulness,  446. 

Origen,  when  did  he  begin  to  extem- 
porise 1  552. 

Palmer  on  reading,  553,  558. 


Parable  defined,  see  index  of  figures, 
577 — laws  governing  composition  of, 
391 — excellences  of,  392 — some  par- 
ables essentially  proverbs,  396 — re- 
peated, 398  —  may  be  arguments, 
394,  399,  401— alleged  obscurity  of, 
401— Rabbinical  and  Christian,  840. 

Parallelism  in  Hebrew,  480— in  N.  T., 
480. 

Partition,  315. 

Peace  of  mind,  48. 

Peroration,  324. 

Perception,  63. 

Poetry,  Hebrew,  17-21 — value  of,  21. 

Popularity,  11-14. 

Power  and  inspiration,  54. 

Praise  waiting  for  the  Spirit,  110. 

Prayer  for  the  help  of  the  Spirit,  111 
—and  study,  113,  118. 

Preaching  not  merely  proclaiming,  132 
— concerning  the  Father,  man,  the 
law,  and  Christ,  143 — on  devotional 
subjects,  145 — experimentally,  145 — 
doctrinally,  146— pathetic  and  per- 
suasive themes,  148 — ethical,  149 — 
historical  and  biographical,  150 — on 
types,  151— to  the  young,  151 — on 
privileges,  152  —  political,  154 — on 
demonstrative  themes,  182 — on  Four 
Last  Things,  152 — plenitude  of  the 
Spirit  in,  57,  99. 

Priesthood,  Luther's  views  of,  119, 120. 

Prophet,  was  a  preacher,  3,  4,  133 — 
not  merely  a  poet,  17-21 — spoke  in 
prose,  18-21  — not  merely  a  predictor, 
21-24— not  always  severe,  24-26 — 
obscurity  of;  26,  27 — Gentile  idea  of, 
91. 

Providential  guidance,  96. 

Prophesying  in  the  church  of  Corinth, 
135. 

Prophecy,  psalmody  sometimes  called, 
136. 

Prophets,  adaptedness  of,  192. 

Proposition,  313. 

Psalmody  of  Luther,  Milton,  Herbert, 
and  Alleine,  125-128. 

Quantity  in  oratory,  490. 

Questions,  expressed  or  implied,  375. 

Quotations,  how  to  make  them  forcible, 
444. 


41 


632 


INDEX  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  THINGS. 


Pleading  sermons,  540 — tlie  Scripture 
part  of  worship,  547 — a  kind  of 
preaching,  547 — to  shut  out  written 
sermons  is  to  lose  the  services  of 
some  of  the  best  men,  548  —  as  a 
remedy,  549 — some  ancient  orators 
some  times  read  their  speeches,  550. 

Recitation,  or  memorising,  539. 

Recapitulation,  326. 

Regressions,  347. 

Resoluteness,  51. 

Right  aims,  50. 

Ripeness  of  style,  517. 

'•'Rudeness"  of  speech,  Socrates  and 
Chrysostom  on,  484. 

Satan,  how  does  he  inspire  1  93. 

Saxon,  use  of,  435. 

Scripturalness,  true  and  false,  183. 

Scripture  quoting,  521. 

Self-diffidence,  55,  94. 

Sibilants,  501 — in  Hellenistic  Greek, 
488. 

Similes  and  Aristotle,  388 — Homer's, 
389 — drawn  from  Scripture,  391. 

Skeletons,  sketches,  partitions,  divis- 
ions, 360. 

Spirit,  teachings  of,  139— and  elocution, 
528. 

Styles,  high,  low,  and  middle,  425 — 
and  inspiration,  75  —  prejudices 
against  the  cultivation  of,  380. 

Supposed  cases,  375,  394,  408. 

Sublimity,  false  and  true,  385. 


Symbolical  acts,  abuse  of,  567. 

Tenderness  and  force,  examples  of,  445. 

Texts,  choice  of,  185. 

Theatrical  elocution  to  be  rejected,  526. 

Tone  in  preaching,  530,  534. 

Tranquillity  and  inspiration,  48. 

Transitus,  312. 

Transitions,  455. 

Tropes,  see  index  of  figures,  577 — 
defined,  381. 

Uneducated  preachers,  a  good  quality 
of,  427. 

Uses,  242-301. 

Utility  of  figures,  383. 

Vehemence  of  style,  469. 

Yieyra,  examples  from,  330,  ^46. 

Voice,  Dr.  Burgon  concerning  the,  527 
— Demosthenes  on  the,  526 — natural 
qualities  of  to  be  respected,  536. 

Vulgarisms,  §97,  433,  435,  440. 

Will,  31-61. 

Wisdom  and  inspiration,  64 — idea  of  in- 
volves sound  reasoning,  429. 

Xenophon  "  rude  "  or  ideotes,  484. 

Young,  sermons  to  the,  191. 

Young,  Edward,  Sen.,  372. 

Young,  Edward,  Jr.,  saying  of,  8,  520. 

Zeal  is  to  be  joined  not  only  to  faith, 
but  to  love,  47,  48. 

Zeno,  showing  how  logic  differs  from 
rhetoric,  240 — his  use  of  his  hand 
and  fingers  to  illustrate  different 
mental  facts,  564. 


By  the  Rev.  G.  W.  HERVEY. 


CHRISTIAN  RHETORIC,  for  the  Use  of  Preachers  and  Other 
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FLAMMARION'S  ATMOSPHERE.  The  Atmosphere.  Translated  from  the  French 
of  Ca.mii.i.e  Fi.a.mmaiuom.  Edited  by  James  Gi.aisiikk,  F.R.S.,  Superintendent 
of  the  Magnetical  aud  IMeteorological  Department  of  the  Royal  Observatory  at 
Greenwich.    With  10  Chromo-Lithographs  and  86  Woodcuts.    8vo,  Cloth. 

HUDSON'S  HISTORY  OF  JOURNALISM.  Journalism  in  the  United  States,  from 
1G90  to  IST'2.    By  Fredekiok  Hudson.     Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

PIKE'S  SUB-TROPICAL  RAMBLES.  Sub-Tropical  Rambles  in  the  Land  of  the 
Aphanapteryx.  By  Nicholas  Pike,  U.  S.  Consul,  Port  Louis,  Mauritius.  Pro- 
fusely Illustrated  from  the  Author's  own  Sketches;  containing  also  Maps  aud 
Valuable  Meteorological  Charts.     Svo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

TYERMAN'S  OXFORD  METHODISTS.  The  Oxford  Methodists:  Memoirs  of  the 
Rev.  Messrs.  Clayton,  Ingham, Gambold,Hervey,  and  Broughtou,  with  Biograph- 
ical Notices  of  others.  By  the  Rev.  L.  Tyeum.vn,  Author  of  "Life  and  Times  of 
the  Rev.  John  Wesley,"  &c.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

TRISTRAM'S  THE  LAND  OF  MOAB.  The  Result  of  Travels  and  Discoveries  on 
the  East  Side  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.  By  H.  B.  Tristuam,  M.A.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.,  Alaster  of  the  Greatham  Hospital,  aud  Honorary  Canon  of  Durham.  With 
New  Map  and  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

SANTO  DOMINGO,  Past  and  Present;  with  a  Glance  at  Ilayti.  By  Sajiuel  Hazakh. 
Maps  and  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

LIFE  OF  ALFRED  COOKMAN.  The  Life  of  the  Rev.  Alfred  Cookman  ;  with 
some  Account  of  his  Father,  the  Rev.  George  Grimston  Cookman.  By  Henry 
B.  Ridgaway,  D.D.  With  an  Introduction  by  Bishop  Foster,  LL.D.  Portrait 
on  Steel.    l-2mo.  Cloth,  $2  00. 

IIERVEY'S  CHRISTIAN  RHETORIC.  A  System  of  Christian  Rhetoric,  for  the 
Use  of  Preachers  and  Other  Speakers.  By  George  Winfred  Hervey,  M.A., 
Author  of  "  Rhetoric  of  Conversation,"  &c.    Svo,  Cloth. 

CASTELAR'S  OLD  ROME  AND  NEW  ITALY.  Old  Rome  and  New  Italy.  By 
E.MiLio  Castelak.     Translated  by  Mrs.  Arthur  Arnold.     l'2mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

THE  TREATY  OF  WASHINGTON:  Its  Negotiation,  Execution,  and  the  Discus- 
sions Relating  Thereto.     By  Caleb  Cusuing.     Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

PRIME'S  I  GO  A-FISHING.  I  Go  a-Fishiug.  By  W.  C.  Prime.  Crown  Svo,  Cloth, 
Beveled  Edges,  $2  50. 

HALLOCK'S  FISHING  TOURIST.  The  Fishing  Tourist :  Angler's  Guide  and  Ref- 
erence Book.  By  Charles  Hali.ock,  Secretary  of  the  "Blooming-Grove  Park 
Association."    Illustrations.     Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

SCOTT'S  AMERICAN  PISHING.  Fishing  in  American  Waters.  By  Genio  C. 
Soott.    With  170  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

ANNUAL  RECORD  OP  SCIENCE  AND  INDUSTRY  FOR  1S72.  Edited  by  Prof. 
Spencer  P.  Baird,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  with  the  Assistance  of  Emi- 
nent Men  of  Science.  r2mo,  over  700  pp..  Cloth,  $2  00.  (Uniform  with  the  An- 
nual  Record  of  Science  and  Industry  for  1S71.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00.) 

COL.  FORNEY^S  ANECDOTES  OF  PUBLIC  MEN.  Anecdotes  of  Public  Men. 
By  John  W.  Forney.     12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

MISS  BEECHER'S  HOUSEKEEPER  AND  HEALTHKEEPER :  Oontaining  Five 
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for  securing  Health  and  Happiness.  Approved  by  Physicians  of  "all  Classes. 
Illustrations.     12mo,  Cloth,  $1  50. 

FARM  BALLADS.  By  Will  Carleton.  Handsomely  Illustrated.  Square  Svo, 
Ornamental  Cloth,  $2  00 ;  Gilt  Edges,  $2  50. 


2     Harper  (Sv  Brothers'  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works. 

POETS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  The  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury. Selected  and  Edited  by  the  Kev.  Kobert  Abis  Willmott.  With  Euglit-h 
and  American  Additions,  arranged  by  Evert  A.  Ucyckini;k,  Editor  of  "  Cyclo- 
paidia  of  Ainericau  Literature."  Comprising  Selections  from  the  Greatest  Au- 
thors of  the  Age.  Superbly  Illustrated  witli  141  Engravin<,'s  from  Designs  by 
the  most  Eminent  Artists,  lu  elegant  small  4to  form,  printed  on  Siiperline 
Tinted  Paper,  richly  bound  in  extra  Cloth,  Beveled,  Gilt  Edges,  $5  00  ;  Half  Calf, 
$5  50;  Full  Turlvcy  Morocco,  $9  00. 

THE  REVISION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  VERSION  OP  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
With  au  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  P.  Scuaff,  D.D.  018  pp.,  Crowu  Svo,  Cloth, 
$3  00. 

This  work  embraces  in  one  volume: 
L  ON  A   FRESH   REVISION   OP  THE   ENGLISH  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
By  J.  B.  LidUTFOOT,  D.D.,  Canon  of  St.  Paul's,  and  Hulsean  Professor  of 
Divinity,  Cambridge.    Second  Edition,  Revised.    196  pp. 
II.  ON  THE  AUTHORIZED  VERSION  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  in 
Connection  with  some  Recent  Proposals  for  its  Revision.    By  Ricuaei> 
CuKNKVix  Tkenoh,  D.D.,  Archbishop  of  Dublin.     194  pp. 
III.  CONSIDERATIONS  ON  THE  REVISION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  VERSION 
OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.    By  J.  C.  Ellicott,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Glou- 
cester and  Bristol.    178  pp. 

NORDHOFF'S  CALIFORNIA.  California:  For  Health,  Pleasure,  and  Residence 
A  Book  for  Travelers  and  Settlers.    Illustrated.    Svo,  Paper,  $2  00;  Cloth,  %•>  'm\ 

MOTLEY'S  DUTCH  REPUBLIC.  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  By  Joun  Lo- 
TiiRop  MoTi.Kv,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.  With  a  Portrait  of  WUliam  of  Orange.  3  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $10  50. 

MOTLEY'S  UNITED  NETHERLAND'S.  History  of  the  United  Netherlands:  from 
the  Death  of  William  the  Silent  to  the  Twelve  Years'  Truce— 1009.  With  a  full 
View  of  the  English-Dutch  Struggle  against  S|)ain,  and  of  the  Origin  and  De- 
struction of  the  Spanish  Armad;\.  By  John  Lotukop  Moti.et,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 
Portraits.  4  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $14  00. 
NAPOLEON'S  LIFE  OF  C^SAR.  The  History  of  Julius  Cajsar.  By  His  late  Im- 
perial Majesty  Nai'oleo.n  III.  Two  Volumes  ready.  Library  Edition,  Svo,  Cloth, 
•  $3  50  per  vol. 

Map»  to  Vols.  I.  and  TI.  sold  sejiaraiely.    Price  $1  50  each,  net. 

HAYDN'S  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES,  relating  to  all  Ages  and  Nations.  For  Uni- 
versal Reference.  Edited  by  Ben.iamin  Vincent,  Assistant  Secretary  and  Keeper 
of  the  Library  of  the  Roval  institution  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  Revised  for  the  Use 
of  AnuM^ican  "Readers.     Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00  ;   Sheep,  $0  00. 

MACGREtfORS  ROB  ROY  ON  THE  JORDAN.  The  Rob  Boy  on  the  Jordan, 
Nile,  Red  Sea,  and  Gennesareth,  &c.  A  Canoe  Cruise  in  Palestine  and  Egypt, 
ajid  the  Waters  of  Damascus.  By  J.  Maogkegou,  M.A.  With  Maps  and  Illus- 
trations.   Crowu  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  5(1. 

WALLACE'S  MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO.  The  Malay  Archipelago:  the  Land  of  the 
Orang-Utan  and  the  Bird  of  Paradise.  A  Narrative  of  Travel,  1.S.')4-1S02.  With 
Studies  of  Man  and  Nature.  By  Alfred  Rirski,  Wallace.  With  Ten  Maps 
and  Fifty-one  Elegant  Illustrations.     Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

VVIIYMPEirS  ALASKA.  Travel  and  Adventure  in  the  Territory  of  Alaska,  for- 
merly Russian  America— now  Ceded  to  the  United  States— and  in  various  other 
parts  of  the  North  Pacific.  By  Fbederiok  Wuvmi-er.  With  Map  and  Illustra- 
tions.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  .$2  50. 

ORTONS  ANDES  AND  THE  AMAZON.  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon  ;  or.  Across 
the  Continent  of  South  America.  By  Jamkb  Orton,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Natural 
History  in  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  and  Corresponding  Member  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia.  With  a  New  Map  of  Equatorial 
America  and  numerous  Illustrations.     Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

WINCHELL'S  SKETCHES  OF  CREATION.  Sketches  of  Creation :  a  Popular 
View  of  some  of  the  Grand  Conclusions  of  the  Sciences  in  reference  to  the  His- 
tory of  Matter  and  of  Life.  Together  with  a  Statement  of  the  Intimations  of 
Science  resiiccting  the  Primordial  Condition  and  the  Ultimate  Destiny  of  the 
Earth  and  the  Solar  System.  By  Alexanheb  Winoiiei.l,  LL.D.,  I'rofessor  of 
Geology,  Zoology,  and  Botany  in  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  Director  of  the 
State  Geological" Survey.    With  Illustrations.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

WHITE'S  MASSACRE  OF  ST.  BARTHOLOMEW.  The  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew :  Preceded  by  a  History  of  the  Religious  Wars  in  the  Reign  of  Charles  IX. 
By  Ubnby  WuiTE,  M.A-    With  Illustrations.    Svo,  Cloth,  $1  7ft. 


Harper  6^  Brothers^  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works.      3 

LOSSING'S  FIELD-BOOK  OF  THE  REVOLUTION.  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the 
Eevolution;  or,  Illustrations,  by  Pen  and  Pencil,  of  the  History,  Biography, 
Scenery,  Relics,  and  Traditions  of  the  War  for  Independence.  By  Benson  J. 
LossiNO.  2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $U  00;  Sheep,  $15  00;  Half  Calf,  $18  00;  Full 
Turkey  Morocco,  $22  00. 

LOSSING'S  FIELD-BOOK  OF  THE  WAR  OF  1812.  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the 
War  of  1812;  or.  Illustrations,  by  Pen  and  Pencil,  of  the  History,  Biography, 
Scenery,  Relics,  and  Traditions  of  the  Last  War  for  American  Independence.  By 
Benson  J.  Lossing.  With  several  hundred  Engravings  ou  Wood,  by  Lossin<;  and 
Barritt,  chiefly  from  Original  Sketches  by  the  Author.  1088  pages,  Svo,  Cloth, 
$7  00;  Sheep,  $8  50;  Half  Calf,  $10  00. 

ALFORD'S  GREEK  TESTAMENT.  The  Greek  Testament :  with  a  critically  revised 
Text ;  a  Dige^  of  Various  Readings ;  Marginal  References  to  Verbal  and  Idio- 
matic Usa^e  ;  Prolegomena  ;  and  a  Critical  and  Esegetical  Commentary.  For 
the  Use  of  Theological  Students  and  Ministers.  By  Henky  Alfoed,  D.D.,  Dean 
of  Canterbury.  Vol.  I.,  containing  the  Four  Gospels.  944  pages,  Svo,  Cloth, 
$6  00 ;  Sheep,  $6  50. 

ABBOTT'S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  The  History  of  Frederick  the  Second, 
called  Frederick  the  Great.  By  John  S.  C.  Aisuott.  Elegantly  Illustrated.  Svo, 
Cloth,  $5  00, 

ABBOTT'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  The  French  Revolu- 
tion of  1789,  as  viewed  in  the  Light  of  Republican  Institutions.  By  Joun  S.  C.  An- 
uoTT.    With  100  Engravings.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE.  The  History  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  By 
Joun  S.  C.  Abhott.  With  Maps,  Woodcuts,  and  Portraits  ou  Steel.  2  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $10  00. 

ABBOTT'S  NAPOLEON  AT  ST.  HELENA ;  or,  Interesting  Anecdotes  and  Remark- 
able  Conversations  of  the  Emperor  during  the  Five  and  a  Half  Years  of  his 
Captivity.  Collected  from  the  Memorials  of  Las  Casas,  O'Meara,  Montholon, 
Antommarchi,  and  others.  By  Joun  S.  C.  Ahuott.  With  Illustrations.  Svo, 
Cloth,  $5  00. 

ADDISON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Joseph  Addison,  embracing  the 
whole  of  the  "Spectator."    Complete  in  3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $0  00. 

ALCOCK'S  JAPAN.  The  Capital  of  the  Tycoon :  a  Narrative  of  a  Three  Years' 
Residence  in  Japan.  By  Sir  Rcttueuford  Alcook,  K.C.B.,  Her  Majesty's  Envoy 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  iu  Japan.  With  Maps  and  Engravings. 
2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

ALISON'S  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  First  Series  :  From  the  Commencement  of 
the  French  Revolution,  iu  1789,  to  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  in  1815.  [In 
addition  to  the  Notes  on  Chapter  LXXVL,  which  correct  the  errors  of  the 
original  work  concerning  the  LTnited  States,  a  copious  Analytical  Index  has  been 
appended  to  this  American  edition.]  Second  Series  :  From  the  Fall  of  Napoleon, 
iu  1815,  to  the  Accession  of  Louis  Napoleon,  iu  1852.    S  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $16  00. 

BALDWIN'S  PRE-HISTORIC  NATIONS.  Pre-Historic  Nations ;  or,  Inquiries  con- 
cerning some  of  the  Great  Peoples  and  Civilizations  of  Antiquity,  and  their 
Probable  Relation  to  a  still  Older  Civilization  of  thS  Ethiopians  or  Cushites  of 
Arabia.  By  Joun  D.  Baldwin,  Member  of  the  American  Oriental  Society. 
12mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 

BARTH'S  NORTH  AND  CENTRAL  AFRICA.  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  North 
and  Central  Africa:  being  a  Journal  of  an  Expedition  undertaken  under  the 
Auspices  of  H.  B.  M.'s  Government,  in  the  Years  1S49-1S55.  By  Henry  Babtii, 
Ph.D.,  D.C.L.    Illustrated.    3  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $12  00. 

HENRY  WARD  BEECHER'S  SERMONS.  Sermons  by  Henry  Ward  Beeoiieu, 
Plvmouth  Church,  Brooklyn.  Selected  from  Published  and  Unpublished  Dis- 
courses, and  Revised  by  their  Author.  With  Steel  Portrait.  Complete  iu  2  vols., 
Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

LYMAN  BEECHER'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY,  &c.  Autobiography,  Correspondence, 
&c.,  of  Lyman  Beecher,  D.D.  Edited  by  his  Son,  Charles  Bekoher.  With  Three 
Steel  Portraits,  and  Engravings  on  Wood.    In  2  vols.,  12nio,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

BOSWELL'S  JOHNSON.  The  Life  of  Samuel  Johnson,  LL.D.  Including  a  Journey 
to  the  Hebrides.  By  James  Boswell,  Esq.  A  New  Edition,  with  numerous 
Additions  and  Notes.  By  John  V/ilson  Cbokek,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  Portrait  of 
Boswell.    2  vols.,  Svo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 


Harper  &^  Brothers^  Valuable  and  Interesting  Works. 


DRAPER'S  CIVIL  WAR.  History  of  the  American  Civil  War.  By  John  W.  Dra- 
rKR,  M.I).,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Cliemistry  and  Physiology  m  the  University  of 
New  York.    In  Three  Vols.    8vo,  Cloth,  .fa  50  per  vol. 

DRAPER'S  INTELLECTUAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  EUROPE.  A  History  of  the 
Intellectual  Develoi)ineiit  of  Europe.  By  John  W.  Dk.\i>kk,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Profess- 
or of  Cliemistry  and  Physiolo<,'y  iu  the  University  of  New  York.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  (JO, 

DRAPER'S  AMERICAN  CIVIL  POLICY.  Thonjrhts  on  the  Future  Civil  Policy  of 
America.  By  Joun  W.  Dkai-eu,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physiol- 
ogy in  the  University  of  New  York.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $2  5(1. 

DU  CIIAILLU'S  AFRIC.\.  E.^plorations  and  Adventures  in  Equatorial  Africa  with 
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rilla, the  Crocodile,  Leopard,  Elejjhant,  Hippopotanuis,  and  other  Animals.  By 
Paul  P..  Du  Cuaii.lu.   Numerous  Illustrations.    Svo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

BELLOWS'S  OLD  WORLD.  The  Old  World  in  its  New  Face  :  Impresssions  of  Eu- 
rope iu  1S67-1S6S.     By  Uenuy  W.  Bellows.     2  vols.,  I'imo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

BRODHEAD'S  HISTORY  OF  NEW  Y'ORK.  History  of  the  State  of  New  Y'ork. 
By  Joun  Romeyn  Brodueau.    1609-1001.    2  vols.    Svo,  Cloth,  $3  00  per  vol. 

BROUGHAIM'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY.  Life  and  Times  of  IIknrt,  Lonn  Bkouguam. 
Written  hy  Himself.    In  Three  Volumes.    12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00  per  vol. 

BULWER'S  PROSE  WORKS.     Miscellaneous  Prose  Works  of  Edward  Bulwcr. 

Lord  Lytton.    2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 
BULWER'S  HORACE.    The  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace.    A  Metrical  Translation 

iuto  Enu'lish.     With  Introduction  and  Commentaries.    By  Loud  Lytton.    With 

Latin  Text  from  the  Editions  of  Orelli,  Macleane,  and  Y'onge.    12mo,  Cloth,  $1  75. 
BULWER'S  KING  ARTHUR.    A  Poem.    By  Earl  Lytto.v.    New  Edition.    12mo, 

Cloth,  $1  75. 

BURNS'S  LIFE  AND  WORKS.  The  Life  and  Works  of  Robert  Burns.  Edited 
by  Robert  Chamhees.    4  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

REINDEER,  DOGS,  AND  SNOW-SHOES.  A  Journal  of  Siberian  Travel  and  Ex- 
plorations made  in  the  Years  lSU5-'ti7.  By  Riciiauk  J.  Brsn,  late  of  the  Russo- 
American  Telegraph  Expedition.    Illustrated.    Crown  Svo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

CARLY'LE'S  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  History  of  Friedrich  II.,  called  Frederick 
the  Great.  By  Tuo.\ia8  Carlyle.  Portraits,  Maps,  Plans.  &c.  0  vols.,  12mo, 
Cloth,  $12  00. 

CARLYLE'S  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  History  of  the  French  Revolution.  Newly 
Revised  by  the  Author,  with  Index,  &c.    2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

CARLYLE'S  OLIVER  CROMWELL.  Letters  and  Si)eeches  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 
With  Elucidations  and  Connecting  Narrative.    2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $3  50. 

CHALMERS'S  POSTHUMOUS  WORKS.  The  Posthumous  Works  of  Dr.  Ch.almers. 
Edited  by  his  Sou-in-Law,  Rev.  William  Haj^ma,  LL.D.  Complete  iu  ti  vols., 
12mo,  Cloth,  $13  50.         ^ 

COLERIDGE'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Complete  Works  of  Samuel  Taylor 
Coleridge.  With  an  Introductory  Essay  upon  his  Philosophical  and  'I'heological 
Opinions.  Edited  by  Professor  "Suedu.  Complete  iu  Seven  Vols.  With  a  tiue, 
Portrait.    Small  Svo,  Cloth,  $10  50. 

DOOLITTLE'S  CHINA.  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese :  with  some  Account  of  their  Re- 
ligious, Goverumental,  Educational,  and  Business  Customs  and  Opinions.  With 
special  but  not  exclusive  Reference  to  Fuhchau.  By  Rev.  Jitsttr  Doolitile, 
Fourteen  Years  Member  of  the  Fuhchau  Mission  of  the  American  Board.  Illus- 
trated with  more  than  150  characteristic  Engravings  on  Wood.  2  vols.,  12mo, 
Cloth,  $5  00. 

GIBBON'S  ROME.  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  By  Ep- 
WARi)  GiiiHoN.  With  Notes  by  Rev.  II.  II.  Mii.man  and  M.  Gn/.or.  A  new  cheap 
Edition.  To  which  is  added  a  complete  ludex  of  the  whole  Work,  and  a  Portrait 
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IIAZEN'S  SCHOOL  AND  ARMY  IN  GERMANY  AND  FRANCE.  The  School 
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